DIFFERENTIATION AND ITS APPLICATION

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

NOVEMBER, 2012

TABLE OF CONTENT
Front page
Certification
Dedication
Acknowledgment
Table of content
Abstract
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
Scope of the study and limitation
Purpose of the study
Significance of the study
Literature review
CHAPTER TWO
Fundamental of calculus
Functions of a single variable and their graphs
Graph of a function
The rate of change of a function
Limits and continuity
Theory on limits
Infinite limits and limits at infinity Continuity

CHAPTER THREE
Differentiation
Differentiation as a limit of rate of change of elementary function
Gradient (straight line and curve)
Differentiation as a limit of rate of change of a function
Rules for differentiation
Differentiation of trigonometric function
Differentiation of a function of a function
Differentiation of implicit function
Differentiation of logarithmic, exponential and parametric function
CHAPTER FOUR
Application of differentiation
The tangent and normal to a curve
Maxima and minima point
Cure sketching
Point of inflexion
Summary and conclusion
References.

ABSTRACT
This research is mainly on one aspect of calculus called differentiation and its
application.
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
From the beginning of time man has been interested in the rate at which physical and
non physical things change. Astronomers, physicists, chemists, engineers, business
enterprises and industries strive to have accurate values of these parameters that change
with time.
The mathematician therefore devotes his time to understudy the concepts of rate of
change. Rate of change gave birth to an aspect of calculus know as
DIFFERENTIATION.
There is another subject known as INTEGRATION. Integration And Differentiation in
broad sense together form subject called CALCULUS
Hence in a bid to give this research project an excellent work, which is of great
utilitarian value to the students in science and social science, the research project is
divided into four chapters, with each of these chapters broken up into sub units.
Chapter one contains the introduction, scope of study, purpose of study, review of
related literature and limitation.
 Chapter two dwells on the fundamental of calculus which has to do with functions of
single real variable and their graph, limits and continuity.
Chapter three deals properly with differentiation which also include gradient of a line
and a curve, gradient function also called the derived function.
Chapter four contains the application of differentiation, summary and conclusion
1.2 Scope of The Study And Limitation
This research work will give a vivid look at differentiation and its application.
It will state the fundamental of calculus, it shall also deal with limit and continuity.
For this work to be effectively done, there is need for the available of time, important
related text book and financial aspect cannot be left out.
1.3 Purpose of The Study
The purpose of this project is to introduce the operational principles of differentiation
in calculus. Also to analyze many problems that have long be considered by
mathematicians and scientists.
1.4 Significance of The Study
The significance of this study cannot be over emphasized especially in this
modern era where everything in the entire world is changing with respect to time,
because the rate of change is an integral part of operation in science and technology,
hence there is need to ascertain the origin of calculus and its application.
Finally, the goal of this work is to review the application of differentiation in
calculus.
1.5 LITERATURE REVIEW
Calculus, historically known as infinitesimal calculus, is a mathematical discipline
focused on limits, functions, derivations, integrals and infinite series.
Ideas leading up to the notion of function, derivatives and integral were developed
throughout the 17th century but the decisive step was made by Isaac Newton and Gottfried
Leibniz.
Ancient Greek Precursors (Forerunners) Of The Calculus
Greek mathematicians are credited with a significant use of infinitesimals.
Democritus is the first person recorded to consider seriously the division of objects
into an infinite number of cross-sections, but his inability to rationalize discrete cross-
section with a cone’s smooth slope prevented him from accepting the idea, at
approximately the same time.
Zeno of Elea discredited infinitesimals further by his articulation of the paradoxes
which they create.
Antiphon and later Eudoxus are generally creadited with implementing the
method of exhaustion which implementing the method of exhaustion which made it
possible to compute the area and volume of regions and solids by breaking them up into
an into an infinite number of recognizable shapes.
Archimedes of Syracuse developed this method further, while also inventing
heuristic method which resemble modern day concept some what. It was not until the
time of Newton that these methods were incorporated into a general framework of
integral calculus.
It should not be thought that infinitesimals were put on a rigorous footing during this
time, however.
Only when it was supplemented by a proper geometric proof would Greek
mathematicians accept a proposition as true.
Pioneers of modern calculus
In the 17th century, European mathematicians Isaac barrow, Rene Descartes, Pierre
deferment the idea of a deferment.
Blaise Pascal, john Wallis and others discussed the idea of a derivative. In particular, in
method sad disquirendam maximum et minima and in De tangetibus linearism Curvarum,
Fermat developed an adequality method for determining maxima, minima and tangents
to various curves that was equivalent to differentiation.
Isaac Newton would latter write that his own early ideas about calculus came directly
from formats way of drawing tangents
On the integral side cavalieri developed his method of in divisibles in the 1630s and 40s,
providing a modern form of the ancient Greek method of exhaustion and computing
cavalierr’s quadrate formula, the area under the curves Xn of higher degree, which had
previously only been computed for the parabola by Archimedes.
Torricili extended this work to other curves such as cycloid and then the formula was
generalized to fractional and negative powers by Wallis in 1656.
In an 1659 treatise, fermat is credited with an ingenious trick for evaluating the integral
of any power function directly.
Fermat also obtained a technique for finding the centers of gravity of various plane and
solid figures, which influenced further work in quadrature.
James Gregory influenced by fermat’s contributions both to tangency and to quadrature,
was then able to prove a restricted version on the second fundamental theorem of calculus
in the mid -17th century. The first full proof of fundamental theorem of calculus was
given by Isaac barrow.
Newton and Leibniz building on this work independently developed the surrounding
theory of infinitesimal calculus in the late 17 century.
Also, leibniz did a great deal of work with developing consistent and useful
notation and concepts.
Newton provided some of the most important applications to physics, especially
of integral calculus.
Before Newton and Leibniz the word “calculus” was a general term used to refer
to any body of mathematics, but in the following years, “calculus”. Became a popular
term for a field of mathematics based upon their insight.
The work of both Newton and Leibniz is reflected in the notation used today.
Newton introduced he notation f for the derivative of function f.
Leibniz introduced the symbol  for the integral and wrote the derivative of a

dy
function y of the variable x as both of which are still in use today
dx

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 FUNDAMENTALS OF CALCULUS
2.1 FUNCTIONS OF SINGLE VARIABLE AND THEIR GRAPHS
Functions are essential ingredients in the study of calculus. Their absence means an
incomplete study of this branch of mathematics which is more or less the care of many
aspects of mathematics.
Calculus by its basis is the notion of correspondence for example, the surface area
(A) of a sphere relates to its radius by the formula
A= 4πr2
The sphere volume (V) of a given mass of gas is related to the pressure (P) of the gas.
120
V= p

These example give us an idea what a function is. Conclusion from them could
imply that if the value of one quantity, say y depends on the value of another quantity,
say x, then for every value of x there corresponds one and only the value one of y.
On this basis we say that y is a function of x. thus, A is a function of r and V is a
function of p as above.
Though, the same element of y may correspond to different element of x. for
example, two different books may have the same number of pages.
Definition 2.0: A function f from a set x to a set y is a correspondence that assigns to each
element x of X a unique element y of y.
The set of values of X is called the domain of the function. The element y is
called the image X under f and is denoted by f (x). the range of the function consists of all
images of elements of X.
We can represent these explanations by means of diagram.
y

a
ab r
bc m
cd y
Domain Range
d k

Values of f at each of the points indicated ( or the images under f ) cam be obtained by
more evaluation
Example2.1 f (x)= x3 +4x-3
F (2)= 23 + 4 (2) -3
 =8+8-3
=16-3
=13

F(-3) =(-3)3+4(-3)-3
=-27-12-3
=-42
F (c) = c3+4 (c) -3
=c3+ 4c-3

Definition 2.1 .A function f is said to be defined at x or f(x) exists if x is in the domain.

