PHYS-2010: General Physics I

Course Lecture Notes

Section I

Dr. Donald G. Luttermoser

East Tennessee State University

Edition 2.6
 Abstract

These class notes are designed for use of the instructor and students of the course PHYS-2010:
General Physics I taught by Dr. Donald Luttermoser at East Tennessee State University. These
notes make reference to the College Physics, 11th Edition (2018) textbook by Serway and Vuille.
I. Introduction

A. The Nature of Physics: Behavior and composition of matter and

energy and their interactions.

1. 2 main branches:
a) Classical Physics:
i) Mechanics (covered in General Physics I).

ii) Thermodynamics (covered in General Physics I).

iii) Fluid Mechanics (covered in General Physics I).

iv) Electromagnetism (covered in General Physics

II).

v) Optics (covered in General Physics II).

vi) Wave Mechanics (covered in General Physics II)..

b) Modern Physics:
i) Special Relativity and General Relativity.

ii) Quantum Mechanics (also called Atomic Physics).

iii) Nuclear Physics.

iv) Statistical Mechanics (thermodynamics in terms

of probabilities).

v) Condensed Matter (once called Solid State Physics).

I–1
I–2 PHYS-2010: General Physics I

2. Physics is written in the language of mathematics and is based

upon logical thought processes.
a) Physics represents the foundation of all of the physical
sciences, which includes astronomy, geology, chemistry,
and their various subfields.

b) The science of astronomy, the oldest of all of the physical

sciences, is firmly rooted in physics and both share the
same history as mankind attempted to understand the
workings of nature.

3. Matter moves (i.e., follows trajectories) as a result of a force

being applied to it.
a) Contact forces: Force exerted through a collision as de-
scribed by Newton’s 2nd law of motion: F = ma.

b) Field (or natural) forces: Force exerted on an object

from its location in some natural potential field. There
are 4 field forces in nature:

Interaction Relative Strength Range

Strong‡ 1 10−15 m
Electromagnetic† ‡ 10−2 ∞
Weak† ‡ 10−6 10−17 m
Gravitational 10−43 ∞
† - Under high energies, the electromagnetic and
weak forces act as one — the Electroweak force.
‡ - Under even higher energies, all of the natural
forces (except gravity) also may act as one,
as described by the Grand Unified Theory.
B. The Structure of Physics.

1. There are 6 key definitions that are useful in the description of

physics.
Donald G. Luttermoser, ETSU I–3

a) Concept: An idea or physical quantity used to analyze

nature (e.g., “space,” “length,” “mass,” and “time”
are concepts).

b) Laws: Mathematical relationships between physical quan-

tities.

c) Principle: A very general statement on how nature op-

erates (e.g., the principle of relativity, that there is no
absolute frames of reference, is the bases behind the the-
ory of relativity).

d) Models: A representation of a physical system (e.g., the

Bohr model atom).

e) Hypothesis: The tentative stages of a model that has

not been confirmed through experiment and/or observa-
tion (e.g., Ptolomy’s model solar system).

f ) Theory: Hypotheses that are confirmed through repeated

experiment and/or observation (e.g., Newton’s theory of
gravity). The word “theory” has different meanings in
common English (i.e., it can mean that one is making a
guess at something). However, it has a very precise
meaning in science! Something does not become
a theory in science unless it has been validated
through repeated experiment as described by the
scientific method.

2. Scientific theories are developed through the use of the scientific

method:

a) A hypothesis is developed from every day experiences or

from an instant of insight.
I–4 PHYS-2010: General Physics I

b) Often, a model is constructed from the hypothesis. Note

that not all hypotheses have models associated with them.

c) The hypothesis/model is tested via repeated experiment

and/or observation.

d) If the hypothesis/model is confirmed from the experi-

ments and/or observations, it becomes a theory.

3. Theory is not a dirty word! In science, the word theory does

not mean one has no proof (as this word is commonly used).
Indeed, in order for a hypothesis to be accepted as a theory, one
must present experimental and/or observational verification.

