International Journal of Innovation, Management and Technology, Vol. 1, No.

2, June 2010
ISSN: 2010-0248

The Influences Transfer of Training on

Relationship between Knowledge Characteristic
of Work Design Model and Outcomes
Hawjeng Chiou, Yi-Hsuan Lee and Sutrisno Hadi Purnomo

outcomes.
Abstract—The purpose of this study is to examine the Previous study from Morgeson and Humphrey (2006)
relationships among transfer of training, knowledge found evidences that knowledge characteristics correlate
characteristic of work design and work outcomes. Transfer of significantly to both training and compensation requirements.
training is not only served as the predictor, but also the
moderator to the prediction of knowledge characteristics
Results also showed that the knowledge characteristics are
towards outcome variables. Subjects are 252 teachers and significantly more strongly related to training requirements
administrative staff coming from various school levels. Results than compensation requirement. This is due to the fact that
indicate that among the five-characteristics of knowledge, the only changes to the knowledge-based aspects of work are
variable specialization is positively correlated to outcome likely to increase the number and level of knowledge, skills,
variables. Nevertheless, transfer of training can positively and abilities required (Campion & Berger, 1990).
predict outcomes. More importantly, transfer of training as a
moderator can influence the relationship of specialization for
Accordingly, training is needed to acquire better knowledge,
satisfaction to organization, but not for satisfaction to which subsequently increased the number and level of
performance and job performance. These results suggest that in knowledge, skills, and abilities required. After learning and
order to achieve satisfaction and performance, human resource retaining the training content, trainees could transfer the
practice agency should design training that gives trainees the knowledge and/or skills accrued to the work context with the
ability to enhance knowledge and skill. intention of improving their job performance over time (Noe
Index Terms—transfer of training, knowledge characteristic,
et al., 2006). The degree to which trainees effectively apply
work design, satisfaction, performance the knowledge, skills, and attitudes gained in the training
context to the job is called transfer of training (Baldwin &
I. INTRODUCTION Ford, 1988). Researchers have also demonstrated that
training efforts are unlikely to result in positive changes in
Nowadays, work design continues to be of great practical
job performance unless the newly trained competencies are
significance to organizations as they try to attain outcomes
transferred to the work environment (Baldwin & Ford, 1988;
such as efficiency and satisfaction. It has been said that the
Montesino, 2002).
nature of work has a substantial impact on an employee’s
In light of such issues, this study aims to examine the
performance and attitude (Morgeson, 2005). Successful
hypothesis that transfer of training moderates the relationship
work-design initiatives must overcome many obstacles in
between knowledge characteristics and outcomes. We
order to have their intended impact and influences on
believe that the higher the degree of transfer of training, the
multiple outcomes such as expected to increase positive
stronger the positive impact of knowledge characteristics will
behavioral (e.g., job performance) and attitudinal (e.g., job
be on performance and satisfaction. Therefore, the present
satisfaction) outcomes (Humphrey et.al, 2007). It is also said
study first examine the relationships between the knowledge
that increasing positive behavioral and attitudinal will be
characteristics and outcomes towards satisfaction and
achieved if the motivational characteristic are perform. The
performance. Furthermore, the relationship between transfer
basic principle of the motivational approach is that jobs will
of training and outcomes towards satisfaction and
be enriched (i.e., made more motivating and satisfying) if
performance will be examined. Finally, this study aims to
high levels of these characteristics are present (Morgeson &
investigate whether transfer of training is a moderator of the
Humphrey, 2006). Campion and McClelland (1993)
relationship between knowledge characteristic and outcomes.
subdivided motivational characteristic into those work
This study might contribute to work design research, because
characteristics that reflect the task and knowledge
it provides a more complex view of work design and suggests
requirements of work namely, task and knowledge
that future research should investigate the factors to
characteristic. Similarly, Morgeson and Humphrey (2006)
determine whether these abilities moderate the relationship
also identified five knowledge characteristics such as skill
between work characteristics and various outcome measures.
variety, information processing, job complexity,
specialization, and, problem solving. In sum, these work
II. RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
characteristics are expected to impact a variety of work
A. Knowledge characteristic
Corresponding author.
Tel.: +886-3-422-7151 ext 66100; fax: +886-3-422-2891
Knowledge characteristics reflect the kinds of knowledge,
E-mail addresses: [email protected]; [email protected]; skill, and ability demands that are placed on an individual as a
[email protected]

