INTRODUCTION TO LINGUSTIC

DHAVA ANANDA SYAHRIANDRI

1175030071

CHAPTER 1
1.1 Background

The study of language is conducted within the field of linguistics. Contrary to popular
belief, linguists are not necessarily polyglots individuals fluent in many languages. Instead,
their primary interest is the scientific study of language. Because language is a system of
communication, it is useful to compare it with other systems of communication. For instance,
humans communicate not just through language but through such means as gesture, art,
dress, and music. Although some argue that higher primates such as chimpanzees possess the
equivalent of human language, most animals have their own systems of communication: dogs
exhibit submission by lowering their heads and tails; bees, in contrast, dance (Charles F.
Meyer, 2009, p. 2). A field of inquiry that originated in the work of Ferdinand de Saussure in
a series of lectures published in A Course in General Linguistics (1916).

Many people around the world are familiar with linguists and linguistics. However, they
ust know it that the Linguist is the persons who can speaks many languages. For example, a
language teacher or a tour guide. Alternatively, they may claim that linguistics is the study of
languages. They had no idea what was the correct response or what was linguistics.

Linguistics is the scientific study of natural language. Linguistics concerns itself with
describing and explaining the nature of human language. The science of language is known
as linguistics. Linguists are interested by the similarities and differences among languages.
This is especially true when teaching someone a foreign language. The main goal is to learn
about the 'natural language that humans use every day and how it works. Linguists ask
fundamental questions such as: What aspects of language are universal for all humans. So, a
linguist here refers to a linguist trying to answer such questions, rather than someone who is
multilingual.

1.2 Compilation Purpose

The purpose of this Linguistics compilations is to compilated the lesson of the linguistics
that ever taught by the lecture for students. Because linguistics is multidisciplinary,
specialists in many disciplines bring their own expertise to the study of language.
Psychologists, for instance, are interested in studying language as a property of the human
mind; they have contributed many insights into such topics as how people acquire
 language(Charles F. Meyer, 2009, p. 2) . And completed with the reference, from many
book and searched in internet.
CHAPTER 2

2.1 Linguist

A linguist is someone who studies linguistics with in-depth scientific studies. In other
words, a linguist is someone who specializes in linguistics. Another definition that refers
to a linguist is someone who masters several languages or is called a polyglot and or a
professional language practitioner, such as translators, interpreters, lexicographers, and
others.

A linguist studies many aspects of human language, including sounds (phonetics and
phonology), words (morphology), sentences (syntax), and meaning (semantics and
pragmatics). Another aspect that is also very important and has the highest level in the
linguistic hierarchy is discourse (discourse analysis). In addition to mastering linguistics
theoretically, a linguist needs to have the ability to apply linguistics practically.