C. Units of Measure.

1. There are three different unit systems that are used in science
and engineering. In the list below, the first two are commonly
called the metric system.
a) International Standard (SI) units (once called mks
[for meter-kilogram-second] units). This is the unit sys-
tem used by most scientists.

b) cgs (for centimeter-gram-second) units. This unit system

is still used in some areas of science (e.g., astronomy and
thermodynamics).

c) English units (foot-slug-second), also called American,

British, or Empirical units. This unit system is considered
archaic by the scientific community. The United States is
the only technologically advanced country that still uses
this system (though American scientists do not use it).
Strangely, American engineers still use the English sys-
tem.
Donald G. Luttermoser, ETSU I–5

2. There are 3 basic units in each unit system that relates to 3

independent concepts in physics: length, mass, and time. For
the SI unit system, these 3 concepts are measured in units of:

a) Length [L]: meter — [m].

b) Mass [M]: kilogram (“kilo” mean 1000, or 1000-grams)

— [kg].

c) Time [T]: seconds — [s].

3. Metric Prefixes: Since physics often deals with very large and
very small numbers for the measurement of units, the metric
system contain prefixes for units as shown in the table below.

Metric Prefix† Numeric Multiplier Multiplier Name

yotta- (Y-) 1024 septillion
zetta- (Z-) 1021 sextillion
exa- (E-) 1018 quintillion
peta- (P-) 1015 quadrillion
tera- (T-) 1012 trillion
giga- (G-) 109 billion
mega- (M-) 106 million
kilo- (k-) 103 thousand
hecto- (h-) 102 hundred
deka- (da-) 10 ten
deci- (d-) 10−1 tenth
centi- (c-) 10−2 hundredth
milli- (m-) 10−3 thousandth
micro- (µ-) 10−6 millionth
nano- (n-) 10−9 billionth
pico- (p-) 10−12 trillionth
femto- (f-) 10−15 quadrillionth
atto- (a-) 10−18 quintillionth
zepto- (z-) 10−21 sextillionth
yocto- (y-) 10−24 septillionth
I–6 PHYS-2010: General Physics I

In the previous table, the prefix name (see the column marked
with †), has an abbreviation in parentheses associated with the
name that can be associated with the abbreviation for the unit.
For instance, centimeter is written in abbreviation form as ‘cm’
and microjoule is written in abbreviation form as µJ.

4. In order to solve problems in physics, one needs to express all

parameters given in the same unit system — this is accomplished
with conversion of units:
103 m  1 hr
!  
mi 5.0 mi 1.6 km m
! !
v = 5.0 =  = 2.2 .
hr hr mi km 3600s s
Note in the example above that there are 1.6 km in one mile [mi],
103 m in one kilometer [km], and 3600 s (seconds) in one hour
[hr]. Also note that the conversion fractions have been set up
such that the units cancel until we wind up with the units we
want (SI units).

D. Scientific Notation.

1. In physics you often find numbers that are both very large and
very small. To handle such numbers, scientists express numbers
using scientific notation:

m × 10n .
a) Rule #1: m is called the mantissa of the number and
can be a positive or negative real number, where the ab-
solute value of m ranges anywhere from (and equal to) 1.0
up to (but not including) 10:

1.0 ≤ |m| < 10.

b) Rule #2: n is called the exponent of the number and

must be a positive or negative integer that ranges from
−∞ to +∞:
Donald G. Luttermoser, ETSU I–7

−∞, ..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., ∞ .

2. Powers of 10:

1, 000, 000 = 106 0.000001 = 10−6

100, 000 = 105 0.00001 = 10−5
10, 000 = 104 0.0001 = 10−4
1, 000 = 103 0.001 = 10−3
100 = 102 0.01 = 10−2
10 = 101 0.1 = 10−1
1 = 100 1.0 = 100

3. In terms of scientific notation, the numbers 232 and 0.0232 are

expressed as

232 = 2.32 × 102 and 0.0232 = 2.32 × 10−2

4. Multiplication:

(4.6 × 1016 ) (2.0 × 102 ) = (4.6 × 2.0) × 1016+2 = 9.2 × 1018

(−5.0 × 108 ) (6.0 × 10−10 ) = (−5.0 × 6.0) × 108+(−10) = −30. × 108−10
= −30. × 10−2 = −3.0 × 10−1 = −0.30

5. Division:
(6.3 × 108 ) 6.3
4
= × 108−4 = 2.1 × 104
(3.0 × 10 ) 3.0
(6.3 × 108 ) 6.3
−4
= × 108−(−4) = 2.1 × 108+4 = 2.1 × 1012
(3.0 × 10 ) 3.0
I–8 PHYS-2010: General Physics I

6. Raising to a power:

(200)2 = (2.0 × 102 )2 = (2.0)2 × 102×2 = 4.0 × 104

(1600)1/2 = (16 × 102 )1/2 = [(4.0)2 ]1/2 × (102 )1/2
= (4.0)2·1/2 × 102·1/2 = 4.0 × 10 = 40.
√ √
Note that x ≡ x1/2 , 3 x ≡ x1/3, etc. Hence, the square root is
the same as raising a number or variable to the one-half power.
The “≡” symbol means “defined to be.”

