57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 4

Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 1

Chapter 4: Fluids Kinematics

Velocity and Description Methods

Primary dependent variable is fluid velocity vector

V = V ( r ); where r is the position vector

If V is known then pressure r r = x î + yĵ + zk̂

and forces can be
determined using x
techniques to be discussed V (r , t ) = uiˆ + vjˆ + wkˆ
in subsequent chapters.

Consideration of the velocity field alone is referred to as

flow field kinematics in distinction from flow field
dynamics (force considerations).

Fluid mechanics and especially flow kinematics is a

geometric subject and if one has a good understanding of
the flow geometry then one knows a great deal about the
solution to a fluid mechanics problem.

Consider a simple flow situation, such as an airfoil in a

wind tunnel: U = constant
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Velocity: Lagrangian and Eulerian Viewpoints

There are two approaches to analyzing the velocity field:

Lagrangian and Eulerian

Lagrangian: keep track of individual fluids particles (i.e.,

solve F = Ma for each particle)

Say particle p is at position r1(t1) and at position r2(t2) then,

r2 − r1 dx dy dz
Vp = lim = î + ĵ + k̂
∆t →0 t − t dt dt dt
2 1

= u p î + v p ĵ + w p k̂

Of course the motion of one particle is insufficient to

describe the flow field, so the motion of all particles must
be considered simultaneously which would be a very
difficult task. Also, spatial gradients are not given directly.
Thus, the Lagrangian approach is only used in special
circumstances.

Eulerian: focus attention on a fixed point in space

x = x î + yĵ + zk̂

In general,

V = V ( x , t ) = u î + vĵ + wk̂
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velocity components
where,
u = u(x,y,z,t), v = v(x,y,z,t), w = w(x,y,z,t)

This approach is by far the most useful since we are usually

interested in the flow field in some region and not the
history of individual particles.

However, must transform F = Ma

from system to CV (recall
Reynolds Transport Theorem Ex. Flow around a car
(RTT) & CV analysis from
thermodynamics)

V can be expressed in any coordinate system; e.g., polar or

spherical coordinates. Recall that such coordinates are
called orthogonal curvilinear coordinates. The coordinate
system is selected such that it is convenient for describing
the problem at hand (boundary geometry or streamlines).
V = v r ê r + v θ ê θ x = r cos θ
y = r sin θ
ê r = cos θ î + sin θ ˆj
ê θ = − sin θ î + cos θ ˆj

Undoubtedly, the most convenient coordinate system is

streamline coordinates:
V(s, t ) = v s (s, t )ê s (s, t )
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 4
However, usually V not known a priori and even if known
streamlines maybe difficult to generate/determine.

Streamlines, Streaklines, and Pathlines

Streamlines is a line that is everywhere tangent to the
velocity field. If the flow is steady, nothing at a fixed point
(including the velocity direction) changes with time, so the
streamlines are fixed lines in space. For unsteady flows the
streamlines may change shape with time.

Streamlines are lines tangent to the velocity field.

As illustrated in the above figure, for two-dimensional
flows the slope of the streamline, dy/dx, must be equal to
the tangent of the angle that the velocity vector makes with
the x axis or
dy v
=
dx u
If the velocity field is known as a function of x and y (and t
if the flow is unsteady), this equation can be integrated to
give the equation of the streamlines.

A streakline consists of all particles in a flow that have

previously passed through a common point. Streaklines are
more of a laboratory tool than an analytical tool. They can
be obtained by taking instantaneous photographs of marked
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particles that all passed through a given location in the flow
field at some earlier time. Such a line can be produced by
continuously injecting marked fluid (neutrally buoyant
smoke in air, or dye in water) at a given location.

(a) Flow past a full-sized streamlined vehicle in the GM

aerodynamics laboratory wind tunnel, and 18-ft by 34-ft
test section facility driven by a 4000-hp, 43-ft-diameter fan.
(b) Surface flow on a model vehicle as indicated by tufts
attached to the surface.
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 6
If the flow is steady, each successively injected particle
follows precisely behind the previous one, forming a steady
streakline that is exactly the same as the streamline through
the injection point. For unsteady flows, particles injected at
the same point at different times need not follow the same
path. An instantaneous photograph of the marked fluid
would show the streakline at that instant, but it would not
necessarily coincide with the streamline through the point
of injection at that particular time nor with the streamline
through the same injection point at a different time

A pathline is the line traced out by a given particle as it

flows from one point to another. The pathline is a
Lagrangian concept that can be produced in the laboratory
by marking a fluid particle (dying a small fluid element)
and taking a time exposure photograph of its motion.

Motion of water induced by surface waves

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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 7

Acceleration Field and Material Derivative

The acceleration of a fluid particle is the rate of change of

its velocity.