2.2 Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of natural language. Linguistics concerns itself with
describing and explaining the nature of human language. The science of language is known as
linguistics. Linguists are interested by the similarities and differences among languages. Much
current work in linguistics has demonstrated that linguistic descriptions are most accurate and
meaningful if they are based on actual examples of spoken and written English rather than on
examples invented by the linguist him or herself.
Linguistics is the scientific study of natural language and is one of the four subfield of
anthropology. Linguistics encompasses a number of sub-fields. An important topical division is
between the study of language structure (grammar) and the study of meaning (semantics and
pragmatics). Grammar encompasses morphology (the formation and composition of words),
syntax (the rules that determine how words combine into phrase and sentences) and phonology
(the study of sound systems and abstract sound units). Phonetics is a related branch of linguistics
concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds (phones), non-speech sounds, and how
they are produced and perceived. Other sub-disciplines of linguistics include the following:
evolutionary linguistics, which considers the origins of language; historical linguistics, which
explores language change: sociolinguistics, which looks at the relation between linguistic
structures; psycholinguistics, which explores the variation and social representation and
functioning of language in the mind; neurolinguistics, which looks at the representation of
language in the brain: language acquisition, which considers how children acquire their first
language and how children and adults acquire and learn their second and subsequent languages;
and discourse analysis. which is concerned with the structure of texts and conversations, and
pragmatics with how meaning is transmitted based on combination of linguistic competence and
the context of the speech act.
linguistics, the scientific study of language. The word was first used in the middle of the
19th century to emphasize the difference between a newer approach to the study of language that
was then developing and the more traditional approach of philology. The differences were and
are largely matters of attitude, emphasis, and purpose. The philologist is concerned primarily
with the historical development of languages as it is manifest in written texts and in the context
of the associated literature and culture. The linguist, though he may be interested in written texts
and in the development of languages through time, tends to give priority to spoken languages and
to the problems of analyzing them as they operate at a given point in time.
In linguistics, it is commonly noted that speech is primary and writing secondary.
Linguists take this position because all languages are spoken (with the exception of dead
languages such as Latin, which now exist only in written form), and only a subset of these
languages are written. All children will naturally acquire the spoken version of a language if they
are exposed to it during the formative period of language acquisition. However, to become
literate, a child will need some kind of formal schooling in reading and writing. In many
respects, though, calling speech “primary” and writing “secondary” unfortunately implies that
writing has a second-class status when compared with speech. It is more accurate to view the two
modes as having different but complementary roles. For instance, in most legal systems, while an
oral contract is legally binding, a written contract is preferred because writing, unlike speech,
provides a permanent record of the contract. Thus, if the terms of the contract are disputed, the
written record of the contract can be consulted and interpreted. Disputes over an oral contract
will involve one person’s recollection of the contract versus another person’s (Charles F. Meyer,
2009, p. 5).
Linguistics studies these phenomena in diverse ways and from various perspectives.
Theoretical linguistics (including traditional descriptive linguistics) is concerned with building
models of these systems, their parts (ontologies), and their combinatorics. Psycholinguistics
builds theories of the processing and production of all these phenomena. These phenomena may
be studied synchronically or diachronically (through history), in monolinguals or polyglots, in
children or adults, as they are acquired or statically, as abstract objects or as embodied cognitive
structures, using texts (corpora) or through experimental elicitation, by gathering data
mechanically, through fieldwork, or through introspective judgment tasks. Computational
linguistics implements theoretical constructs to parse or produce natural language or
homologues. Neurolinguistics investigates linguistic phenomena by experiments on actual brain
responses involving linguistic stimuli.
The field of linguistics may be divided in terms of three dichotomies: synchronic versus
diachronic, theoretical versus applied, and microlinguistics or macrolinguistics. A synchronic
description of a language describes the language as it is at a given time; a diachronic description
is concerned with the historical development of the language and the structural changes that have
taken place in it. The goal of theoretical linguistics is the construction of a general theory of the
structure of language or of a general theoretical framework for the description of languages; the
aim of applied linguistics is the application of the findings and techniques of the scientific study
of language to practical tasks, especially to the elaboration of improved methods of language
teaching.

CHAPTER 3

3.1 Languange
A language is a system of signs (indices, icons, symbols) for encoding and
decoding information. Since language and languages became an object of study (logos)
by the ancient grammarians, the term has had many and different definitions. The English
word derives from Latin lingua, "language, tongue," with a reconstructed Proto-Indo-
European root of *dnghû-, "tongue," a metaphor based on the use of the physical organ in
speech. The ability to use speech originated in remote prehistoric times, as did the
language families in use at the beginning of writing. The processes by which they were
acquired were for the most part unconscious.
In modern times, a large number of artificial languages have been devised,
requiring a distinction between their consciously innovated type and natural language.
The latter are forms of communication considered peculiar to humankind. Although some
other animals make use of quite sophisticated communicative systems, and these are
sometimes casually referred to as animal language, none of these are known to make use
of all the properties that linguists use to define language.
The term "language" has branched by analogy into several meanings. The most
obvious manifestations are spoken languages such as English or Spoken Chinese.
However, there are also written languages and other systems of visual symbols such as
sign languages, In cognitive science the term is also sometimes extended to refer to the
human cognitive facility of creating and using language. Essential to both meanings is the
systematic creation and usage of systems of symbols, each pairing a specific sign with an
intended meaning, established through social conventions.
In the late 19th century Charles Sanders Peirce called this pairing process
semiosis and the study of it semiotics. According to another founder of semiotics, Roman
Jakobson, the latter portrays language as code in which sounds (signantia) signify
concepts (signata). Language is the process of encoding signata in the sounds forming the
signantia and decoding from signantia to signata. Concepts themselves are signantia for
the objective reality being conceived. When discussed as a general phenomenon then,
"language" may imply a particular type of human thought that can be present even when
communication is not the result, and this way of thinking is also sometimes treated as
indistinguishable from language itself. In Western philosophy, language has long been
closely associated with reason, which is also a uniquely human way of using symbols. In
Ancient Greek philosophical terminology, the same word, logos, was a term for both
 language or speech and reason, and the philosopher Thomas Hobbes used the English
word "speech" so that it similarly could refer to reason, as presented below.
3.2 Language Competence
Language competence is abilities that enable them to function more or less
effectively as part of a social order. But, the meaning of your language competence
depends on your reasons for developing it. Are you mainly interested in speaking
proficiency, foreign language literacy, cross-cultural awareness, or knowledge about
language? Is language ability an end to itself, or a means to another end, such as graduate
study, study abroad, preparation for field work or professional practice? There are many
ways to define language ability and to learn and teach languages. Most language teachers
try to include some work in each of the areas listed. When you sign up for a language
course, it worthwhile for you to reflect on your personal reasons for language study, and
communicate these to your teachers so that they will know what matters most to you.
When experts define language competence, they try to be as precise and inclusive as
possible in coping with a very complicated phenomenon. In this section, we will explore
how language is defined by scholars and professionals in language- related areas such as
linguistics, language teaching and anthropology.
One of the best known models of language ability is known as "Communicative
Competence." This model was developed to account for the kinds of knowledge people
need in order to use language in meaningful interaction. The term was originally coined
by anthropologist Dell Hymes as a means of describing the knowledge language users
need in addition to the grammatical forms of the language. The term was then adopted by
the language teaching community after it had been developed into a model for that field
by Michael Canale and Merrill Swain (1980), then by Sandra Savignon (1997).