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function of what is done on the job (Campion & McClelland, characteristics would be positively related to job satisfaction
1993). Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) recently identified and performance. We examine the hypothesis:
five work dimensions in the knowledge characteristic. First,
job complexity is the extent to which a job is multifaceted Hypothesis 1: Knowledge characteristics are positively
and difficult to perform (Humphrey et al., 2007). Job related to job satisfaction.
complexity reflects to employee’s belief that the work being
done is intrinsically interesting and challenging because it is Hypothesis 2: Knowledge characteristics are positively
characterized by high levels of variety, significance, identity, related to job performance
feedback, and autonomy (Hackman & Oldham, 1980).
Humphrey et al. (2007) highlighted that high job complexity B. Transfer of Training
promotes satisfaction but is also likely to hurt efficiency and Transfer of training is defined as the degree to which
promote perceptions of work overload. individuals effectively apply the skills and knowledge gained
Second, information processing is the extent to which a job from a training program to a job situation (Baldwin and Ford,
necessitates an incumbent to focus on and manage 1988). This suggests that transfer of training first requires a
information (Humphrey et al., 2007). Past research has trainee to learn new job-related competencies (Velada &
suggested that jobs differ in their level of monitoring and Caetano, 2007). By learning, they are referring to a relatively
processing of information (Wall & Jackson, 1995; Wall, et al., permanent change in knowledge, skills and behaviors of
1995). Higher levels of information processing are expected trainees (Weiss, 1990). After learning and retaining the
to change the requirements for jobs, as employees require training content, trainees should transfer the knowledge
high levels of knowledge in high information processing jobs and/or skills accrued to the work context with the intention of
in order complete their work (Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006). improving job performance over time (Noe et al., 2006).
Third, problem solving is the extent to which a job requires Transfer of training is a core issue with respect to linking
the production of unique solutions or ideas (Humphrey et al., individual change to the requirements of the organizational
2007). Mumford et al. (2004) sought to develop creative system. Therefore, if we believe that training truly makes a
problem-solving skills by training people in the use of difference in organizational and individual performance, we
strategies contributing to effective process execution. In their must understand how to support transfer of training in
study, they found training in the application of effective organizations (Yamnill & Mc Clean, 2001). However, a
strategies led to improved performance on measures of significant purpose of training and development is to improve
relevant creative problem-solving skills. performance (Swanson, 1995). Learning is a little value to
Fourth, Skill variety. Skill variety reflects the extent to organizations unless it is transferred in some way to
which a job requires an individual to use a variety of different performance (Holton, et al., 1997). Kuchinke (1995) also
skills to complete the work (Hackman & Oldham, 1980). argued that learning is a means, not a primary organizational
High level of skill variety is expected to support and outcome. Learning is an internal behavior, whereas
encourage higher levels of motivation and creativity than are performance is usually a more external one. Therefore,
relatively simple, routine jobs (Hackman & Oldham, 1980). training outputs should emphasize performance, not just
Finally, specialization is the extent to which a job involves learning. (Yamnill & Mc Clean, 2001).
the performance of tasks requiring specific knowledge and Holton (1996) provided a conceptual evaluation model of
skill (Humphrey et al., 2007). Skill and task variety reflect the training focused on individual performance. This model
breadth of behaviors and skills involved in a job, whereas proposes three primary outcomes of training intervention:
specialization represents the depth of knowledge and skills learning, individual performance, and organizational results.
necessary. Although there is only limited research These outcomes are defined, respectively, as achievement of
surrounding specialization (e.g., Campion, 1988; Edwards et the learning outcome desired in an HRD intervention, change
al., 2000), recent research has suggested that increasing in individual performance as a result of learning being
specialization may resolve the tradeoff in work design applied on the job, and results at the organizational level as a
between satisfaction and efficiency (Morgeson & Campion, consequence of change in individual performance. Regarding
2002). with job satisfaction, Faerman and ban (1993) have found
Humphrey et. al. (2007) stated that they are only able to moderate to strong relationship between training participants
examine the relationship for information processing and job satisfaction with the training and changes their work related
complexity with a number of outcomes. There are not enough behavior. Based on the discussion, we examine the
studies examining specialization or problem solving to hypothesis:
include these characteristics in their meta-analytic review.
However, these five work characteristics are expected to Hypothesis 3: Transfer of training is positively related to job
impact a variety of work outcomes. Past research has satisfaction.
suggested that increasing knowledge requirements makes