Put differently, a function is defined for a certain value b of x, if a definite value of f (b)
corresponds to the value of x.
On the other hand, f is undefined at x if x is not in the domain of f or at a given value of x
the function is meaningless, since division by zero is not a valid operation.
Example2.2 : for what value of x is the function y = 5x-5 defined? What is the domain
and co- domain?
Solution: y=5x-5 is defined for every value of x since for every value of x, we obtain one
value for y.
The domain are the real numbers and the co-domain is the set of all the real
numbers.
Y or f depends on the value of x hence the domain is called the DEPENDENT
VARIABLE while
X is called the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE.
DEFINITION2.2 a function f form x to y is one to one function. (injective)
Example2.3 : determine if the function f is one to one if : (i) f (x) =2x+9, (ii) f(x)
=3x2 at x = 3 and 4 for (i) and at x=-2 and 2 for (ii)
Solution: (i) if a≠ b then with a =3 and b = 4 we have 2.3+9 ≠ 2.4+9 or 15≠17
hence f is a one to one function
(ii) if a≠ b in x then with a = -2 and b =2 we have 3 (-2)2 = 3(2)2 or f (-2) = f(2)
 Therefore 12 =12 or f(-2) =f (2)
By this f is not a one to one function
Definition 2.3 :
(a) If f is a function from x to x or if f (x) =x for every x, that is every element x
maps into itself then f is an identity function on x. For example
F (x) =x
f(i)=1 etc
(b) A function f is a constant function it there is a fixed element b such that f(x)=b for
every x in the domain. for example f (x) = 1  x
2.2 GRAPH OF A FUNCTION
This aspect of calculus deals with the sketching of graph of a function.
The tread in this topic is to make a table of values for a specified range of x to obtain
values f (x). From this we can plot the pair of points by choosing a suitable scale
Example2.4 sketch the graph of f if f ( x)  2x 1

Solution: the table below list some points x, f(x) in the graph.
X ½ 1 3 4 5
o 1 3 7 3
F (x)

Plotting the points yield

y

F (x) =

1 
Definition 2.4  ,0 
(i) A function f is a 
2  function if f (x)= a xn + an -1 xn-1 …….+ a x +a
polynomial n 1 0

Where the coefficient ao, a1, a2,………an are real numbers and the exponents are non negative
integer polynomial of degree 3 is given below.
F (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx+d. a 0
F(x) = anxn n R
Where a, b, c and d are constant and R is a set of real numbers.
If n = 0
F (x) = a0
If n = 5
F (x)=a5x5+ a4x4 + a3 x3+ a2 x2+a1x +a0

(ii) A rational function is a quotient function of two polynomials. below is given a

rational functions
2 x 2  3x  1
f (x) = 3
5x  6x  7
Where 2x2 + 3x + 1and 5x3 + 6x+7 and polynomials
(iii) a function f that can be expressed in terms of sums, differences, product,
quotients or root of polynomial function is known as an algebraic function.
An algebraic function is given below

6x
f(x)= 1+4x2 +
16  x 2

(iv) An explicit function is a function written in such a way that the variable y is

on the left hand side alone such as y = 4x – 7, y  4 x 2  4 , y = 6x2 + 2x+ 9

e.t.c.
However there is one exception where the variables x and y are not given separately.
Thus, a function this form is said to be implicitly defined if neither x nor y is expressed as
an explicit function of the other.
2.3 THE RATE OF CHANGE OF A FUNCTION
(GRADIENT OF A FUNCTION )
In this section we shall endeavor to investigate and observe what happens, when a
function changes along its curve and observe the average rate of change.
This average rate of change could equally be considered as the gradient or the slope of
that function.
Thus, given a function y=x, we observe that as x is changing y is equally changing.
In this light, the rate of change of a given function could be measured in between two
points by taking the average rate of change.
Consequently, it x, and x2 are two points in x and y 1 and y2 in y, then the rate of change is
the ratio of the increase in y to that of x hence
y 2  y1 dy
Rate of change =   slope
x 2  x1 dx

Example 2.5 find an expression for the average rate of change of the function
(i) y=3x+4
(ii) y=2x2 within the interval x1 and x2 in x.
Solution. By the formula obtained above for the average rate of change of a function,
the average rate of y=3x+4 is

increase in y  3 x 2  4    3 x1  4   x  x1 
 3 2
increase in x x 2  x1 x 2  x1
3

for y =2x2 we have

2 x 2  2 x12 2 x2  x1  x 2  x1 
2

  2 x2  x1 
x 2  x1 x 2  x1
By this expression we can obtain different values at different intervals.
2.4 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
2.4.1 LIMITS
In this section we only intend to give definition that will lead us into limits properly.
Definition 2.5
Assume f(x) is a function defined on an open interval containing c but not necessarily at c
itself and let L be a real number. We say that the limit as x approaches c of f(x) is written
as
Lim f (x) = L
x c
If when ever x get close to c from either side with x  c, f (x) gets close to L. By this
definition above, we say that whichever way we approach the number c in f(x), the
answer is the same. If this happens we say the limit exist else it doesn’t
x 2  6x  8
Example 2.6 calculate xlim
 2 f(x) 
x2
Solution : if we substitute x=-2, the

f(-2) =
  2 2  6  2  8  4  12  8  0
22 22 0
Which is an undefined expression.
We can derive this algebraically as follows:

lim
x 2  6x  8
 lim
 x  2 x  4  lim x  4
x 2 x2 x 2 x2 x 2

lim x+4 = -2+4 =2

x 2

Example 2.7
x 1
Calculate lim
x 1
x 1

x 1 x 1 x 1
Solution lim
x 1
 X by rationalizing the numerator
x 1 x 1 x 1
x 1 1
 
x  1 x  1 x 1
1 1 1
lim  
x 1
x 1 11 2

2.4.2 THEOREMS ON LIMITS

1) let P(x) be polynomial
lim P(x) = p(c)
xc

2) Let a be any real number and supposed that lim f(x) exist then
lim af(x) = a lim f(x)
xc x c

3) If lim
xc
f(x) and lim
xc
g(x) both exist, then

lim [f(x) + g(x)] exist and

xc

lim [f(x) + g(x)]= lim f(x) + lim g(x)

xc xc xc
4. lim f(x) .g(x) = lim f(x) . lim g(x)
xc xc xc

lim f ( x)
x c
f ( x)
5. lim  if lim g ( x)  0
x c g ( x ) lim g ( x)
x c

Example 2.8 (on theorems on limits)

(1) calculate lim 4
x3
solution lim 4 = 4 by theorem 1
x3
ii) calculate lim 5(x2+3x)
x2
solution lim 5(x2+3x) = 5im x2+3x
x2 x2
=5(x2+3(2))
=5(4+6)
=5(10)
=50

iii) calculate lim 6x3 +4x– 7x2

x  -2
solution lim 6x3 +4x – 7x2 = lim 6x3 + lim4x – lim 7x
x  -2 x  -2 x  -2 x  -2

