GRAMMAR GUIDELINES

1.4. Language focus: The Noun

1.4.1. The Noun

Study the following nouns from the text; can you detect any difference?

Business – businesses: His business is buying and selling shoes. – There are different types of
businesses.

Introduction – introductions: The introduction of the book is interesting. – He made the

introductions.

People – peoples: People think he is a successful businessman. – Peoples in Asia are different
from peoples in Europe.

Manner – manners: He has a self-confident manner. – You should study business manners.

Silence – no plural: Silence in the room!

Countable nouns
Form: Sg./ pl.: office/ offices; businessman/ businessmen
Determiners for Countables: the article (a, an, the), the numeral (one, two etc.), some, many,
several, a lot of etc.

Uncountable nouns
Form: They have only one form: milk, tea, coffee, information, news, trouble etc.
Determiners for Uncountables: little, a little, some (of), much (of), enough, the, no, zero article
Ø, any, more, most (of the), a lot of (the), some, all (of) the, a great/ small amount of, a bit of
(informal), a piece of, a loaf/ slice of (bread), a lump of (sugar) etc.

Use:
a lot of - in positive sentences: I have a lot of work.
much – in negative sentences and questions:
There isn’t much work to do. Have you got much work to do?
some – in positive sentences and in questions when the expected answer is ‘yes’:
I have some good news. Would you like some tea?
any – in negative sentences and questions:
He didn’t make any progress. Is there any good news?
no – in negative sentences with a positive verb:
He has no experience at all.

Uncountable nouns:
 Materials/ substances: oxygen, water, petrol, bread, chocolate, cheese, coffee, cream,
gold, hair, jam, oil, paper, snow, wind, wood

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  abstract nouns: heat, science, mathematics, economics, love, hate, happiness, advice,
experience, fun, help, health, information, knowledge, progress, weather, work
 nouns that are uncountable in English but are often countable in other languages:
accommodation, music, equipment, furniture, homework, luggage, rubbish, traffic

Rule: Uncountables + Vb. in the sg.: Mathematics is important.

Always take a verb in singular: information, homework, advice, intelligence, wisdom, money,
luggage, knowledge, justice, nonsense, news, furniture, politics, economics, phonetics, measles,
sugar, bread, butter, fruit, gold, silver, jam, honey etc.
The plural is suggested by adding: three pieces/ items of… several/ many pieces of…

Always take a verb in plural: glasses, clothes, scissors, pyjamas, pants, trousers, scales, goods,
premises, savings, outskirts, grounds, compasses, pincers, scales, spectacles, tongs, scissors,
earnings, funds, manners, savings, stairs, contents, wages

Foreign plurals

analysis – analyses
crisis – crises
datum – data
memorandum – memoranda
phenomenon – phenomena
formula – formulae
focus – foci
index – indices
index - indexes

2.4. Language focus: The Article. The Gerund

Notice the use of the article – definite, indefinite, zero – in the following sentences:
“But a question arises here” (par. 3)
“The Internet is also…” (par. 7)
“…Ø technology promises more and more Ø information for less and less Ø effort” (par. 8)

The Article

The Indefinite Article

Form: a, an
Used: only with countables (not to be used with uncountables!)
He has an interesting job.
She is a secretary.

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The Definite Article
Form: the
Used with: countable nouns – singular and plural (the chair/ the chairs); uncountable nouns (the
rain, the news)
He is the man I told you about.

The Zero Article: Ø

Used:
with abstractions: Ø Fear is dangerous.
with proper names: I will meet Ø Tom tomorrow.
with nouns of material: I like Ø silver.

Phrases with indefinite/ definite/ zero article

indefinite:
to indicate frequency, speed, cost: once a month, 20 km an hour, $2 a pound
in exclamations: What a shame! What a pity! What a mess!

Definite:
With the meaning “only one”: the Parliament, the police, the zoo
for nationalities: the Romanians, the British
+ adjectives, to indicate a class: the rich, the poor
for regions, mountain ranges, oceans, seas: the Carpathians, the Black Sea
for hotels, restaurants, pubs, theatres, cinemas: The Continental, The National Theatre

Ø
for institutions (used for their main purpose) – schools, hospitals, churches, universities: I go to
school. The school is far away.
for names of meals: Let’s have dinner. (The dinner was good.)
for cities, countries, continents: Bucharest, France, Europe (but: the USA, the UK)
for mountains and lakes: Mount Everest, Lake Michigan
for streets: East Street

The Gerund

Look at the examples:

It is cheaper to search for info on the Internet than buying a book. (par. 6)
Wisdom comes not from keeping up-to-date or compiling facts. (par. 8)

Form:
Present gerund: short infinitive + ing: reading, writing, buying
Perfect gerund: having + past participle: having read, having written, having bought

Used after:
verbs: begin, start, go on, keep on, stop, leave off, give up, finish: He started working.
attempt, try, intend, can’t help: I can’t help arguing.
To avoid, delay, put off, postpone, excuse, want, need, mind: Avoid buying cigarettes.
adverbs: like, worth: It’s worth going.