3.3 Language Universal

In generativist theory, the collection of fundamental properties all languages share
are referred to as universal grammar (UG). The specific characteristics of this universal
grammar are a much debated topic. Typologists and non-generativist linguists usually
refer simply to language universals, or universals of language.
Similarities between languages can have a number of different origins. In the
simplest case, universal properties may be due to universal aspects of human experience.
For example, all humans experience water, and all human languages have a word for
water. Other similarities may be due to common descent: the Latin language spoken by
the Ancient Romans developed into Spanish in Spain and Italian in Italy; similarities
between Spanish and Italian are thus in many cases due to both being descended from
Latin. In other cases, contact between languages- particularly where many speakers are
bilingual – can lead to much borrowing of structures, as well as words. Similarity may
also, of course, be due to coincidence. English much and Spanish mucho are not
 descended from the same form or borrowed from one language to the other, nor is the
similarity due to innate linguistic knowledge. Arguments in favor of language universals
have also come from documented cases of sign languages (such as Al-Sayvid Bedouin
Sign Language) developing in communities of congenitally deaf people, independently of
spoken language.

CHAPTER 4
4.1 Grammar
Grammar is the body of rules describing the properties of the English language A
language is such that its elements must be combined according to certain patterns. This
article is concermed with (and restricted to) morphology, the building blocks of language,
and syntax, the construction of meaningful phrases, clauses and sentences with the use of
morphemes and words.
The grammar of any language is commonly approached in two different ways:
descriptive, usually based on a systematic analysis of a large text corpus and describing
grammatical structures thereupon; and prescriptive, which attempts to use the identified
rules of a given language as a tool to govern the linguistic behaviour of speakers (see
Descriptive linguistics and Linguistic prescription). Prescriptive grammar further
concerns itself with several open disputes in English grammar. often representing
changes in usage over time. This article predominantly concerns itself with descriptive
grammar.
Grammar involves the study of linguistic rules that are part of our linguistic
competence: the unconscious knowledge of the rules of a language that any fluent
speaker possesses. Writing a grammar of a language therefore involves codifying the
rules that are part of any speaker’s linguistic competence: making explicit that in English,
for instance, the voicing of a past tense marker depends upon whether the sound
preceding it is voiced or unvoiced, or that when a pronoun is used as subject of a sentence
the subject form of the pronoun will be used rather than the objective form (Charles F.
Meyer, 2009, p. 9).
There are a number of historical, social and regional variations of the English
language. For example, British English and American English have several lexical
differences; however, the grammatical differences are not equally conspicuous, and will
be mentioned only when appropriate. Further, the many dialects of English have
divergences from the grammar described here; they are only cursorily mentioned. This
article describes a generalized present-day Standard English the form of speech found in
types of public discourse including broadcasting, education, entertainment, government,
and news reporting. Standard English includes both formal and informal speech.

4.2 Descriptive And Prescriptive Grammar

 In linguistics, prescription can refer both to the codification and the enforcement
of rules governing how a language should be used. These rules can cover such topics as
standards for spelling and grammar or syntax, or rules for what is deemed socially or
politically correct or proper. It includes the mechanisms for establishing and maintaining
an interregional language or a standardized spelling system. It can also include
declarations of what particular groups consider to be good taste. If these tastes are
conservative, prescription may be (or appear to be) resistant to language change If they
are radical, prescription may be productive of neologism Prescription can also include
recommendations for effective language usage.
Prescription is contrasted with description. which observes and records how
language is used in practice, and which is the basis of all linguistic research. Serious
scholarly descriptive work is usually based on text or corpus analysis, or on field studies,
but the term "description" includes each individual's observations of their own language
usage. Unlike prescription, descriptive linguistics eschews value judgments and makes no
recommendations.
Prescription and description are often seen as opposites, in the sense that one
declares how language should be while the other declares how language is. But they can
also be complementary, and usually exist in dynamic tension. Many commentators on
language show elements of both prescription and description in their thinking, and
popular debate on language issues frequently revolves around the question of how to
balance these