6 lim x3  4 lim x  7 lim x

x  2 x  2 x  2

 6( 2)  4( 2)  7(2) 2

3

 48  ( 8)  ( 28)

 84
iv) Calculate lim (3x2-6) (2+3 x 4)
x0

solution lim
x0  
(3x2 - 6) (2  3 x 4)  lim 3x 2 - 6 lim 2  3 x 4
x 0 x 0

 (0  6) ( 2  0)
 12 x3
lim
Calculate x 1 2x  1

x  3 lim x3 1 3 4
Solution lim  x1  
x 1 2 x  1 lim 2 x  1 2.1  1 3
x 1

2.4.3 INFINITE LIMITS AND LIMITS AT INFINITY

Definition 2.6
If a function f(x) grows without limit in the positive direction as x get close the number c,
from either side, then we say that f(x) tends to infinity as x approaches c and we write
lim f ( x)  
x c

1
Example 2.9 find lim
x 0 x4
1
Solution: solving the above problem a table is needed hence the table of from x near
x4
0 from both sides.
X 1 1 x 1 1
x x4 x x4
1 1 1 -1 -1 -1
0.5 2 16 -0.5 -2 -16
0.1 10 10000 -0.1 -10 -10000
0.01 100 1000000000 -0.01 -100 -1000000000
0.001 1000 1000000000000 -0.001 -1000 -1000000000000
Table 2.1
y

F(x)=,1/x4, x<0
limx 0- F(x) =1/ x4 ,x>0 lim x 0+

x
 1
Obviously, as x get closer and closer to zero f(x)= gets larger and larger.
x4
1
This indicate that grows without bound (limit) as x approaches zero from the either
x4
side.
1
Hence lim 
x 0 x4
Definition 2.7
If a function f(x) grows without limit (bound) in the negative direction as x gets close to
the number from either side, then we say f(x) tends to minus infinity as x approaches c as
we write.
lim f  x   
xc
1
Example 2.1.0 calculate lim 
x 0 x4
Solution: from table 2.1 in example (1.9) it shows that as x gets closer to zero (from

1
either side), f(x) = grows without bound in the negative direction. Hence we say
x4

1
tends to minus infinity as x tends to zero.
x4

Y =-1/x4, x<0 Y= -1/x4,x>0

Definition 2.8(a): suppose f is a function that is defined on an open interval (r, s) and L be

a real number the statement xlim f ( x)  L

c 

Means that for every   0    0 s.t

If C  x  C   , then f ( x)  L  

By this definition if xlim f ( x )  L we say that the limit of f(x) as x approaches c from
c 

the right is L. here L is referred to as the right hand limit of f(x) as x approaches c.
Definition 2.8 (b)
Suppose f is a function that is defined on an open interval (s, r) and let L be a real
number.
The statement
lim f ( x)  L
x c 

Implies that for every   0    0 s.t

C    x  C   , then f ( x )  L  

Here the xlim f ( x)  L means that the limit of f(x) as x approaches c from the left is L or
c 

L is the left hand limit of f(x) as x approaches c.

The right or left-hand limit are sometimes referred to as one sided limits.

f  x

Example 2.1.1

Find xlim 5 x
5 

Solutions using one-sided limit theorem.

lim 5 x  lim 5  x
x 5  x c 

 55  0

Note that there is no right-hand since 5 x is not a real number if x>5 i.e
56  1  i

Example 2.1.2.

Find the lim

3
x3  1
x 1

Solution:
Using the one-sided limit theorem

lim 3 x 3  1  3 lim x 3  1
x 1 x 1
 
if x  1,  x 3  1
1
3 is negative and the cube root of a negative number is real.

= 0 hence 3 13  1  3 0  0
Hence the left-hand limit exist and is zero.

Also for x > 1,  x  1

3
1
3 is positive and so its limit exist and is zero

Finally the limit lim

3
x 3  1 is zero
x 1

Hence 3 13  1  0
x4
Example 2.1.3 find lim
x4 
x4
x4
Solution: if x > 4 the x4 = x  4 and f(x) 1
x4
Therefore: lim
lim f ( x)  lim 1  1
x4  x 4

x4
If x > 4 the x4 = x  4 and f ( x)  1
x4
lim f ( x)
Therefore  lim1  1
x  4 x4

 x  4
If x <4 the x  4   x  4  and f  x     1
x4
Therefore lim f  x  =lim  1  1
x  4 x  4
Since the right-hand and left limits are unequal, it limit from the definition of right and

left limits that xlim

 4
f ( x) does not exist

sin  sin 
Example 2.1.4: by means of a formal computation of the lim find lim
 0   0 
Solution
 radian Sin 
Sin 

1 0.8414709 0.841470
0.5 0.4794255 0.958851
0.1 0.0998334 0.998334
0.01 0.0099998 0.99998
0.001 0.0009999 0.9999988

sin 
Obviously it seems the quotient approach 1 as 0

sin 
Hence lim 1

sin 
This limit cannot be calculated by more substitution since is undefined at 0

sin 4 4 sin 4
lim  lim
 0   0 4
Now
4 sin 4
4 lim
 0 4
But as   0, 4   0, so that
sin 4 sin 4
4 lim  4 lim
4  0 4 4  0 4
 4 .1
4

2.4.4 CONTINUITY
In this aspect we shall endeavour to look at some elementary knowledge of continuity.
This will be accomplished through some few definitions.
We will start by saying that a function is continuous at a point if it is defined at that point.
The followings indicate continuous and discontinuous functions continuous at a.
We may interpret continuous function of a s that, a small change in x produces only a
small change in the functional value f(x)
However, if F is defined at a and limit f(x) exist then this limit may or may not equal f(a),
x4.

by this if lim f ( x)  f (a ) then f is said to be continuous at a as indicated in this

xa

definition below:
Definition 2.9
A function f(x) is continuous at a number a if the three conditions below are satisfied
(i) F is defined on an open interval containing a or f(a) exist

(ii) lim
x a
f ( x) exist

(iii) lim f ( x)  f (a)

xa

This above condition show the importance of continuity

Definition 2.1.0
A function is said to be discontinuous at c if it is not continuous or if one or more of the
3(three) conditions in 2.9 fails to hold.
By this f is discontinuous at c if:
(i) f(c) does not exist or

(ii) lim f ( x) exist but is not equal to f(c) or

xc

(iii) lim f ( x) does not exist

xc

Example 2.1.5
Show that the function
f ( x)  2 x  5  3x is continuous at 4. for f(x) to be continuous at a, it must satisfy the
three conditions in the above definition. Thus
lim f ( x)  lim 2 x  5  3x
x 4

 lim 2 x  5  lim 3 x
x4 x4

 8  5  3 4
 3  12
 12  3
f (4)  2.4  5  3.4
 8  5  12
 12  3

Hence f(x) is continuous

Example 2.1.6 find all numbers for which
3x  5
f ( x)  is continuous.
3x 2  x  3
Solution f(x) is continuous if:
(i) f(x) is defined

(ii) lim f ( x ) exist

x a

(iii) lim f ( x)  f (a)

x a

3x  5
 f  x 
2x 2  x  3
f  x  is defined for all values of x except at x = -1 and x = 3/2 take this for values of

a=0, -1/2, 3, 4…

3x  5 lim 3 x  5 3a  5
xa
lim f ( x)   2
x a 2 x  x  3 lim 2 x  x  3 2a  a  3
2 2
xa