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think of/ persist in/ rely on/ depend on/ thank for/ prevent from/ insist on/ succeed in/ etc.

adjective or past participles: fond of, tired of, used to

nouns + of: hope, intention, difficulty, necessity, possibility, habit, idea, risk, method, way,
custom

3.4. Language focus: The Adjective and the Adverb

3.4.1. The Adjective and the Adverb

The Adjective
Consider the following expressions from the text “Silence A Hidden Business Tool” and notice
the use of adjectives and adverbs:
 “important detail”, “oriented tasks”, “complex issues”, “vital initiative”, “greater
knowledge”
 “You’ll get it done faster”, “Remain still and silent”, “to better understand”

Look for some other adjectives and adverbs in the text.

The Positive degree

rich; expensive

The Comparative Degree

Of equality: (almost) as rich as
Of inferiority: Not so/ as big as, less rich than, less expensive than, much less expensive than
Of superiority: Richer than, far/ slightly richer than, more expensive than, much more expensive
than

The Superlative
Relative: The richest, the most expensive
Absolute: very rich/ expensive
Of inferiority: the least rich/ expensive

Ways of intensifying the comparison:

by repetition: It gets darker and darker.
with: far, still, ever, much, a great deal,……:The event has even greater significance than he
thought.
“the + comparative … the + comparative”: The sooner, the better.
with: extremely, terribly, exceedingly, quite: It is an extremely attractive salary.
with: far, by far: It’s far more interesting than we thought.

The Irregular Comparison of Adjectives

Positive Comparative Superlative

good better the best
bad worse the worst
much more the most
many more the most
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 little less the least
late later the latest (in time)
late the latter (the last from two) the last (in a sequence)
far farther the farthest (in space)
far further (additional) the furthest (abstract)
old older the oldest
old elder (attributively) the eldest

The Adverb
Form: adjective + ly
Rapid –rapidly, quick – quickly, simple - simply
Careful-carefully, faithful – faithfully
adv. + ward(s): backward(s), eastward(s), ………..
noun+ long: headlong, sidelong,……….
Formed by composition: Somewhere, meantime, beforehand, midway………….

Identical adverbs and adjectives

Adjective Adverb Example

fast fast The fast car races fast.
long long After such a long meeting, will you stay here long?
much much He doesn’t eat much because we don’t have much bread.
little little He speaks little because there is little time left.
low low A low price toy plane flies low.

Make the difference:

hard work: He works hard (very much). He hardly works (he does almost nothing).
high mountain: The plane flies high. The report was highly (very) useful for us.
new colleague:
light parcel: I travel light (without luggage). Don’t judge her lightly (superficially).
Short letter: He shut up short (all of a sudden). We will return shortly (very soon).

Use the dictionary and build correct sentences for the next two:
Quick/ quickly
Loud/ loudly

Comparison of adverbs
A.
Soon – sooner – soonest
Fast – faster – fastest
B.
Correctly – more correctly – most correctly
Comfortably – more comfortably – the most comfortably

Irregular forms of comparison

Well – better – best
Badly – worse – worst
Much – more – most
Little – less – least
Far – farther/ further – farthest/ furthest
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Near – nearer – nearest/ next
Late – later – latest

Types of adverbs:
Adverbs of Manner: + ly: happily, easily, angrily, truly, sensibly, reasonably, comfortably,
automatically, beautifully, carefully, secretly, severely // hard, fast, well
Their place is after the verb.

Adverbs of time/ frequency: Now, yesterday, still, yet, already, early, late, soon, recently, lately
(=recently), afterwards, lately, soon, yesterday, since Monday, on Thursday; ever, never, often,
always (before the main verb). Adverb phrases of time can start with: since, for, at once, until,
then.
Their place is: at the beginning/ end of sentence (now, yesterday, soon); between Subject and
Predicate: I usually write memos.; between the auxiliary and the verb: They have never met him.

Adverbs of place: here, there, away, abroad, south, below, upstairs, next do, close to, anywhere,
everywhere, at home

Their place is after the verb.

Adverbs of degree: fairly, hardly, just, quite, really, very, extremely

Their place is before the adjective or adverb they modify: They really should stop arguing.
Sentence adverbs: actually, anyway, of course – they indicate what we feel about a whole
sentence: Actually, he is a good manager.

The order of adverbs: manner, place, time: They worked hard on the project yesterday.
The position in the sentence:

between S and P: They often visit us.

After the verb to be, when this is the main verb of the sentence: They are always late.
After the first auxiliary, modal or link verb: Businessmen have always tried to be successful.

Prepositions used in adverbial phrases: throughout, during, in, for, since

e.g.: She was ill throughout the holiday.
I’ll go to Paris in July.
I’ve played the violin for five years.

Adjectives and adverbs that make stronger sentences

Adjectives: absolute, complete, real, total: The meeting was a complete success/ a total disaster.
Adverbs: absolutely, completely, totally: I completely agree with him.
Very, extremely: He is extremely known in his field.
Really: It’s a really big success.

Adjectives and adverbs that make weaker sentences

fairly, quite, pretty, slightly: The results were slightly appreciated by the committee. He is quite a
good negotiator.

