TEACHER FEEDBACK TO

IMPROVE PUPIL LEARNING

Guidance Report
 The authors would like to thank the many researchers and practitioners who provided support and feedback on drafts of this
guidance. In particular, we would like to thank the advisory panel and review teams.

Advisory panel: Caroline Bilton (EEF), Clare Christie (Ashley Down Schools Federation), Megan Dixon (Holy Family Catholic
Multi Academy Trust), Harry Fletcher-Wood (Ambition Institute), Steve Higgins (Durham University), and Andy Tharby (Durrington
Research School). We also thank Ruth Dann for her guidance at the outset of the project and Dylan Wiliam for his support in drafting
recommendations.

Systematic review team: Mark Newman, Karen Shucan Bird, Irene Kwan, Ian Shemilt (EPPI), Mary Richardson (UCL), and Hui-Teng
Hoo (Nanyang Technological University, Singapore).

Practice review team: Velda Elliott, Ashmita Randhawa, Jenni Ingram, Lesley Nelson-Addy, Charles Griffin, and Jo-Anne Baird
(University of Oxford).

Written by: Joe Collin and Alex Quigley (EEF).

2 Education Endowment Foundation

 CONTENTS

Foreword 4
Guest foreword from Dylan William 5
Introduction 6
Summary of recommendations 10

Recommendation 1 Lay the foundations for effective feedback 12

Recommendation 2 Deliver appropriately timed feedback 18

that focuses on moving learning forward

Recommendation 3 Plan for how pupils will receive and use feedback 26

Recommendation 4 Carefully consider how to use purposeful, 34

and time-efficient, written feedback

Recommendation 5 Carefully consider how to use purposeful verbal feedback 38

Recommendation 6 Design a school feedback policy that prioritises 42

and exemplifies the principles of effective feedback

References 48

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 3

 FOREWORD

All teachers understand the importance of 2. deliver appropriately timed feedback, that focuses
providing meaningful feedback. Done well, on moving learning forward; and, crucially,
it supports pupil progress, building learning,
addressing misunderstandings, and thereby 3. plan for how pupils will receive and use feedback
closing the gap between where a pupil is and using strategies to ensure that pupils will act on the
where the teacher wants them to be. This feedback offered.
process is a crucial component of high-quality
teaching and can be seen in classrooms across Of course, if these principles are to be effectively
all phases and subjects. delivered, schools require a carefully designed and
thoughtfully implemented feedback policy, and school
However, not all feedback has positive effects. leaders play a crucial role in steering this process.
Done badly, feedback can even harm progress. These policies set the direction for how feedback
Nor is feedback ‘free’. Large amounts of time are spent is delivered in schools, and they require a careful
providing pupils with feedback, perhaps not always balance. They should specify the need for evidence
productively. So how can we ensure that the feedback informed principles to be at the heart of practice, and
provided by teachers to pupils is useful and moves exemplify this, but the methods and timing should be
learning forward? left to a teacher’s professional judgement. When and
how to offer feedback is most appropriately answered
Historically, in answer to this question, much by the teacher responding to the particular learning
consideration has been given to the methods by which context of an individual pupil.
feedback is delivered. Specifically, should feedback be
written, or should it be verbal? The recommendations in this report have been
One can see this as a ‘feedback drawn from a systematic review of the best available
methods see-saw’ that has international evidence, in addition to a review of current
“It is our hope that tipped back and forth between practice, and refined in consultation with a panel
an emphasis on extensive written of expert practitioners and academics. As will be
this guidance will feedback and a focus on more explained, much of the research on feedback remains
refocus feedback verbal methods of feedback, limited, but this guidance offers recommendations on
practice on the which may take less time. what we can infer from the evidence. Alongside this
report the EEF is committed to working with the sector,
principles of effective This guidance report aims to including through our colleagues in the Research
feedback and away move beyond this ‘see-saw’ and Schools Network, to further explore and implement
focus on what really matters: these recommendations with further training,
from the ‘see-saw of the principles of good feedback resources, and partnerships.
methods’.” rather than the written or verbal
methods of feedback delivery. It is our hope that this guidance will refocus feedback
At the EEF, we believe in learning practice on the principles of effective feedback,
from educational research— and away from the ‘see-saw of methods’, providing
using findings on what has, and what has not, been recommendations on how to offer purposeful and
effective in classrooms to guide us towards ‘best bets’ sustainable feedback that can move learning forward.
for practitioners. As such, this guidance encourages
a renewed focus on the principles of effective
feedback. These principles form the first three of our
recommendations and provide the central messages
that run throughout this guidance. They state that
teachers should:

1. lay the foundations for effective feedback, with Professor Becky Francis
high-quality initial teaching that includes careful Chief Executive
formative assessment; Education Endowment Foundation

4 Education Endowment Foundation

 GUEST FOREWORD

The term ‘feedback’ was first used in the late 1940s important because the word ‘feedback’ can lead
to describe features of mechanical systems that used us to think of feedback as a backward-looking
information about the current state of the system to process—in Douglas Reeve’s memorable words,
improve future performance. Years later, the term was the post-mortem rather than the medical. The
picked up in psychology but, unfortunately, was used main role of feedback, at least in schools, is to
in a much narrower sense. For example, one influential improve the learner, not the work. The idea is
review of research on feedback defined it as ‘any of the that, after feedback, students will be able to do
numerous procedures that are used to tell a learner if better at some point in the future on tasks they
an instructional response is right or wrong’.1 have not yet attempted.