3a  5
f (a) 
2a 2  a  3
Hence f(x) is continuous for all numbers x except x=-1
x9
Example 2.1.7: for what value of x is f ( x) 
x9
In continuous?
0
Solution: At x=9 we have implying that the function is not defined.
0
But for values of x  9 f(x) is defined.
That is for values of x  9 f(x) is continuous.
Definition 2.1.1. A function is defined on a close interval [a, b], if it is continuous on
[a,b] and if also
lim f ( x)  f (a) lim f ( x)  f (b)
xa  xa 

By the above definition we say that f is continuous from right at a or from left at b
respectively
Definition 2.1.2: A function f is said to have a removable discontinuity at c if

lim f ( x)  b exist and is finite but either f is not defined at c or lim f ( x)  f (c )

x c x c

( x 2  1)
Example 2.1.8 consider f(x) =
x 1
Solution
x 2  1 ( x  1) ( x  1)
lim   lim x  1  2
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1

Therefore it is obvious that the above function despite it equals two (2), f is discontinuous
at 1 (one) since f(x) is not defined thus condition (1) failed. This shows an example of a
removable discontinuity, that is the point that makes it discontinuous can be removed in
the ``following way:
Suppose we consider the continuous g(x):
 x2 1 
 if x  1
g ( x)   x  1 
2, if x  1 
 
x 1
2
( x  1) ( x  1)
lim  lim  lim x  1  2
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1

Here g(x) = f(x) = x+1. Hence the function is continuous for all real x and g(x) for x  1 .
However, if we find g(1) the evaluation of
x2 1
lim , the function g(x) will be discontinued at 1.
x 1 x 1
Thus to remove the discontinuity as explained above we have to look for a function that
is equal to g(x) that is continuous at the point where g(x) is discontinuous.
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 DIFFERENTIATION
3.1 Differentiation as a limit of rate of change of elementary function
In this section we shall discuss about the gradient of a line and a curve, gradient function
also called the derived function and finally, the main topic differentiation as a limit of
rate of change of elementary function.
3.2 Gradient: Straight line and curve
As we rightly said in the study of rate of change of a function, the gradient of a line is
measured by taking the ratio of the increase in Y and the increase in x in moving from
one point to another on the line. Such that if (x1, y1,) and (x2, y2,) are two point on a

y 2  y1
line, the gradient is then taken as
x 2  x1

(x2, y2)
(x, y)

Infact the gradient of a line can be seen as the slope of that line. That is, the rising or
falling of the line. It is quite easy to find the gradient or slope of a straight line since this
will always remain constant all along the line. This is always equal to the tangent of the
angle made with the positive direction of the x-axis the gradient of a straight line is
always equal to tan 

Q N
PN y  y1
 2 ,
QN x 2  x1

Curve
However, this task is not quite easy in a curve, since the curve changes direction at each
point. This difficulty brings us to the idea of a tangent line, which has been a problem of
the great Greek Scientist Archimedes 287-212) B.C. The problem has been that of
finding a unique tangent line (if one exist) to a given curve a given point on the curve.
Examples of typical tangent line at different points are shown below.
Diagram

One might ask, what has tangent line got to do with gradient? Infact, the gradient at a
point on curve is the gradient of the tangent line at that point.
As a result of this difficulty, we develop a means of finding a gradient function which
will be for a particular curve.
The gradient function is a function is a function from which we can find the gradient at
any given point.
The means is in line with the study of limits.
Suppose we want to find the gradient of a function f(x) = x 2 at the point 2. when x = 2, y
= x2 = 4
We can approach this by finding it act a point N(2, 4) where x=2 i.e the gradiant of the
tangent at that point, then we take another pointy R(3, 9) the gradient point of the curve

PR
NR  ( 2,4) and (3,9)
NP
y  y1 9  4
drawing
 2  5
x 2  x1 3 2

Next we let R assume a new position closer to N and calculate the gradient then. We will
observe that the approximation will get better until R is. Very close to N and it will be
clear that the gradient approaches the value 4.
This process of allowing R get close N is known as the limiting process and we say that
as R tends to N ( R  N ), the gradient of NR approaches the limiting value of 4 hence we
say the gradient of the tangent at N is this value 4.
However, a general method of finding the gradient function as follows:
Suppose we want to find the gradient function of Y=x 3 at the point N(x, x3). Next take
another point R with x-coordinate x  x, x an increase in x. thus the ordinate of R will
have a corresponding increase y and so its y – coordinate y+ y
Now at N, Y=x3 and at R.
y  y  ( x  x )
 x 3  3 x 2 x  3 x (x ) 2  (x ) 3
then y  PR  x 3  3 x 2 x  3 x 2  x   x 3
3

 3 x 2 x  3 x 2  x    x 
2 3

NP  x

PR
The gradient of NR=
NP

y 3 x 2 x  3 x x    x 
2 3

x x
y
 3 x 2  3 xx  (x ) 2
x
As R→ N, x  0 . The limiting value will be 3x2 for meaningfulness, we rewrite the

y dy
limiting value of as (read dee y/dee x) and thus obtain
x dx
dy
 3x 2
dx
y dy
This limiting value of  was due to the work of Leibnitz.
x dx
dy
We shall at times use f1(x) to denote . Thus the gradient function of y = f(x) is
dx

dy dy y
f 1( x)  where is the limiting value of as x →0.
dx dx x
Note, any letter or symbol can be used for the increment in X and Y as such one should
not be surprise when letters or symbols such as X , Y , are used.
Also this method of finding the gradient function from which the gradient at a
point is obtained is known as the 1st principle of finding the gradient.
Example 3.1:
Find the gradient function of 2x2.
Solution: let y = 2x2
Take a point N coordinate (x, y) i.e. (x, 2x 2) on the curve, next take another point
R whose X coordinate is then y- coordinate of R 2(x+  x)2. corresponding increase in y2
is y+  y
i.e y  2 x 2 ...................(i )
y  y  2( x, x ) 2 ...........(ii )
y  2 x 2  4 xx  2(x ) 2  2 x 2

PR
Gradient of the curve NR=  line
NR line
y 4 xx  2(x ) 2
i.e 
x x
 4 x  2x
y y
As R  N , x  0 and   4x
x x
y
  4x
x
At the po int ( 2,4) i.e x  2
y
8
x
3.3 differentiation as a limit of rate of change of a function
y
The procedure for finding or f1(x) as explained above is called differentiation. Often
x
at times, we call it the derivation of y with respect to x or the differential coefficient. The

y
measures the way or how often a given function changes. Hence we say it measures
x
the rate of the change of the function y when viewed with x.
Thus when we say the rate of change of 3x 2 is 6x. we mean the gradient of the tangent or
the derivative of 3x2 is 6x.
Example 3.2: find the rate of change of y = 4x 2 and the gradient of the tangent to the
curve y = 4x2 at the point 2.
Solution:
In terms of y  x, y  y  x  x
 f ( x  ( x)  f ( x)
f ( x)  lim
x 0 x
y dy
 lim 
x 0 x dx
4( x  x) 2  4 x 2
f ( x)  lim
x 0 x
4 x  8x  4(x ) 2  4 x 2
2
 lim
x  0 x
 lim 8 x  4x
x  0