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1.4. Language focus: The Genitive

1.4.1. The Genitive

Consider the following examples:

“the owner’s liability” (par. 2)

“The nation’s farms” (par. 3)
“the number of partnerships” (par. 4)
“the key feature of corporations” (par. 6)

‘s in the examples above indicates the Genitive

Look for some other examples with the same problem in paragraphs 7 and 8.

The Genitive indicates possession.

Types of Genitive

The Synthetic Genitive: ‘s

Used with:
persons: Roger’s suitcase
abstractions: economics’ importance
measurements: a mile’s distance; five minutes’ time, today’s meeting
nouns indicating natural phenomena: the night’s silence
nouns indicating continents, countries, cities: Africa’s animals, Romania’s agriculture, London’s
traffic
nouns such as: the sun, the moon, the earth, car, ship, boat, vessel, body, mind, science: the
ship’s commander, the sun’s light
time: yesterday’s film

Note: the nouns: house, shop, store, office, cathedral are usually omitted after nouns at synthetic
genitive: St. Paul’s (cathedral) is a historical monument. // One can buy bread at the baker’s
(shop).

The Analytic Genitive

Used with:
all kinds of nouns: the decrease of the income
names of material: the shine of gold
expressions of quantity: a lump of sugar
full containers: a glass of water
inanimate things: the windows of the house

The Implicit Genitive

Used with:

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scientific terms: economy laws

titles: The European Union Parliament, The United Natio2.4. Language focus:
Prepositions

2.4.1. Prepositions

Form; type:

Simple: over, to, by, at, under etc.

Derived: beside, between, before etc.
Compound: upon, within, into etc.
Complex: instead of, because of, up to, according to etc.
Prepositional phrases: in front of, in spite of, on behalf of, with respect to etc.

Mark some of their lexical contexts:

verbs + prepositions: borrow sth. from, deal with, introduce someone to, laugh about sth., laugh
at someone, lend sth. to, pay for, wait for, apologize to/ for, argue about, ask someone about/ for,
complain about, confess to, explain sth. to, negotiate with, talk about/ to, thank someone for,
ashamed of, believe in, dream about, hope for, worry about

adjectives + prepositions: amused at/ by/ about, excited about, good at, interested in, kind of/ to,
nice to/ of/ about, pleased with, proud of, afraid of, anxious about, frightened of, scared of,
terrified of, ashamed of, bad at, bored with/ by, critical of, disappointed in, fed up with/ about,
suspicious of, upset about, worried about, amazed at/ by, angry at/ with, annoyed at/ by/ about,
surprised at/ by, different from, full of, engaged to, identical to, married to, responsible for,
similar to, sure about, used to

nouns + prepositions: advantage of, addiction to, connection with/ between, damage to,
disadvantage of, exception to/ of, increase in, reaction to, sympathy for, cheque for, friend of,
invitation to, photograph of, recipe for, reply to, witness to

Prepositions in time and place phrases

At:

time: at noon/ down/ five

place: at 22 Trafalgar Square/ at York

In:

time: in the morning/ in the afternoon/ in the evening/ in spring/ in May/ in 2003
place: in America, in England, in New York, in …….Street

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On:

time: on Sunday/ on the 22nd of June

place: on Fifth Avenue

Prepositions + gerund: capable of, charged with, begin by etc.

3.4. Language focus: Relative Pronouns. Indefinite Pronouns/Adjectives. Demonstrative

Pronouns and Adjectives

3.4.1. Relative pronouns. Indefinite Pronouns/Adjectives. Demonstrative pronouns and

adjectives

Relative pronouns

Read the following examples and look for others in the text:

someone who owns (par. 1)

…which are specialized (par. 1)
the corporation whose stock is traded (par. 1)
…corporation that wants (par. 2)
…bonds which are…(par. 3)

Who/ whom (who)/ whose: used for persons:

The secretary who wrote that report was fired.
The secretary whose report was bad was fired.
The secretary whom (who) you know was fired.

Which: used for things

The report which you read was a bad report.
The report whose content was boring was written by Mary.

That: used both for persons and things

The secretary that wrote the report……….
The report that you read……………..

Indefinite Pronouns/ Adjectives: Some, any, no

Read the following examples:
Some companies pay… (par. 2)
… to pay off any bonds it has issued before any money is returned…(par. 3)
some of the profits… (par. 4)

Some: pronoun or adjective

Used: in affirmative sentences: We have to visit some subsidiaries. (adj.) They must also visit
some. (pron.)

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Any: pronoun or adjective
Used:
 in negative sentences: He hasn’t any work to do.
 after hardly, scarcely, barely: There are barely any suggestions to be made in this matter.
 in interrogative sentences: Does he have any chance to win?
 to express doubt; after if: If he meets any of you, he will surely help you.
 To express ‘no particular one’, ‘practically every’: Any suggestion you have may help.

No: adjective
Used: in affirmative sentences, to express negative meaning: There are no bankruptcies to be
mentioned.
Some/ any/ no/ every + thing// body// one: something, somebody/ someone………..