7. Note that “as a rule-of-thumb,” numbers smaller than 0.01 and

larger than 9,999 should be written using scientific notation.

E. Significant Digits.

1. Measurements of data or results of calculations should never be

written out as more digits than are significant. The significance of
a measurement or calculation is typically limited by the precision
of the measuring tool used, by your ability to use that tool, or
even by the nature of what you are trying to measure or calculate.
You must learn to express the results of your calculations so that
the precision (or lack of precision) is clearly indicated.

2. The precision of a measurement will be based on the “smallest”

marker on your measuring device. For instance, if you are mak-
ing length measurements with a meter stick whose markings are
subdivided into centimeter marks, the precision of your length
measurement will be to within 1 cm (i.e., ±0.01 m). If a stop
watch is subdivided into one-tenth of a second markers, then your
precision is to within ±0.1 s.

3. When carrying out calculations, the result you write down should
not exceed the significance of your input numbers, even if your
Donald G. Luttermoser, ETSU I–9

calculator display a lot of digits (i.e., calculators do not keep track

of significant digits – it is up to you to keep track of significant
digits).

4. Multiplication and division have a separate set of rules than ad-

dition and subtraction concerning significant digits.
a) In multiplication and division, the number of significant
figures (or digits) in the final result should be equal to
that factor with the least number of significant digits:
(3.0379624 × 10−24 ) (2.6 × 10−2 )
−6
= 2.514261 × 10−20
(3.14156 × 10 )
= 2.5 × 10−20

b) In addition and subtraction, the vertical column contain-

ing the least significant digit limits the result:
37.26972 (7 s.d.)
25.43 (4 s.d.)
.837 (3 s.d.)
101.22 (5 s.d.)
3.1 (2 s.d.)
167.85672 = 167.9 (4 s.d.)
Here we rounded the least significant digit up by one since
the digit just to the right of it is 5 or above.

c) To add or subtract numbers written in scientific notation,

one must first re-express the numbers such that they all
have the same power of 10. Then the addition or subtrac-
tion is carried out following the technique above:

3.7697 ×10−4 = 376.97 ×10−6

-2.892 ×10−6 = -2.892 ×10−6
374.078 ×10−6 = 3.7408 × 10−4

d) The significant digits of powers and roots are treated the

I–10 PHYS-2010: General Physics I

same as multiplication and division.

e) When an expression has both addition/subtraction and

multiplication/division, both rules will have to be used in
the order defined by the equation set-up.

5. Often the result of a calculation will have trailing “zeros.” One

will need to figure out how many of the trailing zeros are signifi-
cant. One follows the rules described above to determine whether
or not a trailing zero is significant.

a) For instance, if a certain length measurement has a preci-

sion of 0.1 cm, then one would write that measured length
as “38.0 cm.” The underline indicates that the “0” must
not be dropped! To drop it would imply a less precise
measurement.

b) If a number is written as an integer (i.e., no decimal point

shown), trailing zeros after a non-zero integer may or may
not be significant. In these cases, always underline the
last zero that is significant.

c) If a “whole” number is written as a real number (i.e.,

one with a decimal point), then one should assume that
all of the trailing zeros after the non-zero number(s) are
significant.

d) If one or more are not significant, then one should under-

line the last significant zero. For instance: 76,000 (2 s.d.
– significant digits), 76,000 (4 s.d.), 800. (3 s.d.), 800 (2
s.d.).

e) Please note that your calculator will drop trailing

zeros written after a decimal point (i.e., the right
Donald G. Luttermoser, ETSU I–11

side of a decimal point). However if any of those

trailing zeros are significant, it is up to you to
make sure that you write these significant trailing
zeros on your exams and homework.