 8x
 f 1 ( x)  8 x

Hence the gradient of the tangent at the point is f1(2) = 8.2= 16

Example 3.3: find the derivative of y = 3x2. from the first principle.
Solution: y = 3x2 …………………….. (1)
With x and y as increments in x and y respectively.
y  y  3( x  x) 2
 3 x 2  6 xy  3(x ) 2 .........................(ii )

Subtract (i) from (ii)

y  6 xx  3(x ) 2  x
dy
 lim  6 x  3 x )  6 x 
dx x 0
dy
  6x
dx
Example 3.4
Find the derivative of f(x) = sin x
Solution: let y = sinx.
Take x and y as an increment in x and y respectively.
Then:
y  y  sin( x  x)
 y  sin  x  x   sin x

We now apply the trigonometrical formula:

A B A B
SinA  SinB  2Cos Sin where a  x  x and B  x
2 2
 2 x  x   x   x   x 
y  2 cos  sin    2 cos x  . sin  
 2   2   2   2 
  x   x   x   x 
x  sin   cos x  . sin  
y 2   2  2   2 
  2 cos   
x x x
2
 x  3.4 RULES OF
sin  
  x   2 
 cos x  . DIFFERENTIATION
 2   x
2 In this section we shall
y dy dy
i.e x  0,    cos x.1 endeavour to look at the
x dx dx
dy various rules each with
 if y  sin x,  cos x
dx examples.
Rule 1: The derivative of a constant is zero.
For clearness, we use the idea of limits. Let y = c, we wish to show that f 1(x) = 0 since
any value of f is C it follows that C + x = C for all x
dy
f 1 ( x) 
 lim
 c  x   c
dx x  0 c
C C
Hence  lim  lim 0  0
x 0 x x 0

dy
hence if y  C , 0
dx
Rule 2:
The power Rule. If n is a +ve integer then derivative of xn is nxn-1
Example 3.5: Find the derivative of 5x2
dy
y  5 x 2 , then  5  2 x 2 1
Solution: let dx
 10 x 1  10 x

dy
Example 3.6 find if y = 7x4
dx
y  7x4
dy
 7  4 x 4 1
dx
 28 x 3
Thus if y = axn
dy
=naxn-1
dx
By this, we have the theorem.
Theorem: the derivation of this sum or difference of two or more functions is equal to the
derivative of the individual function and their sums or differences taken afterwards.
Example 3.7
Find f(x)1 if f(x) = 10x2 + 9x-4
f ( x )  10 2  9 x  4
Solution f 1 ( x)  10  2 x 21  9  1x 11  0
 20 x  9, sin ce x 0  1

Rule 3: The Product Rule

The product rule for differentiations of x, then the derivative of y with respect to x is
done by taking the derivative of s while keeping t constant plus the derivatives of t while
s is kept constant.
The t is;
Y = st ………………….(i)
Take s and t as increment is s and t respectively thus producing a change y in y
Then:
y  y  ( s  s )(t  t )
y  y  st  t  st  st.........................(ii )
By (i ) and (ii )
y  tt  st  st
y tt st st
and   
x x x x
As x  0, s  0, t  0
dy tds sdt
Then  
dx dx dx

Example 3.8:
Differentiate
g(x) = (x3-7) (2x2+3)
let g(x) = (x3-7) (2x2+3)
When compared with the rule above, hence product rule.

S  ( x 3  7), t  ( 2 x 2  3)
dg tds sdt
thus  
dx dx dx
dg
dx
 
 2 x  3 .3 x  ( x 3  7).4 x
2 2

 6 x 4  9 x 2  4 x 4  28 x
 10 x 4  9 x 2  28 x
Theorem: If n is positive integer then the derivative of x-n is –nx-n-1
Example 3.9: differentiate
(i) y = (3s)-4
Solution y = (3s)-4
dy
4 4
or  4(35)  4 1
3 S dx
dy  12.3 5 S 5
 4  3  4 s  4 1
dx  12 5
 S
 4 5 245
 S
18  4 5
 S
81
Example 3.1.0 Differentiate
W ( s )  ( 2 S  1) 3
dw
 3(2 S  1) 31
ds
 ( 3  2) (2 S  1)  4
 6( 2 S  1)  4

3.5 Differentiation of Trigonometric Function

In this section we shall be looking at some of the trigonometric function such as tanx and
Cosec x which can be obtained by taking the inverse of sinx or cosx or a quotient of cosx
and sinx as the case may be.
Using the quotient rule.
Hence;
(i ) y  tax
sin x
y
cos x
d d cos x
cos x sin x  sin x
dy dx dx
 2
dx cos x
cos x cos x  sin x sin x

cos 2 x
cos 2 x  sin 2 x
 2
, cos 2 x  sin 2 x  1
cos x
1 1 1 1
2
, but 2
 sec x    sec x  sec x
cos x cos x cos x cos x
 sec 2 x
dy
  sec 2 x
dx
d
 tan x   sec 2 x
dx
(ii ) y  cos ecx
1

Sinx
dy sin x.0  1. cos x  1 cos x
 2
 .
dx sin x Sinx sin x
  cos ecx cot x

3.6 Differentiation of a function of a function (The Chain Rule)

When y is expressed as a function of another function such as in the case
1
y , y  ( x  1) 3 , y  Sinx 3
( x  1) 5
3

In this cases (i) y is the fifth power of the function x 3+1: (ii) y is a cube of the function x
+1 and y is the sine of the function x3.
In all we name a function of a function.
dt
Now suppose y = f(t) is a function of t and t = g(x) is a function of x. then,  g (x) is
dx

dt
the rate of change t with respect to x. while  f (t ) is the rate of change of y with
dx
respect to t.
Then to find the rate of change of y with respect to x we use:
dy dy dt
 . provided dt  0
dx dt dx
Example 3.1.1:
dy
Let t = 4x-7 and let y = 6t2 + 5t find
dx
dy dt
 12t  5, 4
dt dx
dy dy dt
Solution:   .  (12t  5).4
dx dt dx
dy
 48t  20
dx
This general rule for differentiating a function of a function is also called the chain rule.
Example 3.1.2
1` dy
If y  find
( x  7) 5
4
dx

Solution let:
1
U  g ( x)  x 4  7, and y   U 5
u5
du dy  5
 4x3 , 
dx du u 6
dy du
 dy  .
dx du dx
5
 6
.4 x 3
u
 20 x 3  20 x 3
 
u6 ( x 4  7) 6
dy  20 x 3
  4
dx ( x  7) 6

Example 3.3.1: Differentiate y = sinx3

Solution let u= x3 and y = sin u
du dy
 3 x 2 and  cos u
dx du
dy dy du
  .  cos .3 x 2  3 x 2 cos u
dx du dx
 3 x 2 cos x 3
dy
  3 x 2 cos x 3
dx
3.7 Differentiation of implicit Function
A function is said to be implicitly defined if neither x nor y is expressed as an explicit
function of the other. However, examples include
 x y
(i ) x 3  y 3  6 xy 4 (ii )  16 y 5 (iii) xy  1
x y
2 2

dy
Thus given any of these functions we may be asked to find
dx
dy
Example 3.1.4: suppose x2 + x3= y + y4 and we want to find .
dx
By chain rule,
d dy
( y4 )  4y3
dx dx
Thus differentiate both sides with respect to x
dx 2 dx 3 dy dy 4
  
dx dx dx dx
dy dy
2 x  3x 2   4y3
dx dx
dy
2 x  3 x 2  (1  4 y 3 )
dx
dy 2 x  3 x 2
 