Other indefinite pronouns: each, all, another, (the) other(s), little, much, few, many, one, either
(of), neither (of)

Observation: The indefinite pronouns anybody/ anyone, anything, everybody/ everyone,

everything, nobody/ no one, nothing, somebody/ someone, something: used with the verb in the
singular

Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives

some of those profits… (par. 4)
that option will reduce…(par. 2)
Find the other demonstrative pronouns/ adjectives from the text and underline them.

This/ that
These/ those
This book here is different from that book there. (adj) I take this and not that. (pron.)
These people here will meet those people there. (adj.) These are engineers and those are
businessmen. (pron.)

Such
Used in the following structures:
such + a/an + noun: such a business/ such an office…..
such + noun (pl.): Such products are……..
such + noun (pl.) + as: You have to consider such conditions as………..

1.4. Language focus: Reflexive Pronouns

1.4.1. Reflexive Pronouns

Look at the following example of a reflexive pronoun:

They are thus called upon to commit themselves to maximum performance and investment of
their full potential in teams and project.

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Fill in with the suitable reflexive pronoun forms:

I
you
he
she
it
we
you
they themselves

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2.4. Language focus: The tense system: Present Simple vs. Present Continuous

2.4.1. The tense system: Present Simple vs. Present Continuous

Compare:

Human resources management works in close collaboration with senior executives.

(permanent situation)

Jane is working for Mr. Jones this week because his secretary is on holiday.
(temporary situation)

Present Simple
Form: short infinitive;! 3rd pers. sg: + s;? do/ does(3rd pers. sg.); - don’t/ doesn’t
He writes. Does he write? Yes, he does/ No, he doesn’t.

It indicates:
- habitual actions/ regular, repeated actions: He goes to work at 7 every morning.
- general truths, permanent situations: The sun shines.
- planned future actions, performed according to a schedule: The train leaves at 8
o’clock.
Specific adverbs: every day/ month/ year…, often, usually, always, never

Present Continuous
Form: to be (in the present) + verb + -ing
It indicates:
- an action happening now: I am reading now.
- an action happening in a limited period of time, a temporary situation: I am
writing the paper today.
- an arrangement in the near future: We are visiting them next week.
- complaints about bad habits: Why are you always interrupting?

! STATE VERBS ARE NOT normally used in the continuous form:

- verbs of perception: see, hear, smell, feel, notice, recognize
- verbs of emotion: want, refuse, forgive, wish, like, hate, dislike, prefer
- verbs of mental activities: think, understand, know, mean, believe, suppose,
remember, forget, realize
- verbs of possession: have, own, possess, belong
- verbs of appearance/ seeming: seam, signify, appear (= to seem), contain, consist,
keep (= to continue), concern, matter
- the auxiliaries; exception: to have = to eat: I am having lunch.

Their progressive meaning is suggested by using CAN in front of some of them: I can hear. He
can see.

3.4. Language focus: The tense system: Past Simple vs. Past Continuous

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3.4.1. The tense system: Past Simple vs. Past Continuous

Simple Past
Form:
Regular verbs: - ed: worked, dropped, played, tried
Irregular verbs: 2nd form: see, saw; write, wrote; buy, bought

Interrogative: Did he buy?

Negative: did not/ didn’t

It indicates:
- a past, finished action, having no connection with the present: He told me to be
punctual. When I was 20 I lived in London.
- An action performed in the past: We met two weeks ago.
- a past habit: He played football twice a week. = He used to play… = He would
play…..
Specific adverbs: yesterday, last week/ month/ year…, two days/ months/ years….ago, when

Past Continuous/Progressive

Form: to be (in the past tense) + verb + -ing

I was running.
Was I running?
Yes, I was. No, I wasn’t.

It indicates:
- past actions in progress: I was writing when he entered the room.
- gradual development: It was getting cold.
- Parallel actions in the past, one of which is in development: We listened to the
radio while we were having lunch.
- A gradual action, interrupted by a past, momentary action: I was writing when he
entered.
- An action continuing, especially after the time it was expected to finish: At ten I
was still reading.
Specific adverbs: at….o’ clock, at that time, this time yesterday, this time last month…

!!! Simple and Progressive Past

while, as, when, whenever introduce the Past Progressive:
While/ as I was crossing the street, I saw him.
When I was talking to him, she came in.
They listened carefully whenever he was delivering a speech.

1.4. Language focus: The tense system: Present Perfect Simple

1.4.1. The tense system: Present Perfect Simple

The verbs in bold in the following sentence are in the Present Perfect tense.

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You have just graduated (preferably in business administration) at university level or you have
already worked for several years at a consumer goods producer (cosmetics experience is
beneficial).

Form: to have (in the present) + the Past Participle

I have seen her. /Have I seen her?/ Yes, I have. No, I haven’t.

It indicates:
- action begun in the past that continues in the present: I have known him for two
years.
Specific adverbs: for, (ever) since, all day, often, seldom, ever, never always, yet

- past action with results in the present: He has broken his leg.
Specific adverbs: already, recently, lately, so far, till now, up to now, up to the present,

- just finished action: He has just entered. Have you seen him yet?
Specific adverbs: just, yet, already
- an action that has been completed: They have repaired the fax.

2.4. Language focus: The tense system: Present Perfect Continuous

2.4.1. The tense system: Present Perfect Continuous

Present Perfect Continuous/ Progressive

Form: to be (in the present perfect) + verb + ing:
He has been writing for two hours. Has he been writing?/ Yes, he has. No, he hasn’t.