In the Lagrangian approach the velocity of a fluid particle

is a function of time only since we have described its
motion in terms of its position vector.

r p = x p ( t )î + y p ( t ) ĵ + z p ( t ) k̂
K
d rp
Vp = = u p î + v p ĵ + w p k̂
dt
K K
dv p d 2 rp
ap = = 2 = a x î + a y ĵ + a z k̂
dt dt
du p dv p dw p
ax = ay = az =
dt dt dt
In the Eulerian approach the velocity is a function of both
space and time; consequently,
V = u ( x , y, z, t )î + v( x , y, z, t ) ĵ + w ( x , y, z, t )k̂ x,y,z are f(t)
since we must
follow the
DV Du ˆ Dv ˆ Dw ˆ particle in
a= = i+ j+ k = ax iˆ + a y ˆj + az kˆ evaluating
Dt Dt Dt Dt dV/dt

Du ∂u ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂z ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
ax = = + + + = +u +v + w
Dt ∂t ∂x ∂t ∂y ∂t ∂z ∂t ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z

Du
called substantial derivative
Dt
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 8
Similarly for ay & az,

Dv ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
ay = = +u +v +w
Dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
Dw ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w
az = = +u +v +w
Dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z

In vector notation this can be written concisely

DV ∂ V
= + V ⋅ ∇V
Dt ∂t

∂ ∂ ∂
∇= î + ĵ + k̂ gradient operator
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂V
First term, , called local or temporal acceleration results
∂t
from velocity changes with respect to time at a given point.
Local acceleration results when the flow is unsteady.

Second term, V ⋅ ∇ V , called convective acceleration

because it is associated with spatial gradients of velocity in
the flow field. Convective acceleration results when the
flow is non-uniform, that is, if the velocity changes along a
streamline.

The convective acceleration terms are nonlinear which

causes mathematical difficulties in flow analysis; also, even
in steady flow the convective acceleration can be large if
spatial gradients of velocity are large.
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 9
Example: Flow through a converging nozzle can be
approximated by a one dimensional velocity distribution
u = u(x). For the nozzle shown, assume that the velocity
varies linearly from u = Vo at the entrance to u = 3Vo at the
y exit. Compute the acceleration
DV
as a function of x.
Dt
DV
Evaluate at the entrance
Dt
and exit if Vo = 10 ft/s and
L =1 ft.

u = Vo
u(x) = mx + b
u(0) = b = Vo
Du ∂u ∆u 3Vo − Vo 2Vo
We have V = u ( x )î , = u = ax m= = =
Dt ∂x ∆x L L

2Vo
Assume linear u(x) = (x ) + Vo = Vo ⎛⎜ 2x + 1⎞⎟
variation L ⎝ L ⎠
between inlet
and exit ∂u 2V0 2Vo2 ⎛ 2x ⎞
= ⇒ ax = ⎜ + 1⎟
∂x L L ⎝ L ⎠

@x=0 ax = 200 ft/s2

@x=L ax = 600 ft/s2

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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 10

Separation, Vortices, Turbulence, and Flow

Classification

We will take this opportunity and expand on the material

provided in the text to give a general discussion of fluid
flow classifications and terminology.

1. One-, Two-, and Three-dimensional Flow

1D: V = u ( y) î

2D: V = u ( x , y)î + v( x , y) ĵ

3D: V = V(x) = u ( x , y, z)î + v( x , y, z) ĵ + w ( x , y, z) k̂

2. Steady vs. Unsteady Flow

V = V(x,t) unsteady flow

V = V(x) steady flow

3. Incompressible and Compressible Flow

Dρ
= 0 ⇒ incompressible flow
Dt

representative velocity
V
Ma =
c
speed of sound in fluid
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 4
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Ma < .3 incompressible

Ma > .3 compressible

Ma = 1 sonic (commercial aircraft Ma∼.8)

Ma > 1 supersonic

Ma is the most important nondimensional parameter for

compressible flow (Chapter 7 Dimensional Analysis)

4. Viscous and Inviscid Flows

Inviscid flow: neglect µ, which simplifies analysis but
(µ = 0) must decide when this is a good
approximation (D’ Alembert paradox
body in steady motion CD = 0!)
Viscous flow: retain µ, i.e., “Real-Flow Theory” more
(µ ≠ 0) complex analysis, but often no choice

5. Rotational vs. Irrotational Flow

Ω=∇×V ≠ 0 rotational flow

Ω=0 irrotational flow

Generation of vorticity usually is the result of viscosity ∴

viscous flows are always rotational, whereas inviscid flows
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are usually irrotational. Inviscid, irrotational,
incompressible flow is referred to as ideal-flow theory.