dx 1 4y3

dy
Thus the above method of finding is known as implicit differentiation.
dx
Example 3.1.5
Differentiate implicitly the function
x 3  xy  y 3  6

dy dx
find (i) (ii) dy
dx
solution (i) differentiating implicitly with respect to x
x 3  xy  y 3  6
Square both sides

x 3  xy  y 3  36
d ( x 3) d ( xy ) d ( y 3 )
  0
dx dx dx
3 x 2  y  ( x dy  3 y 2 dy )  0
dx dx
( x  3 y 2 ) dy  (3x 2  y )
dx
( x  3 y 2 ) dy  (3x 2  y )
dx
dy  (3x  y ) dx  ( x  3 y 2 )
2
 , 
dx x  3y 2 dy (3x 2  y )
Differentiating implicitly w r t y
d ( x 3) d ( x, y ) d ( y 3 )
  0
dx dx dx
dx dx
3x 2 x y  3y 2  0
dy dy
dx
(3 x 2  y )  (3 y 2  x )
dy
dx 3y 2  x

dy 3y 2  x
dx
Example 3.1.6: find dy if 2x+y+sinx+y = 2

Solution
d sin xy xdy
Noting that  cos xy (  y)
dy dx

Now differentiating the function implicitly

d (2 x ) dy d
  Sinxy  0
dx dx dx
dy  dy  dy  dy 
2  cos xy x  y   0, 2   cos xy  x   cos xy ( y )
dx  dx  dx  dx 
dy
(1  x cos xy )  ( 2  y cos xy )
dx
dy   (2  y cos xy )
dx (1  x cos xy )

Example 3.1.7
Differentiate y = sec x + tan x
Solution
dy 1 sin x
 
dx cos x cos x
cos x.0  1.(  sin x ) cos x cos x  sin x sin x
 
cos 2 x cos 2 x
sin x cos 2 x  sin 2 x
 
cos 2 x cos 2 x
sin x 1
 
cos x cos 2 x
2

1 sin x
 .  sec 2 x
cos x cos x
dy
 sec x tan x  sec 2 x
dx
3.8 Differentiation of Logarithmic, Exponential and Parametric Functions
3.81 Parametric function
Parametric functions occure when functions in both x and y are given as functions of
another variable often called parameter. When such case arises the gradient is given in
terms of the variable parameter.
Example 3.1.8
dy
Find in terms of the parameter when
dx
Y = t2, x=t3
 dy dy dx dy dt
solution   
dx dt dt dt dx
y  t2, x  t3
dy dx
 2t ,  3t 2
dt dt
dy dy dx 2t 2
   2 
dt dt dt 3t 3t
Example 3.1.9
dy dy 10
If x = t3 + t and y = 2t 2, find in terms of t and show that if =1, x= 2 or x 
dx dx 27
when t = 1/3
Solution:
x  t 3  t , y  2t 2
dx dy
 3t 3  1,  4t
dt dt
dy
dy
  dt
dt dx
dt
4t

3t 2  1
dy 4t
 
dx 3t 2  1
dy
if 1
dx

4t
Then 1 
3t  1
2

3t 2  1  4t
3t 2  4t  1  0
(3t  1)(t  1)  0

1 10
if t = 1, x = 2, t  , x 
3 27
dy
Example 3.2.0 : find in terms of t when
dx

2t 1 t 2
y , x 
1 t 2 1 t 2
Solution
dy 2(1  t 2 )  2t ( 2t ) dx  (1  t 2 ) 2t  (1  t 2 )2t
 , 
dx (1  t 2 ) 2 dt (1  t 2 ) 2
dy 2  2t 2  4t 2 dx  2t  2t 3  2t  2t 3
 , 
dx (1  t 2 ) 2 dt 1  t 2  2
2  2t 2  4t
 ,
(1  t )
2 2
(1  t 2 ) 2
dy
dy
  dt
dx dx
dt
2  2t 2
 4t
 
(1  t )
2 2
(1  t 2 ) 2
2  2t 2 (1  t 2 ) 2
 X
(1  t 2 ) 2  4t
2  2t 2 2(1  t 2 )
 
 4t  4t
1 t 2
t 1
2
 
 2t 2t

Example 3.2.1
The position of a projectile referred to horizontal and vertical axes is given by x = 8t and
y = 40t – 16t2 after time t sec. Find at what times the projectile is moving (i) parallel to
the horizontal (ii) at an angle of 450 to the horizontal.

y dy
0
dx

x
x  8t , y  40t  16t
dx dy
 8,  40  32t
dt dt
dy
dy
  dt
dx dx
dt
40  32t

8
dy
  5  4t.
dt
dy
(i) The projectile will move horizontally when = 0. when the gradient = 0
dx
5
hence 0=5-4t, thus at time t = sec s.
4
(ii) It will move at an angle of 450 hence when the slope is tan 450 and at time t
dy
  tan 45 0  5  4t
dx
5  4t  1 sin ce tan 45  1
 5  5t and t  1
 t  1sec .
3.82 The Differentiation of Logarithmic Functions
Y  log bx

Atyb = 10, Y  log10

x
and if we take values of x near zero we observe that the function
grows fast in the negative direction while for large positive values of x it grows very
slow. Y  log bx
This is truly shown for Y  log bx

x
 To find its derivative, we observe that none of the above methods works and so one
go to the first principle
Y  log bx
y  y  log b ( x  x)
 y  log b ( x  vx)  log bx
( x  x )
 log b
x
dx
y  log b (1  )
x
dy 1 dx
 log(1  )
dx x x
1 x dx
 . log(1  )
x x x
1 x x
. log b (1  )
x x x
dy dy 1 x x
  lim   lim log(1  )
dx x 0 dx x x 0 x x
x 1
Suppose  n then we have log (1  )n
dx n

lim logb (1  1 )n is equivalent to evaluating

Evaluating x 0
n
lim dx x lim dx x
log b (1  )  log b (1  )
dx 0 x dx dx0 x dx
1
For n = 100, 1000, 100000, we observe (1  )n approaches 2.7182 such that
n
As n  i.e

1
lim (1  )n =2.71828
n
n 

This number is very important in all higher mathematics and is often denoted by the
symbol e. thus for the moment,
 1
e= lim 1  n  2.71828
n 
 n
1
Such that the derivative of log bx is log be by this, for any given value to b we see
x

b d 1
that e is constant hence if b = e the log be  thus we have (log ex ) 
1 dx x
Example 3.2.2
dy
Find if
dx

(i) y  log e2 x (ii) y  log eSin

2
x

1
(iii) x  y  log exy  2 (iv) y  log e
x2
Solution: (i) y  log e2 x
Using the function of a function differentiation process.
Let U= 2x y= logU
du dy 1
2 
dx du u
dy du dy 1 1
 .  2.  2.
dx dx du u 2x
1
 2.
2x
dy 1
 
dx x
2
(ii) y  log eSin x

Let U=sin2x, y= logeU

du dy 1
 2 sin x cos x, 
dx du u
dy du dy
  .
dx dx dx
1
 2 sin x cos x.
u
2 sin x cos x 2 cos x
   2 cot x
sin 2 x sin x
dy
  2 cot x
dx