It indicates:
- an action or situation in progress (and not the completion of that action): I have
been reading the book.
- Temporary actions or situations: I’ve been living in London (for two years).
- Actions in the recent past we know about because of a present evidence: You are
wet. You have been walking in the rain.
- Actions indicating ‘how long’ something has been going on: How long have you
been playing chess?

!!!!!!
If you want to emphasize a situation in progress and not its completion present perfect
progressive can be used with verbs like: see, hear, look, taste, smell, want, realize, remember:
I’ve been wanting to meet you for ages.

But
If you want to emphasize the completion of the action, present perfect is used: I’ve always
wanted a good computer.

- there are verbs that suggest an action in progress by their meaning: live, rain, sit,
study, wait, work (they can be used both with the present perfect simple and the
present perfect progressive, with little difference in meaning): He has worked/ has
been working in this office for two years.

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3.4. Language focus: The Subjunctive

3.4.1. The Subjunctive

Form:
Synthetic: present subjunctive: identical with the short infinitive: be, have, work….
It indicates:
- a possible action: It is necessary that you be here. It is important that the president
inform the investors…
- expressions: Suffice it to say…. So be it!

Synthetic: past subjunctive: identical with the past tense simple

It indicates:
- an action contrary to reality: I wish I were a doctor. (but I’m not) It’s time you
went home. She behaved as if she were the headmaster.

It is used after:
- if, if only, as if, as though
- wish (to indicate regret, an unreal fact)
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! The synthetic subjunctive is rarely used.

Analytical:
Form:
Should/ would/ may/ might/ could + short infinitive
Should/ would/ may/ might/ could + perfect infinitive
It indicates:
- hypothetical facts/actions (suppositions, doubts, conditions, concessions,
purposes): They took the airplane so that they might arrive in time.
- A less probable condition: If he should succeed, I will be happy.
- In negative purpose sentences, after lest, for fear, in case: They paid for fear they
shouldn’t get the merchandise.

It is used with:
- impersonal expressions: it is advisable/ important/ essential/ desirable/ possible/
likely/ probable/ strange/ unusual/ impossible/ (un)fortunate/, remarkable,
surprising: It is important that the chairman should call the meeting.
- it is/ was a pity/ shame/ surprise/ wonder: It was a pity (that) they should be fired.
- the nouns: idea, hint, thought, reason, supposition: The idea that they should be
present annoyed her.
- the verbs: command, order, demand, insist, request, suggest, propose, arrange,
offer, agree, settle: They requested the goods should be delivered fast.
- adjectives: to be + glad, anxious, pleased, sorry: I was glad that he should
graduate this summer.
- After: although, though, whatever, however, no matter: He will win whatever he
should do. // so that: They phoned so that I wouldn’t be taken by surprise. I took
the money so that they could buy the firm.

1.4. Language focus: The tense system: Means of expressing future

1.4.1. The tense system: Means of expressing future

The verbs in bold in the following sentences express the idea of future.

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If our authorities cannot solve our problem, we will address the European Court of Justice.
We are going to start a new business in Holland after the business plan is agreed on by all
parties.

There are several ways in which one can express future in English:
1. will + the short infinitive of the verb: He will come. Will he come?
Yes, he will. No, he will not (won’t).
It indicates: a future event/ activity
2. Be going to + short infinitive: I am going to read this book.
It indicates: intention, probability
3. Be to + short infinitive: He is to deliver a speech.
It indicates: a future action very close to the moment of speaking
4. simple present: The train leaves at 9 o’clock.
It indicates: a future action, included in a schedule
5. present continuous: We are visiting our subsidiary in London.
It indicates: an arrangement for immediate future

Specific adverbs: tomorrow, the day after tomorrow, next month/ week, year…, soon, shortly, in
a month’s time, in three months’ time, etc.

2.4. Language focus: The tense system: Future Continuous/ Progressive

2.4.1. The tense system: Future Continuous/ Progressive

The verb in bold in the following sentence is in the Future Continuous tense:

Will you be meeting the president of the board tomorrow?

Form: to be (in the future) + verb + ing: I will be writing. Will I be writing? Yes, I will. No, I
won’t.

It indicates:
- a developing action in the future: Tomorrow we will be reading all day long.
Specific adverbs: in a minute, in a second, at one o’clock, at noon, tomorrow, this time next
week/ month/ year…, all day long, all day tomorrow, all the week through, from two to five, by
then, by that time tomorrow, all the time

- an action in progress, related to a conditional or a time clause: When I return,

Tom will be watching TV.
- A future action, part of a schedule: What will you be doing tomorrow? I will be
swimming.
A polite way of asking about someone’s plans: Will you be meeting them tomorrow?

3.4. Language focus: The tense system: Future Perfect

3.4.1. The tense system: Future Perfect

The verb in bold in the following sentence is in the Future Perfect tense.

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We hope that by 2010 Romania will have become a member of the European Union.