work more intrinsically motivating and promotes positive Hypothesis 4: Transfer of training is positively related to job
attitudinal outcomes (ie. satisfaction, involvement). On the performance
other hand, knowledge characteristic also expected as work
characteristics that would increase performance. For example, In this study, we expect that transfer of training influence
specialization has been shown to increase job efficiency relationship between knowledge characteristic and outcomes.
(Morgeson & Campion, 2002) and therefore performance. Influences’ transfer of training toward relationship between
Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) found that knowledge
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knowledge characteristic and outcomes as mentioned above participated in this study. Demography of respondents are as
is namely moderation effect. There is limited study to such: Ages ranged between 20-30 years old was 25.8%;
investigate moderating effect relationship between 30-40 years old 35.7%; 40-50 years old 31.3% and over 50
knowledge characteristic and outcomes. For instance, Fried years old 7.1%. As for the level of education, the majority of
and Feris (1987) suggested that growth need strength (GNS) the participants had already received a bachelor degree
as the preference or need individuals have for stimulating and (66.3%), and a smaller percentage having received only a
challenging work moderated the relationship between vocational degree (16.3%).
knowledge characteristic and performance. Tiegs et al.
B. Measures
(1992); Rentsch and Steel (1998) found no moderating effect
of competence or need for achievement, suggesting that Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ). The measures of
growth need do not act as moderators. However, study to work characteristics used in this study are taken from
investigate moderating effect mechanism in this relationship Morgeson and Humphrey’s (2006) previous work on WDQ.
would be very important to do continuously. All items were measured using a five-point Likert-type scale
In their early work of work design model, Hackman and with anchors from ‘‘strongly disagree’’ to ‘‘strongly agree’’.
Oldham (1980) proposed three factors (i.e. growth need Items for measuring the knowledge characteristics were
strength, context satisfaction, knowledge and skill) as selected for the purpose of this current study. There are five
moderators of both the job characteristics-critical sub-dimensions in the knowledge characteristics including
psychological states relationships and the critical “job complexity” (e.g. the tasks on the job are simple and
psychological states-work outcomes relationships. With uncomplicated), “information processing” (e.g. the job
regard to the third specified moderator, knowledge and skills, requires me to monitor a great deal of information), “problem
none of the available studies have examined its moderating solving” (e.g. the job involves solving problems that have no
effect on the relationships between the core job dimensions obvious correct answer), “skill variety” (e.g. the job requires
and any of the examined outcomes (Fried & Ferris, 1987). If a variety of skills), and “specialization” (e.g. the job is highly
the skill and knowledge from training are applied specialized in terms of purpose, tasks, or activities). The
successfully in their daily work, it’s ensure that it have reliability of internal consistency ranged from 0.82 to 0.92.
positive impact to outcomes. We expect that higher the skill Transfer of training. Items for measuring transfer of
and knowledge were applied in the work would be increase training were adapted from Tesluk et al. (1995). Where in
satisfaction and performance. Therefore, we examine the three items (e.g. using new knowledge and skills to improve
hypothesis: performance) are included in the scale, while having an
internal consistency reliability of 0.78.
Hypothesis 5: Higher degree transfer of training increases Job satisfaction. Item created by Campion (1988) for
relationship between knowledge characteristic and job measuring job satisfaction was used in this study. The
satisfaction. sub-dimensions, obtained from Williams and Andersons
(1991), included satisfaction towards organization (e.g. I am
Hypothesis 6: Higher degree transfer of training increases very satisfied with my current employment by a company or
relationship between knowledge characteristic and job organization), satisfaction towards performance (e.g. I am
performance. very satisfied with my personal performance) and job
performance (e.g. I always fulfill responsibilities specified in
Based on the discussion above, we proposed the research my job description). The internal consistency reliability
hypotheses in figure 1. ranged from 0.72 to 0.85.
The dimensionalities of the measures were assessed
Knowledge Satisfaction through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using AMOS 7.0.
Characterisctic to organization A significant chi-square was reported (χ2 = 253.19, p < 0.05,
Job complexity H1&H2 to performance
df = 210). The ration of χ2 to df was 2.14 which was less than
Information processing
Problem solving Job Performance 3, indicating an acceptable model fit. Other indicators also
Skill variety shows good fitness indices in the measurement model
Spesialization
H5&H6 wherein Goodness Fit Index (GFI)=0.91, Adjusted Goodness
Fit Index (AGFI)=0.88, Comparative Fit Index (CFI)=0.95
H3&H4 and Root-mean-Square Error of Approximation
(RMSEA)=0.048. In sum, results of CFA reveals acceptable
Transfer of Training model fit to the observed data (Hu & Bentler 1999; Hair et al.
2006). Further examinations are going to process in the result
section.
Figure 1. Research hypotheses of the present study