6. How do we handle “leading” zeros? The answer to this question

depends on whether the leading zeros are before or after a decimal
point.

a) Leading zeros prior to a non-zero number on the left side

of the decimal point are never significant and should not
be written out – for instance if we have the following num-
ber, 000876.98, we would never write out the leading ze-
ros, instead this number would be written as 876.98, as-
suming the ‘.98’ is significant.

b) If the zeros follow a decimal point and precede a non-

zero integer (e.g., .000789), even though the leading zeros
are not significant, they must still be written to properly
express the value of the number. However note that in
this example, we should express this number in scientific
notation (e.g., 7.89 × 10−4 ) following the “rule-of-thumb”
note at the end of §I.D, Scientific Notation.

7. If one makes unit conversions involving prefixes (millimeters to

meters, or kilograms to grams, for example), these will never
limit the precision of the results, since the prefixes are defined to
be exact.

a) For example, 1 m = 100 cm, exactly.

b) Also, when one has a measurement that must be an in-

teger (6 coins, for example), it is generally assumed that
the integer is an exact value. Thus, for example, if one
I–12 PHYS-2010: General Physics I

takes the average of 8 measurements, one assumes there

were exactly 8 measurements.

c) These numbers also never limit the precision of results.

d) Also, one sometimes deals with the combination of mul-

tiple measurements. In this case, it is sometimes a ques-
tion whether one should be rounding intermediate results.
One way to deal with this is to retain all of the digits in
the intermediate results, but then express the final answer
with the appropriate number of significant figures, hence
avoiding any round-off errors. This retention of the digits
in intermediate calculations is known as retaining guard
digits.

F. Coordinate Systems.

1. Cartesian or orthogonal coordinates (x, y, z).

a) 2–D (x, y):

P(x, y)

O x
x
Donald G. Luttermoser, ETSU I–13

b) 3–D (x, y, z): (Note that the 3 axes in Cartesian 3-D

space have a specific orientation that follows the right-
hand rule: With your right hand thumb extended per-
pendicularly away from your hand, follow the rotation of
the x-axis with your fingers curving towards the y-axis.
Then, the direction your thumb points is the direction
that the z-axis points.)
z

P
(x, y, z)

O
y
x

=⇒ Note that the data point P (x, y, z) is x units out of

the page from the origin, y units to the right of the origin,
and z units above the origin.

2. Polar coordinates (r, θ) can also be used in 2–D situations. In

3–D, polar coordinates become either spherical coordinates
(r, θ, φ) or cylindrical coordinates (r, θ, z). Here, we will
just focus on 2-D polar coordinates.

a) r is called the radius vector as is the distance that a

point is from the origin.
I–14 PHYS-2010: General Physics I

b) θ (Greek letter “theta”) is the angle that the radius vec-

tor, r, makes with the +x-axis (i.e., the reference axis).
Note that when the radius vector r rotates in the counter-
clockwise (CCW) direction with respect to the reference
axis, θ is positive (θ > 0), and when r rotates in the clock-
wise (CW) direction with respect to the reference axis, θ
is negative (θ < 0).

P
(r, θ)

O x

3. Coordinate Conversion.
a) To convert from polar coordinates to Cartesian coordi-
nates, use

x = r cos θ (I-1)
y = r sin θ (I-2)

b) To convert from Cartesian coordinates to polar coordi-

nates, use
q
r = x2 + y 2 (I-3)
tan θ = y/x (I-4)
Donald G. Luttermoser, ETSU I–15

c) Note that the above ‘tan θ’ conversion equation (Eq. I-4) is

only valid in Quadrant I (+x, +y) of polar plots. If the ra-
dius vector is in Quadrant II or Quadrant III (see the plots
below), the calculated θ in the tangent equation above is
measured with respect to the negative x-axis (hence −x
is the reference axis in these cases). If the radius vector is
in Quadrant IV, +x is the reference axis (like Quadrant
I), but one gets a negative value for θ since it is rotating
clockwise with respect to the reference axis. In this case,
since θ is measured with respect to the +x axis rotating
in the counterclockwise direction, θ = 360◦ +θIV as shown
below.
y y

5 5

II I

θ θII θ
x x
2 -2

III IV
θII = tan-1 (y/x) = tan-1 (5/-2) = -68o
θ = tan-1 (y/x) = tan-1 (5/2) = 68o θ = 180o + θII = 180o + (-68o) = 112o

y y

θIII = tan-1 (y/x) = tan-1 (-5/-2) = 68o θIV = tan-1 (y/x) = tan-1 (-5/2) = -68o
θ = 180o + θIII = 180o + 68o = 248o θ = 360o + θIV = 360o + (-68o) = 292o

-2 θ θ 2

θIII x x
θIV

-5 -5