Form: will + have + past participle: I will have managed to deliver the goods. Will I have
managed…? Yes, I will. No, I won’t.
It indicates:
- a future action that will take place before a certain moment in the future or before
another future action: We will have met them by 4 o’clock tomorrow. // He will
have posted the letter before you have time to complain.
- A supposition, referring to the past: They will have found out from newspapers.
- Adverbs: by, before, by the time

1.4. Language focus: The tense system: Past Perfect

1.4.1. The tense system: Past Perfect

Form: had + Past Participle: I went to work after I had finished my lunch. Had I finished…? Yes,
I had. No, I hadn’t.

It indicates:
- a past, completed action that takes place before another past action: He gave me
the book when he had finished reading it.
- An action finished before a certain moment in the past: I had written the paper by
ten o’ clock.
The Past Perfect is not compulsory when after and before establish the sequence of the actions.

2.4. Language focus: The tense system: Past Perfect Continuous

2.4.1. The tense system: Past Perfect Continuous

Form: to be (in the past perfect) + verb + ing: I had been writing. Had I been writing? Yes, I had.
No, I hadn’t.

It indicates: a past action in development before another past action and also continuing that
moment: When he came she had been reading for two hours.

!!!!!!!!!!!!
often used in past perfect and past perfect progressive sentences: when, after, as soon as, before,
by the time
e.g. After they had been quarrelling for minutes, I asked them to stop.
We had been waiting for weeks before we got the money.
They had been negotiating for hours by the time I got there.

3.4. Language focus: The tense system: Revision

3.4.1. The tense system: Revision

Simple tenses – Continuous tenses

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Present Simple Present Continuous/Progressive

used for actions in the present, for things that used for actions or events that are happening or
are always true or that happen regularly, and developing now, for future plans, or to show
for opinions and beliefs that an event is repeated

I/we/you/they enjoy (do not enjoy) I am enjoying (am not enjoying)

he/she/it enjoys (does not enjoy) we/you/they are enjoying (are not enjoying)
he/she/it is enjoying (is not enjoying)

Past Simple Past Continuous/Progressive

used for completed actions and events in the used for actions or events in the past that were
past not yet finished or that were interrupted

I was enjoying (was not enjoying)

I/we/you/they enjoyed (did not enjoy) we/you/they were enjoying (were not
he/she/it enjoyed (did not enjoy) enjoying)
he/she/it was enjoying (was not enjoying)

Future Simple Future Continuous/Progressive

used for actions and events in the future used for actions or events in the future that will
continue into the future

I/we/you/they will enjoy (will not enjoy) I/we/you/they will be enjoying

he/she/it will enjoy (will not enjoy) (will not be enjoying)
he/she/it will be enjoying
(will not be enjoying)

Perfect tenses – Continuous tenses

Present Perfect Present Perfect Continuous/ Progressive

used to show that an event happened or an used for actions or events that started in the
action was completed at some time before the past but are still happening now, or for past
present actions which only recently finished and whose
effects are seen now

I/we/you/they have enjoyed I/we/you/they have been enjoying

(have not enjoyed) (have not been enjoying)
he/she/it has enjoyed he/she/it has been enjoying
(has not enjoyed) (has not been enjoying)

Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous/Progressive

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usually used to show that an event happened or used for actions or events that happened for a
an action was completed before a particular period of time but were completed before a
time in the past particular time in the past

I/we/you/they had enjoyed I/we/you/they had been enjoying

(had not enjoyed) (had not been enjoying)
he/she/it had enjoyed he/she/it had been enjoying
(had not enjoyed) (had not been enjoying)

Future Perfect Future Perfect Continuous/Progressive

used to show that something will be used for actions or events that will already be
completed before a particular time in the happening at a particular time in the future
future
I/we/you/they will have been enjoying
I/we/you/they will have enjoyed (will not have been enjoying)
(will not have enjoyed) he/she/it will have been enjoying
he/she/it will have enjoyed (will not have been enjoying)
(will not have enjoyed)

1.4. Language focus: Numerals

1.4.1. Numerals

Look for these words in the text:

“these three phases” (par. 1)

“for the first… the second…the third…” (par. 1)

Numerals

Number Cardinal number Ordinal number

1 One The first
2 Two The second
3 Three The third
4 Four The fourth
5 Five The fifth
6 Six The sixth
7 Seven The seventh
8 Eight The eighth
9 Nine The ninth
10 Ten The tenth
11 Eleven The eleventh
12 Twelve The twelfth
13 Thirteen The thirteenth

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 14 Fourteen The fourteenth
15 Fifteen The fifteenth
16 Sixteen The sixteenth
17 Seventeen The seventeenth
18 Eighteen The eighteenth
19 Nineteen The nineteenth
20 Twenty The twentieth
21 Twenty one The twenty-first
30 Thirty The thirtieth
40 Forty The fortieth
50 Fifty The fiftieth
60 Sixty The sixtieth
70 Seventy The seventieth
80 Eighty The eightieth
90 Ninety The ninetieth
100 A/ one hundred The one hundredth
200 Two hundred The two hundredth
201 Two hundred and one The two hundred and first
1, 000 A/ one thousand The one thousandth
2, 000 Two thousand The two thousandth
1, 000, 000 A/ one million The one millionth
2, 000, 000 Two million The two millionth