6. Laminar vs. Turbulent Viscous Flows

Laminar flow = smooth orderly motion composed of
thin sheets (i.e., laminas) gliding smoothly over each
other

Turbulent flow = disorderly high frequency fluctuations

superimposed on main motion. Fluctuations are visible
as eddies which continuously mix, i.e., combine and
disintegrate (average size is referred to as the scale of
turbulence).
Reynolds decomposition
u = u + u ′( t )

mean turbulent fluctuation

motion

usually u ′ ∼(.01-.1) u , but influence is as if µ increased

by 100-10,000 or more.
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Example: Pipe Flow (Chapter 8 = Flow in Conduits)
Laminar flow:

R 2 − r 2 ⎛ dp ⎞
u (r ) = ⎜− ⎟
4µ ⎝ dx ⎠
u(y),velocity profile in a paraboloid

Turbulent flow: fuller profile due to turbulent mixing

extremely complex fluid motion that defies closed form
analysis.

Turbulent flow is the most important area of motion fluid

dynamics research.

The most important nondimensional number for describing

fluid motion is the Reynolds number (Chapter 8)

VDρ VD V = characteristic velocity

Re = =
µ ν D = characteristic length
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 4
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 14
For pipe flow
V = V = average velocity
D = pipe diameter

Re < 2300 laminar flow

Re > 2300 turbulent flow

Also depends on roughness, free-stream turbulence, etc.

7. Internal vs. External Flows

Internal flows = completely wall bounded;
Usually requires viscous analysis, except near entrance
(Chapter 8)

External flows = unbounded; i.e., at some distance from

body or wall flow is uniform (Chapter 9, Surface
Resistance)

External Flow exhibits flow-field regions such that both

inviscid and viscous analysis can be used depending on
the body shape and Re.
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 15
Flow Field Regions (high Re flows)

Vc inertia force
Re = =
Important features: ν viscous force
1) low Re viscous effects important throughout entire
fluid domain: creeping motion
2) high Re flow about streamlined body viscous effects
confined to narrow region: boundary layer and wake
3) high Re flow about bluff bodies: in regions of adverse
pressure gradient flow is susceptible to separation and
viscous-inviscid interaction is important

8. Separated vs. Unseparated Flow

Flow remains attached

Streamlined body w/o separation

Bluff body Flow separates and creates

the region of reverse
flow, i.e. separation
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Basic Control-Volume Approach and RTT

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 57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 4
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Reynolds Transport Theorem (RTT)

Need relationship between

d
( )
B
dt sys
and changes in
Bcv = ∫ β dm = ∫ βρ d∀ .
CV CV

dBcv d
1 = time rate of change of B in CV = = ∫ βρ d∀
dt dt CV

2 = net outflux of B from CV across CS =

∫ βρV
CS
R ⋅ n DA

dBSYS d
dt
= ∫ βρ d ∀ + CS∫ βρV R ⋅ n dA
dt CV

General form RTT for moving deforming control volume

57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 4
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 19

Special Cases:

1) Non-deforming CV moving at constant velocity

dBSYS ∂
= ∫ ( βρ ) d ∀ + ∫ βρV R ⋅ n dA
dt CV
∂t CS

2) Fixed CV

dBSYS ∂
= ∫ ( βρ ) d ∀ + ∫ βρV ⋅ n dA
dt CV
∂t CS

Greens Theorem: ∫ ∇ ⋅b d ∀ = ∫ b ⋅ n dA
CV CS

dBSYS ⎡∂ ⎤
= ∫ ⎢ ( βρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( βρV ) ⎥ d ∀
dt CV ⎣
∂t ⎦

Since CV fixed and arbitrary lim gives differential eq.

d∀→0

∂
3) Steady Flow: =0
∂t

4) Uniform flow across discrete CS (steady or

unsteady)

∫ βρ V ⋅ n dA = ∑ βρ V ⋅ n dA
CS CS
(- inlet, + outlet)
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2006 20

Continuity Equation:

B = M = mass of system
β=L

dM
= 0 by definition, system = fixed amount of mass
dt

Integral Form:

dM d
dt
=0= ∫
dt CV
ρ d ∀ + ∫ ρ V R ⋅ n dA
CS

d
− ∫ ρ d ∀ = CS∫ ρ V R ⋅ n dA
dt CV

Rate of decrease of mass in CV = net rate of mass outflow across CS

Note simplifications for non-deforming CV, fixed CV,

steady flow, and uniform flow across discrete CS

Simplifications:
d
1. Steady flow: − ∫ ρdV = 0
dt CV

2. V = constant over discrete dA (flow sections):

∫ ρV ⋅ dA = ∑ ρV ⋅ A
CS CS
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3. Incompressible fluid (ρ = constant)

d
∫ V ⋅ dA = −
CS
∫ dV
dt CV conservation of volume

4. Steady One-Dimensional Flow in a Conduit:

∑ ρV ⋅ A = 0
CS

−ρ1V1A1 + ρ2V2A2 = 0

for ρ = constant Q1 = Q2