IV. RESULTS
III. METHODS
A. Descriptive statistic and Correlation among construct
A. Participants
Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations,
A total of 252 school teachers and administration staffs
reliabilities and bivariate correlations among the study
(61.5% are male) from elementary schools, junior high
variables. For the sub-dimensions of knowledge
schools, senior high schools and universities in Indonesia

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characteristic, specialization significantly correlate with satisfaction towards performance. Test of the moderation
outcomes, correlation coefficients ranged from .21 to .42 effect in step 4 have no significant influence on the
(p<.01). Skill variety is significantly correlated with relationship between the dependent and independent
satisfaction to organization (r=.21, p<.01) and job variables.
performance (r=.25, p<.01). Meanwhile, job complexity,
information processing and problem solving significantly Table 3. Hierarchical regression analysis results for
correlated only with job performance. On the other hand, satisfaction to performance
transfer of training was positively correlated each of the three
work-outcomes, with correlation coefficients ranged from .28 For the job performance as a dependent variable, results
to .54 (p<.01). Positive correlation coefficients were found are shown in Table 4. Results revealed that education has a
between transfer of training with information processing significant influence on job performance (ß=0.18, p<0.01).
(r=.29, p<.01), skill variety (r=.28, p<.01) and specialization Furthermore, specialization significantly predicted
(r=.43, p<.01). satisfaction towards job performance (ß=0.36, p<0.01). In
step 3, we focused on transfer of training. The results
Table 1: Means, standard deviations, reliabilities and revealed that transfer of training significantly predicted
correlation coefficients among variables (the end of satisfaction towards job performance (ß=0.40, p<0.01). In the
manuscript) final step, the interaction term was no significant influence
on the dependent variable.
B. Hypothesis Testing
Table 2 summarizes the results of hierarchical regression Table 4. Hierarchical regression analysis results for job
analyses of research hypotheses. The independent variables performance
were knowledge characteristic and dependent variables were
different dimensions of work outcomes. In addition, the With regard to verified of hypothesis 1 in which
hierarchical regression analysis was used for testing the knowledge characteristic will be positively related to (a)
moderation effects of transfer of training to the satisfaction to organization and (b) satisfaction to
aforementioned relationship. performance and hypothesis 2 was knowledge characteristic
In the hierarchical regression analysis, independent will be positively related to job performance. The findings
variables were entered in several steps. The control variables showed that among five-characteristics only specialization
(gender, education and tenure) were entered in the first step, positively related to work outcomes. Hence, hypothesis 1 and
then followed by the relevant independent measures. Results 2 were partially supported. Test of hypothesis 3 was transfer
revealed that education (years of education completed) has of training will be positively related to (a) satisfaction to
significant influence towards satisfaction to organization organization and (b) satisfaction to performance and
(β=-.19 p<.01). In the second step, knowledge characteristic hypothesis 4 was transfer of training will be positively related
were entered as the predictors of satisfaction to organization. to job performance. The result showed that transfer of
Among the five-knowledge characteristic, only specialization training positively predicted to three-work outcomes.
were positively related to satisfaction to organization (β=0.27, Therefore, hypothesis 3 and 4 were supported. Finally,
p<.01). In the third step, transfer of training was added into hypothesis 5 and 6 examine the moderation effect of transfer
the regression model as a predictor. A significant beta of training. Hypothesis 5 was higher degree transfer of
coefficient was reported (β=0.26, p<.01). training will increase the relationship between knowledge
For testing the moderating effects of transfer of training on characteristic and (a) satisfaction to organization and (b)
the relationship between knowledge characteristic and work satisfaction to performance and hypothesis 6 was higher
outcomes, we then entered interaction in the step 4. As shown degree transfer of training will increase relationship between
in the Table 3, only interaction between specialization and knowledge characteristic and performance. The findings
transfer of training significantly predicted towards showed that only specialization have moderation effect
satisfaction to organization (ß=-1.87, p<0.01). While, in step towards satisfaction to organization. On the other hand,
4, a positive moderating effect (F-change=.02, p<.05) of specialization has no moderation effect to both satisfaction to
transfer of training to the aforementioned relationship was performance and job performance. Accordingly, hypothesis 5
reported. and 6 were partially supported.