Mathematical operations: plus +; minus -; divided by :; times, multiplied by *; equals =

The right word order: ordinal number, cardinal number: The first two chapters are useful.
Use: comma for thousands: 1, 000, 000 and point for decimals: 1. 23
Hundred, thousand, million do not get “s” when accompanied by numerals: five hundred/
thousand/ million BUT: Hundreds of people/ thousands of flowers/ millions of stars

2.4. Language focus: Modal Verbs

2.4.1. Modal Verbs

Read the following examples from the text:

Later on… you may be able… (par. 4)
You must enter as an immigrant… (par. 5)
The job seeker…should be prepared… (par. 4)
A college in foreign commerce would definitely help… (par. 1)

Modals
May
Form: may// May he?// may not
It indicates:
possibility: He may come today. (to be possible)
Probability: We may get that contract. (to be probable)
Permission: You may leave. (to be allowed/ to be permitted)

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Might
Form: might/ might he// might not
It indicates:
- NOT the past of may BUT a stronger possibility/ probability/ uncertainty: You might be right
(but I strongly doubt).

Must
Form: must// Must he……..?// must not = mustn’t
It indicates:
necessity/ obligation imposed by the speaker: I must be punctual.
invitation, emphatic affirmation: You must see the exhibition.
Probability, logical necessity: He must be at home.
An unexpected/ contrary action: They must annoy us with their problems!

It is replaced by: to have to, to be obliged/ forced/ compelled to….

Should
Form: should// Should you?// should not = shouldn’t
It indicates:
obligation: You should be present at the meeting.
Instructions/ advice: He should welcome them at the airport.
Expectation: The business should be profitable.
Past, unfulfilled expectation: They should have discussed the matter in detail.

Ought to
Form: ought to/ ought not to
It indicates
moral obligation: You ought to visit him at the hospital
duty: You ought to write that report.
Not a very strong obligation in the past, present or future: He ought to play chess that day/ now/
to morrow.
Advisability: You ought to organise that meeting as soon as possible.
Necessity: He ought to be present at the conference.
Desirable, not performed action: You ought to have helped them. They ought not to have gone
there alone.
Supposition, probability: You ought to communicate them the decision by now.

Would
Form: would/ would you?/ would not = wouldn’t
It indicates:
polite request: Would you listen more carefully?
Opposition/ resistance/ unwillingness: They would not meet us.
Past habit = used to: I would stay in that chair, drink my tea and read a book.
Invitation: Would you have some more cake?
Refusal (in the negative): I wouldn’t accept that.
Criticism of somebody’s behaviour: She would keep talking without listening to her friends.

3.4. Language focus: Active/Passive Voice

3.4.1. Active/Passive Voice

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Look at these examples:

Performances are held everywhere (3)

His photographs were exhibited…………..were presented (5)
Works that have never been shown (5)
Life couldn’t be imagined (6)

Active/ Passive Voice

Rule: to be (any tense required) + the Past Participle of the verb to be conjugated

They give her flowers.

Flowers are given to her.
She is given flowers.

The use of the passive

 When the logical subject is obvious or is not important: Goods should be delivered as
soon as possible.
 When the object is more important than the logical subject: The manager was informed
on the situation.
 When the speaker avoids mentioning the logical subject: The order has already been
placed.
 In formal notices: Passengers are requested not to…
 Newspapers: President sacked because…
 Processes in science or engineering: The wheel is tested…

Rules for changing from active into passive

Active Passive
1. Subject + tr. Verb + direct object S (=dir. Obj.) + passive + (by….)
I wrote a report. A report was written (by me).
2. Subject + tr. Vb. + Dir. Obj.1 + Dir. Obj. 2 S1(= dir. Obj.1) + passive + Dir.
I asked him a question. Obj.2 + (by….)
He was asked a question (by me).
S2 (=dir. Obj. 2) + passive + (by…)
A question was asked (by me).
3. Subject + tr. Vb. + Direct object + Indirect S(=dir. Obj.) + passive + ind. Object.
object The money will be paid to us.
They will pay us the money. S(=ind. Obj.) + passive + direct
object
We will be paid the money.
4. Subject + intr. Prep. Vb. + prep. obj. S (prep. Obj.) + passive + preposition
I rely on Tom. Tom is relied on.
Ex. to talk to/ about, to send for, to agree
upon, to look at/ after, to explain to, to
speak to/ of, to arrive at, to account for, to
laugh at, to refer to…

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 5. Subject + verb phrase + prep. object S (prep. Object) + passive +
You have to pay attention to the problem. preposition
Ex. to put an end to, to take care of, to take The problem must be paid attention
notice of, to make use of, to take hold of, to to.
find fault with, to take possession of, to lose
sight of, to do away with, to put up with
6. Passive constructions:
It is said that
It is believed that…
It is understood that…
It is reported that
It is expected that….
It is thought that…
7. Intransitive verbs with a passive
meaning: read, eat, wear, wash, act,
sell, open, feel, taste, shut, peel,
perform: Sweets sell well.
8. Passive forms with ‘to have’, ‘to
get’: S + have + direct object + past
participle: I had my car repaired.
S + get + past participle: We got
stuck in the traffic.