4.3 Phonology
Phonology makes use of the phonetics in order to see how sounds or signs are
arranged in a system for each language. In phonology, it matters whether sounds are
contrastive or not, that is, whether substituting one sound for another gives a different, or
"contrastive," meaning. For example in English, [r] and [l] are two different sounds - and
the words "road" and "load" differ according to which of these sounds is used. But in
some languages, [r] and [l] are variations of the same sound. They could never make a
meaning difference in words that differ by only that sound. Phonologists describe the
contrastive consonants and vowels in a language, and how pronunciation is affected by
the position of the sound in the word and the sounds that are nearby. They are also
interested in syllables, phrases, rhythm, tone, and intonation.

4.4 Phonetics
Phonetics is the study of the sounds of speech. It includes understanding how
sounds are made using the mouth, nose, teeth and tongue, and also understanding how the
ear hears those sounds and can tell them apart. A study of phonetics involves practicing
producing (sometimes exotic) sounds, and figuring out which sound you heard. The wave
 form of each sound can be analysed with the help of computer programs. In sign
language, phonetics refers to the the possible shapes, movements and use of physical
space.

4.5 Morphology
Morphology looks at how individual words are formed from smaller chunks of
meaningful units called morphemes. For example, the English word 'untied' is really
made up of three parts, one refering to the process of reversing an action (un-), one
indicating the action of twisting stringlike things together so they stay (tie), and the last
indicating that the action happened in the past (-d). Many languages have a much more
complex way of putting words together. Morphology interacts in important ways with
both phonology (bringing sounds together can cause them to change) and syntax, which
needs to pay attention to the form of a word when it combines it with other words.

4.6 Syntax
Syntax is the study of how phrases, clauses and sentences are constructed and
combined in particular languages. Writing a grammar requires defining the rules that
govern the structure of the sentences of the language. Such rules involve both the order of
words, and the form of words in their various possible positions. There are common
patterns among even unrelated languages, and many linguists believe this is the result of
general principles which apply to most, if not all, languages. For example, languages
where the direct object generally follows the verb have a lot of things in common, in
contrast to the things in common held by languages in which the direct object generally
precedes the verb.

4.7 Semantic
Semantics is the study of meaning. It focuses on the relation between words,
phrases and other bits of language and on how these words and phrases connect to the
world. Pragmatics is similar, but it involves the study of how speakers of a language use
the language to communicate and accomplish what they want. Pragmatics looks more at
the relationship between speaker and listener which allows assumptions to be made about
the intended message, considering, for example, the way context contributes to meaning.
A classic example is where someone is asked "Do you want some coffee?" Does the reply
"Coffee will keep me awake" mean yes or no? It depends whether the person wants to
stay awake - and the questioner will only understand the intended meaning if they know
whether the person wants to stay awake. 
4.8 Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is the study of society and language. Sociolinguists may use
surveys to examine in which contexts a language is used (e.g. market, home, school,
workplace) and the attitudes to each language (particularly in multilingual contexts).
They may look at ways that variation in a particular language correlates with social
factors such as speaker age, ethnic identity, location, etc. For more information on
sociolinguistics, see here.

4.9 Psycholinguistics
Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and
neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce
language. Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures, đue
mainly to a lack of cohesive data on how the human brain functioned. Modern research
makes use of biology. neuroscience, cognitive science, linguistics, and information theory
to study how the brain processes language. There are a number of subdisciplines with
non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain; for example,
neurolinguistics has become a field in its own right. Psycholinguistics covers the
cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful
sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make
it possible to understand utterances, words, text, etc. Developmental psycholinguistics
studies children's ability to learn language.

CHAPTER 5
So, the conclusion is Linguistics is the study of language - how it is put together and how it
functions. Various building blocks of different types and sizes are combined to make up a
language. Sounds are brought together and sometimes when this happens, they change their form
and do interesting things. Words are arranged in a certain order, and sometimes the beginnings
and endings of the words are changed to adjust the meaning. Then the meaning itself can be
affected by the arrangement of words and by the knowledge of the speaker about what the hearer
will understand. Linguistics is the study of all of this. There are various branches of linguistics
which are given their own name, some of which are described below. Linguists are people who
study linguistics.

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