Table 2: Hierarchical regression analysis results for

satisfaction to organization C. Simple Slope Analysis
The simple slope analysis (Aiken & West, 1991) as a post
The results for predictions regarding the second dependent hoc test of the moderation effect of transfer of training on the
variable, satisfaction towards performance, are shown in relationship between the independent variables (knowledge
Table 2. The results of step 1 showed that control variables characteristics) and dependent variable (work outcomes)
have no significant influence. Among the five variables of were illustrated by figure 2. The relationship between
knowledge characteristics only specialization was found to specialization and satisfaction for high and low levels of
significantly predict satisfaction towards performance (ß = transfer of training (defined as +1 and –1 standard deviations
0.22, p<0.01) in step 2 of hierarchical regression analysis. In from the mean, respectively) is illustrated in Figure 2.
step 3, we focused on transfer of training. The result revealed
transfer of training (ß=0.25, p<0.01) significantly predicted
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and ban (1993) have found moderate to strong relationship

between training participants initial satisfaction with the
= high transfer of training (+1SD) training and changes their work related behavior. Therefore,
training of transfer have an important role to organization to
= low transfer of training (-1SD) improve job satisfaction and performance.
Humphrey et al. (2007) stated that there are not enough
studies examining specialization to include in their
meta-analytic review. However, research on specialization
Satisfaction to
organization

has documented only specialization’s positive effects and has

neglected the investigation of possible negative effects. In
fact, published studies have explicitly stated or implicitly
assumed that specialization is an adaptive trait such that high
levels of specialization are more desirable than low levels of
specialization. Results of this study challenge this
assumption. Specifically, specialization is more associated
Low High with the criterion for individuals with low levels of transfer of
training than the criterion for individuals with high levels of
Specialization transfer of training.
Figure 2. simple slope analysis of the moderation effect VI. LIMITATION AND FURTHER RESEARCH
The relationship between specialization and satisfaction to Several limitations of this study should be noted. First, the
organization is positive for individuals with high transfer of transfer of training was measured by self-report questionnaire
training and individuals with low transfer of training. rather than observations on actual behaviors. This may have
However, the individuals with low transfer of training need influenced the pattern of results. Nevertheless, in addition to
higher specialization than individual with high transfer of the above-mentioned argument for using self-report
training. This interaction further reinforces the importance of performance ratings, utilizing specific items and anonymous
transfer of training in determining how individuals interpret and confidential surveys might have enhanced the accuracy
and attribute their satisfaction to the organization. of the self-report data. The previous research has used similar
self-report measures of training transfer (Tesluk et al., 1995;
Chiaburu & Tekleab, 2005; Velada et al., 2007), showing
V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION evidence that trainees can accurately self-report their levels
of training transfer. However, for future research, we do
This study demonstrated that the knowledge
suggest the use of additional measures collected from several
characteristics were positively related to the different aspects
sources (e.g. supervisors, peers and subordinates) in order to
of work outcomes. Among the five sub-dimensions of
reinforce the trainees ratings or, when possible, the use of
knowledge characteristics, only specialization shows
direct and objective measures of the trainee’s on-the-job
significant impact on work outcomes. On the other hand, job
performance.
complexity, information, problem solving and skill variety
Because we collected data from only one kind was
cannot predict a variety of work outcomes. All four
educational organization, these results may not generalize to
characteristics demonstrated strong relationships with job
other organizations or industries. This may be relevant for the
performance, while skill varieties were strongly related to
findings regarding the independent variables that only
satisfaction towards organization. Possibly due to the
specialization was supported. Inconsistent with previous
backgrounds or beliefs of participants used in this study, a
study from Humphrey et al. (2007) that job complexity,
result showing only specialization as being significantly
information processing and skill variety were related to work
related to work outcomes was found. The participants of this
outcomes. It is maybe because of single kind of organization,
study were comprised of teachers from various institutions.
different with Morgeson et al. (2006); Humphrey et al. (2007)
This type of job possibly requires more specialization
which use various kind of organization. Consequently, future
represented through the depth of knowledge and skills
research should examine the generalization of our results in
necessary to complete job requirements. Campion (1988) and
different organizational contexts.
Edwards et al. (2000) declared that although there is only
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ISSN: 2010-0248