Verbs that have no passive: escape, fit, get, have, let, like, suit, survive: The skirt doesn’t suit
me. They escaped from prison.

Verbs used with the passive: to be born, to be said: He is said to be a good businessman.
Passive Structures:

 modals + passive: The meeting can be postponed.

 Passive + infinitive + object with the verbs: advise, believe, expect, feel, forbid, mean,
order, report, request, require, say, teach, understand: They were advised to negotiate the
price.
 It + the passive of: agree, announce, discover, expect, hope, suggest: It was suggested
that they would work hard.

Appendix – List of Irregular Verbs

Infinitive Past Simple Past Participle

arise arose arisen
awake awoke awoken (US also awaked)
be was/were been
bear bore borne (US also born)
beat beat beaten (US also beat)
become became become
begin began begun
behold beheld beheld
belie belied belied
bend bent bent
bet bet, betted bet, betted

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bid bid, bade bid, bidden
bind bound bound
bite bit bitten
bleed bled bled
bless blessed, blest blessed, blest
blow blew blown
break broke broken
breed bred bred
bring brought brought
broadcast broadcast broadcast
(US also broadcasted) (US also broadcasted)
build built built
burn burnt, burned burnt, burned
burst burst burst
buy bought bought
cast cast cast
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
cling clung clung
come came come
cost cost, costed cost, costed
cut cut cut
deal dealt dealt
dig dug dug
dive dived, (US also dove) dived
draw drew drawn
dream dreamed, dreamt dreamed, dreamt
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
dwell dwelt, dwelled dwelt, dwelled
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
feed fed fed
feel felt felt

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Infinitive Past Simple Past Participle
fight fought fought
find found found
flee fled fled
fly flew flown
forbid forbade, forbad forbidden
forecast forecasted, forecast forecasted, forecast
foresee foresaw foreseen
forget forgot forgotten
forgive forgave forgiven
forsake forsook forsaken
freeze froze frozen
get got got, (US also gotten
give gave given
go went gone
grind ground ground
grow grew grown
hang hung, hanged hung, hanged
have had had
hear heard heard
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
keep kept kept
kneel knelt, kneeled knelt, kneeled
knit knitted, knit knitted, (US also knit)
know knew known
lead led led
learn learned, (UK also learnt) learned, (UK also learnt)
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let let
lie lay, lied lain, lied
light lit, lighted lit, lighted
lose lost lost
make made made
mean mean meant
meet met met
mislead misled misled
misspell misspelled, misspelled,
(UK also misspelt) (UK also misspelt)
mistake mistook mistaken
misunderstand misunderstood misunderstood
mow mowed mown, mowed
overcome overcame overcome
overdraw overdrew overdrawn
oversee oversaw overseen
overtake overtook overtaken
overthrow overthrew overthrown

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Infinitive Past Simple Past Participle
overwrite overwrote overwritten
partake partook partaken
pay paid paid
plead pleaded, (US also pled) pleaded, (US also pled)
preset preset preset
prove proved proved, proven
put put put
quit quit, quitted quit, quitted
read /ri d/ read /red/ read /red/
rewrite rewrote rewritten
rid rid rid
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
saw sawed sawn, (US also sawed)
say said said
see saw seen
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
send sent sent
set set set
sew sewed sewn, sewed
shake shook shaken
shed shed shed
shine shone shone
shoe shod, (US also shoed) shod, (US also shoed)
shoot shot shot
show showed shown
shrink shrank shrunk
shut shut shut
sink sank sunk
sit sat sat
slay slew, slayed slain
sleep slept slept
slide slid slid
smell smelled, (UK also smelt) smelled, (UK also smelt)
sneak sneaked, (US also snuck) sneaked, (US also snuck)
sow sowed sown, sowed
speak spoke spoken
speed sped, speeded sped, speeded
spell spelled, (UK also spelt) spelled, (UK also spelt)
spend spent spent
spill spilled, (UK also spilt) spilled, (UK also spilt)
spin spun spun
spit spat, (US also spit) spat, (US also spit)
split split split

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Infinitive Past Simple Past Participle
spoil spoiled, spoilt spoiled, spoilt
spotlight spotlighted, spotlit spotlighted, spotlit
spring sprang sprung
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
sting stung stung
stink stank, (US also stunk) stunk
strike struck struck, (US also
stricken)
string strung strung
strive strove, strived striven, strived
swear swore sworn
sweep swept swept
swell swelled swollen, swelled
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
thrive thrived, (US also throve) thrived, (US also
thriven)
throw threw thrown
thrust thrust thrust
tread trod, (US also treaded) trodden, (US also
trod)
undergo underwent undergone
underwrite underwrote underwritten
understand understood understood
undertake undertook undertaken
undo undid undone
unwind unwound unwound
uphold upheld upheld
upset upset upset
wake woke woken
wear wore worn
weave wove, weaved woven, weaved
wed wedded, wed wedded, wed
weep wept wept
wet wet, wetted wet, wetted
win won won
wind wound wound

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withdraw withdrew withdrawn
withhold withheld withheld
withstand withstood withstood
write wrote written

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