(iii) x  y  log exy  2

Differentiae implicitly wrt x
 1
dy dy

dx dx
x
log e  0  
1
dy dy

dx dx
x
 y
log e  log e  0 
dy 1 1 dy
1   0
dx x y dx
1 dy  1
1  1    0
x dx  y
x  1 dy  y  1 
  0
x dx  y 
dy  y  1   x  1

dx y x
dy   x  1 y
 .
dx x  y  1
 y  x  1

x y  1

1
(iv) y  log e
x2
1
Let U= , y=logeU
x2
du  2
U  x 2   2 x 3  3
dx x
dy 1

du u
dy du dy  2 1
  .  3 .
dx dx du x u
2
 3 
ux
2 2
 
1 x
 x 3
x2
dy  2
 
dx x
3.83: The Differentiation of Exponential Functions.
This is the inverse of the logarithmic functions and so if y=e x, then x = logy. The
graph of y =ex takes following form:
 (0,1) y=ex

To find its derivative hence y =ex, take the log of both sides: logey = logeex
logey=x i.e x = logey
Differentiating wrt y,
dx 1
 such that
dy y
dy
 y
dx
By this the derivatives of ex is ex
Example 3.3.2
dy
Find if
dx

(i) y  e 3 x (ii) y  cos xe x

2
(iii) e  x sin x 2
Solution:
(i) y  e 3 x
Let u= 3x, y =eu
du dy
 3,  eu
dx du
dy du dy
  . 
dx dx du
 3.e u
dy
  3e u but u  3 x
dx
dy
  3e 3 x
dx

(ii) y  e x cos x
Using product rule
 d d
ex (cos x )  cos x (e x )
dx dx
 e x sin x  cos xe x
dy
  e x sin x  cos xe x
dx
2
(iii) y  e  x sin x 2
dy 2 d d 2
 ex (sin x 2 )  sin x 2 (e  x )
dx dx dx
d dy du
(sin x 2 )  .  cos u.2u
dx du dx
 2 x cos x 2

dx
e 
d  x2
 let u  x 2 , y  e u

du dy
 2 x,  e  u
dx du
dy du dy 2
 .  2 xe u  2 xe  x
dx dx du

dy
dx
2

 e  x  2 x cos x 2   sin x 2  2 xe  x
2

2 2
 2 xe  x cos x 2  2 xe  x sin x 2

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0: APPLICATION OF DIFFERENTIATION
In this chapter we shall be looking at the area such as: the tangent and normal to a curve,
the stationary values of simple functions. Also in this chapter we shall consider the
minima, maxima and points of inflection and finally look at curve sketching.
4.1: The tangent and normal to a curve
 We have already defined the gradient of the tangent to the curve y= f(x) at point x as f 1(x)

dy y2  y1
or i.e f 1(x) = by this definition
dx x2  x1
The gradient of the tangent at a particular point a on the x – axis is f 1(a). hence the
equation of the tangent to the curve at the point (x1,y1) can be obtained as:

y2  y1
= f1(a)
x2  x1
Y2-y1 =f 1(a) (x2-x1)

Similarly, the normal to the curve at the point (x 1,y1) is the line that is perpendicular to
the tangent to the curve at this points.
Similarly the product of the gradient of the tangent and normal to the curve is always -1.

dy
Hence if that of the tangent is , then the normal will
dx
dx
Be - dy

Targent
curve

Targent

Example 4.1
Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve y=x3- 3x2+2 at the point (1,0)
Solution
For the tangent
dy
i.e f1(y) = =3x2-6x and at (1,0)
dx
 dy
=3(12)-6(1)=3-6=-3
dx
dy
 at (1,0)=-3
dx
Therefore the equation at this point (1,0) using
y–y1=f1 (x1) (x-x1)
y-0=-3 (x-1)
y= -3x+3
 y = -3x +3
i.e the equation of the tangent y = -3x+3
Since the gradient of the tangent to the curve is -3 then, that of the normal is 1/3 hence –
(1/3) since (-3.1/3)=1.
Then its equation is
y-0 = 1/3 (x - 1)
y = 1/3x – 1/3
3y=x-1
:. The equation of the normal 3y = x-1
Example 4.2
Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve y = 2x 3+3x2-2x-3 at the point
(1,0)
Solution
For the tangent
dy
= 6x2 +6x-2
dx
And at (1,0)
dy
= 6(12)+6(1)-2=12-2=10
dx
dy
:. at (1,0)=10
dx
Therefore the equation at this point (1,0) using
y-y1=f1(x) (x-x1)
y-0= 10 (x-1)
y=10x-10
:. The equation of the tangent y = 10x-10
Since the gradient of the tangent to the curve is 10 then, that of the normal is -1/10
because:
1 1 1
Gradient of normal = gradient of tan gent   10   10

Then the equation is then gotten as follows:

y-0=-1/10 (x-1)
y= -1x/10 +1/10
10y=-x+1
:. The equation of the normal 10y =-x+1 hence 10y+x=1
4.2 MAXIMA AND MINIMA POINT

Gradient
+ve R.gradient
-ve x
At the point N, the tangent is parallel to the x axis. At this point, the gradient of the
tangent is zero implying that the gradient function is zero. Here the points N is called the
maximum point. The value of y at this point is the maxima of y, though it is not the
highest point on the curve. It is the largest.
But the gradient at point R is also zero since there the tangent is parallel to the x- axis.
Obviously the value of Y at R is less than the immediate points though it is not the least
of all values of y.
Such a point is called a MINIMUM POINT. Thus the value of point Y at this point is
called the minimum value of y.
One can observantly accept the facts that points near N and are between T and N has
positive gradients on the curve. While points to the right of N and between N and R have
negative gradients. By this, one says that at maximum points, the gradient changes from
positive to negative while from negative to positive minima points.
Maximum and minimum points are also called turning points or stationary points.
Shown below is a point where the gradient is zero.

Bending of curve from

r.h.s of the line to the l.h.s. From L.h.s. to r.h.s. Point of inflexion

At this point the gradient does not change sign or turn, hence it is not a turning point. We
(a)
dy (b)
can see that in (a) is positive before and after zero and so it is in (b) except it is
dx
negative before and after zero. Such a point is called point of inflexion.
To find the stationary or turning points and to distinguish them we state below the
following procedures:
dy
(i) Find
dx
dy
(ii) Investigate how changes
dx
(iii) Set it to zero so as to find value (s) of x.
dy
(a) At maximum point, with =0, the value of the gradient (dy/dx) changes from
dx
positive to negative, as increases through that point.
(b) A minimum point with gradient (dy/dx) changes from negative to positive.
Example 4.3
Find the maximum and minimum values of
Y = x(x-1)2
Solution
Y=x(x-1)2
dy
= x.2(x-1)+(x-1)2 .1
dx
=2x2-2x +x2-2x+1
=3x2- 4x+1
dy
= 3x2 -4x+1
dx
d dy d2y
( )= = 6x-4
dx dx dx 2

dy
=0
dx
:. 32 – 4x+1 =0
(3x=1) (x-1) =0
X=1/3 or x=1
d2y
2 x = 1/3, =6x-4
dx
=6(1/ 3) – 4
= 2– 4
= -2
d2y
2
x = 1, =6x-4
dx
=6(1) – 4
= 6– 4
=2
:. The maximum value is -2 and the minimum value is 2
Example 4.4
Find the nature of the turning point of the function
10 x 3
Y=  202+30x
3
Solution
 10 x 3
Y=  40x+30x
3
dy
 10 x 2  40 x  30
dx
 10( x 2  4 x  3)
 10( x  1)( x  3)

dy
=0, 10 (x-1) (x-3)=0
dx
:. X=1 or 3
d2y
2
=20x – 40
dx
d2y
2 x = 1,=20x-40
dx
=20 (1) -40
= 20-40
-20 which given the maximum value for y
d2y
2 x = 3, = 20x-40
dx
=20(3)- 40
=60-40=-20 which gives the minimum value for y
Example 4.5
A herdsman has a 2000 metres of fence which he wishes to fence off a rectangular plot
along the bank of a river. What are the dimesion of the maximum area he can enclose?
Solution