Table 1. Means, standard deviations, reliabilities and correlation coefficients matrix (N=252)
Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. Job
3.39 .65 (0.83)
Complexity
2. Information
4.17 .57 -.18** (0.72)
Processing
3. Problem
3.47 .67 .52** -.11 (0.89)
Solving
4. Skill Variety 3.83 .72 -.01 .24** .04 (0.81)
5. Specialization 4.07 .52 -.03 .31** -.05 .41** (0.70)
6. Transfer of
4.08 .50 -.03 .29** -.09 .28** .43** (0.78)
Training
7. Satisfaction to
3.77 .59 .02 .06 -.07 .21** .34** .38** (0.80)
organization
8. Satisfaction to
3.76 .69 -.04 .02 -.00 .09 .21** .28** .36** (0.73)
performance
9. Job
4.06 .41 .14* .28** .16** .25** .42** .54** .34** .35** (0.72)
performance
Note : Values in parentheses represent internal consistency reliabilities (Cronbach’s α) obtained in this study
** p< 0.01 * p<0.05

Table 2: Hierarchical regression analysis results for satisfaction to organization

Satisfaction to organization
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
Independent Variables ß t ß t ß t ß t
1. Education -.19 -3.04** -.20 -3.23** -.21 -3.48** -.23 3.77**
2. Specialization (Sp) .27 3.94** .18 2.54* 1.29 2.84**
3. Transfer of training (Tt) .26 4.02** 1.88 2.93**
4. Sp×Tt -1.87 -2.44*
R2 0.04 0.15 0.20 0.25
ΔR2 0.03 0.12 0.17 0.20
F change 3.32 6.30 16.17 2.82
Sign F change 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.02*
Note ** p< 0.01 * p<0.05

Table 3. Hierarchical regression analysis results for satisfaction to performance

satisfaction to performance
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
Independent Variables ß t ß t ß t ß t
1. Education -.038 -.59 ns
-.030 -.46ns
-.040 -.62 ns -.05 -.83ns
2. Specialization (Sp) .22 3.19** .137 1.91* .75 1.55ns
3. Transfer of training (Tt) .252 3.70** .09 .135ns
4. Sp×Tt -1.04 -1.28ns
R2 0.03 0.08 0.13 0.14
ΔR2 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.09
F change 2.66 2.67 13.68 0.40
Sign F change 0.05 0.02 0.00 0.85
Note ** p< 0.01 * p<0.05

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 International Journal of Innovation, Management and Technology, Vol. 1, No. 2, June 2010
ISSN: 2010-0248

Table 4. Hierarchical regression analysis results for job performance

Job performance
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
Independent Variables ß t ß t ß t ß t
1. Education .18 2.91** .14 2.34* .12 2.28* .13 2.38*
2. Spesialization (Sp) .36 5.66** .22 3.60** .39 .96ns
3. Transfer of training (Tt) .40 7.00** -.08 -.14ns
4. Sp×Tt -.26 -.39ns
R2 0.06 0.25 0.38 0.39
ΔR2 0.04 0.23 0.35 0.36
F change 4.78 12.72 49.02 1.24
Sign F change 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.29
Note ** p< 0.01 * p<0.05

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