Suppose the herdsman wants to construct his own rectangular plot away from the bank of
the river.
X X
In this case he will use the four sides of a rectangular
Thus: Y

2x+2y
Then how large an area can be enclose in this case or how can he maximize this piece of
land can be approached thus:
Area (a) =xy
Perimeter = 2x+2y=2000
Divide through by 2 I have
X+y = 1000
Y=1000 –x
Substitute y =1000-x into the area (a) = xy
Thus x (1000-x) =xy
A = 1000x-x2
da
= 1000 – 2x
dx
da
= 0, 1000-2x =0
dx
1000
X=  x  500
2

d 2a
= -2 as such, a maximum area is achieve
dx 2
When x=y =500 and the area is 250000 metres.
Example 4.6
The volume of a cylinder closed at both end is 27cm3. find its maximum surface area
Solution :
V=27cm3
v  r 2 h
27  r 2 h
27
= h_________(1)
r 2
Total surface area = 2rh  2r 2 …………….. (2) substitute (1) into (2)
27 54
A = 2r 2
 2r 2   2r 2
r r
Since we are looking for maximum area
da 54
  2  4r
dr r
 da
At turnin point 0
dr
da 54
0=-   2  4r
dr r
54
 4r
r2
54  4r 3
54
 r 3
4
27
 r 3
2
27
 r3
2

27
 r3
2
27
r 3
2
3 3
r  
3 2 1.845
r  1.62cm
27 27
for (1) h  2

 (1.6) 8.05
 3.4cm
A  2rh  2r 2
 2X 1.6 X 3.4  2X (1.6) 2
44 44
 X 1 .6 X 3 .4  X 2..56
7 7
 34.19  16.09
 50.28cm 2
Maximum surface are (area max ) = 50.28cm2
Example 4.7
The sum of two number is 36. find their maximum product.
Solution let the two numbers be x and y
Their sum: x+y=36_____(1)
Y=36-x_____(11)
Area = xy
But x +y =36
:. x (36-x)=36x-x2
To find the maximum value of xy
dA
= 36-2x
dx
dA
But =0
dx
0=36-2x
2x=36
X=18
When x = 18
d2A
=-2<0
dx 2
So that a is maximum when x=18
And y =36-18
=18
:. xy =18X18=324
x+y 18+18 =36
:.their maximum product is 324
4.3 Curve Sketching
It is of important to first of all know the necessary steps to follow if one is to sketch any
curve hence the following step are:
dy
(i) Calculate the derivative and see where curve is increasing and
dx
decreasing. Find all point at which f1=0 or f1 does not exist.
(ii) Find the maximum and minimum point by using first or second derivative
test.
d 2a
(iii) Calculate the derivative and determine where the curve is concave up
dx 2
and concave down i.e x  corx  c
(iv) Find all points of inflexion
(v) Determine the y- interception and if possible x- intercept i.e at x = 0 and at y
=0
 (vi) Examine the behaviour of the function for large positive and negative values
of X ….+
(vii) Determine if the curve is symmetrical
It is symmetrical about the y – axis if only even powers of X are involved in the
equation and about the X-axis if only even powers of y are there.

Example 4.8 : Find the points on inflexion, if any, on the graph of the function:

x3 x2
y   2x  5
3 2
x3 x 2
solution y   2x  5
3 2
dy
 x2  x  2
dx
d2y
 2x 1
dx 2

d2y
For point of inflexion,  0 with change of
dx 2
Sign : . 2x-1 =0 : . x = ½
If there is a point of inflexion, it occurs at x = ½
Test for change of sign. If we take a point less than
X = ½ say ½ - a and a point greater than x = ½ say ½ + a, where a is a small positive

d2y
quantity, and investigating the sign of at these two
dx 2
Values of x
 d2y
 2x 1
dx 2
1
At x   a,
2
2
d y 1
 2[  a ]  1
dx 2 2
1
 2[  a ]  1
2
1  2a  1
 2a  negative 
1
At x   a,
2
2
d y 1
2
 2[  a ]  1  1  2a  1  2a  positive 
dx 2

d2y 1
There is a change in sign of as we go through x .
dx 2 2

Point of
max x x2
inflexion y   2x  5
3 2
6
min
4

2
X
-1 0 1 2 3
Looking at the sketched graph of the above function one observers that the point of
inflexion where the right-hand curve change to the left-hand curve.

4.4 POINT OF INFLEXION

This point on the curve equally pictures what happens when the curve changes direction.
Thus.
dy d2y
if  0 and  0, there is a maximum value.
dx dx 2

dy d2y
if  0 and  0, there is minimum value of inflexion.
dx dx 2
d \2 y
If if  0 and changes sign, there is a point of inflexion
dx 2
By means of an example we shall be able to find point of inflexion on given curve.
Example 4.9
Find the position of the point of inflexion of the curve y  2 x 3  5 x 2  4 x  1
Solution y  2 x 3  5 x 2  4 x  1
dy
 6 x 2  10 x  4  2(3 x  1)( x  2)
dx
dy
 6 x 2  10 x  4  2(3 x  1)( x  2)
dx
dy 1
 0 x  , or x  2
dx 3
d2y
 12 x  10
dx 2
when x   1
3
2
d y 1
2
 12(  )  10  4  10  14
dx 3
2
d y
 14  0
dx 2
when x  2
d2y
 12( 2)  10  24  10  40
dx 2
d2y
 14  0
dx 2
d2y 5
2
 12 x  10 is zero at x 
dx 6
And changes sign, thus:
When x = -1/3 , y has a maximum value of 46/27
When x = 2, y has a minimum value of -11
 The point if inflexion is at point
(-1/3, 46/27), (2,-11).

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Calculus has been an important aspect of Mathematics that the significance of its study
cannot be over-emphasized.
This aspect of mathematics is divided into two part: DIFFERENTIATION AND
INTEGRATION.
However our emphasis is on differentiation.
Most companies, private organization and factories mobilize their staff to produce
one goods or the other with respect to time. So this aspect of calculus called
differentiation serves as a very good method use in maximing production and the
distribution of raw and finished goods as at when needed.
In conclusion, this aspect of calculus (differentiation) is a needed factor that must be in
mind in the course of any production.

REFERENCES
Aashikpelokhai U.S.U et al: An introductory course in higher Mathematics Calculus, Vector and
Mechanics 2009 PON publisher Ltd, Edo State, Nigeria.
Boyer Carl The history of calculus New York, Dover publication 1949.
Frank Ayres Jr. et al: Schaum’s outlines fifth edition (2009) The McGraw-Hill publishing
Companies USA
George B Thomas Jr. et al: Calculus and Analytic Geometry 9 th edition 1998 Addison-Wesley
publishing company USA
Harper et al : The calculus with Analytical Geometry fifth edition 1986 Harper and Row
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