The result of such definitions was that statements The third principle draws attention to the simple—
that only provided information about the current level but often forgotten—fact that the only thing
of achievement, such as ‘your typing speed is 46 that matters with feedback is what learners do with
words per minute’, came to be regarded as potentially it. If learners have no interest in improvement then no
effective feedback even though such information matter how thoughtful and insightful the feedback is,
provided little guidance about what do next. It is as if the time that teachers spend on crafting the feedback
someone installed a thermostat in a house that allowed is likely to be wasted. For feedback to be effective we
people to set a desired temperature—and provided an need to create classrooms where students welcome
accurate indication of the current temperature—but and use feedback. As Stiggins, Arter, Chappuis and
forgot to connect the thermostat to a heating or cooling Chappuis remind us, the most important decisions
system so that the information might actually be useful. taken in classrooms are not taken by teachers but
Feedback has to be part of a system that is set up in rather by learners.2
such a way that the information can actually be used
to improve it, and that is why this guidance report from The other welcome feature of
the Education Endowment Foundation is so relevant, this guidance is the focus on the “Rather than thinking
important, and useful. importance of opportunity cost. That about feedback as an
is to say, every hour that teachers
Rather than thinking about feedback as an isolated spend giving feedback to their isolated event, this
event, this report makes it clear that feedback is likely students is an hour they don’t have report makes it clear
to be more effective if it is approached systemically, to spend on something else.
and specifically, by adopting three fundamental
that feedback is likely
principles: careful groundwork before the feedback is The existing research does not to be more effective
given, providing well-timed information that focuses tell teachers how to guarantee the if it is approached
on improvement, and also taking into account how feedback they give their students will
learners receive and use that information. be effective, and probably never will; systemically”
teaching is just far too complex for
The reason that effective feedback requires careful this ever to be likely. What this report
preparation is because the quality of feedback that a does do, in my view, is to provide the
teacher can provide depends crucially on the quality best advice that we currently have on how teachers
of the evidence about learners’ achievement that is can spend their time in the ways that are most likely to
available. If a teacher cannot think of what to say to benefit students.
a student—having seen the student’s work—then the
fault is most likely that the questions, task, or activities
that were assigned were not designed with a view to
giving feedback in the first place. The starting point for
effective feedback is eliciting the right evidence.
Dylan Wiliam
The second principle—the idea that the focus of well- Emeritus Professor of Educational Assessment,
timed feedback should be to move learning forward—is Institute of Education, UCL

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 5

 INTRODUCTION

What does this guidance cover?

This guidance report focuses on teacher-delivered This guidance report offers a set of recommendations
feedback and is relevant to the teaching of all students based on what we can infer from the literature, drawing
aged 5 to 18, within any subject area. on three sources:

Teacher feedback is an area of teaching and learning that • a systematic review of the evidence on teacher
is a central priority for teachers and is often associated feedback led by Dr Mark Newman at the EPPI-
with improving pupil attainment.4 However, to date, Centre—Dr Newman and his team have reviewed
evidence has failed to indicate exactly ‘what kinds of and analysed the evidence on teacher feedback
feedback are likely to be helpful in a given situation’ interventions published after 2000;
(Wiliam, 2018).5 This is largely due to the nature of the
existing evidence base, a ‘tangled web’6 of research • the expertise of an advisory panel—the
(Shute, 2007) which suggests that while the average recommendations draw on the expertise of
impact of feedback may be positive, the range of impacts academics and current practitioners. These include
is also very wide. While some studies have shown that Caroline Bilton, Clare Christie, Megan Dixon, Harry
feedback can support learning, others have shown that, Fletcher-Wood, Professor Steve Higgins, and
when delivered poorly, it can also hamper it.7 Andy Tharby; we also thank Professor Ruth Dann
for her guidance at the outset of the project and
Professor Dylan Wiliam for his support in drafting
‘It is clear from the recommendations;8 and

research that there • research on current practice, including Feedback

is little agreement in Action, a review of current feedback practice
in English schools led by Dr Velda Elliott and her
leading us to a team at the University of Oxford (2020) and funded
straightforward by the EEF;9 this review conducted surveys with
model or recipe for 247 primary teachers (from 194 schools) and 144
secondary teachers (from 113 schools), alongside
“effective” feedback.’ interviews and case studies in 2019.
Ruth Dann (2018) 3
A full reference list may be found at the end of
this report.

Who is this guidance for?

This guidance is applicable to primary schools, The guidance is aimed at class teachers who provide
secondary schools, and further education providers and feedback to pupils as well as senior leaders who devise
offers recommendations on how to deliver feedback to and implement school feedback policies. It targets
5- to 18-year-old learners. Early years is not included as all subjects, providing principles to suit all, along
the underpinning systematic review found little relevant with examples to demonstrate feedback provision
evidence in the area.10 Most of the evidence is not in particular subject and phase contexts. Additional
drawn from a special school context, however, many of audiences who may find the guidance relevant
the messages are still likely to be useful and relevant for include governors, parents, programme developers,
practice in special school contexts. policymakers, and education researchers.

6 Education Endowment Foundation

 INTRODUCTION

What is teacher feedback?

For this guidance report, we focus only on feedback When giving this information, teachers have a range
from teachers to pupils. Feedback may come from of decisions to make, and can provide feedback in a
other sources, be that peers, the pupils themselves, variety of different ways. Feedback can:
or parents. However, given the size of this area, to
concentrate our review and recommendations, we have • focus on different content;
focused the report exclusively on teacher feedback.
Future EEF resources may focus on other sources of • be delivered in different methods;
feedback.
• be directed to different people; and
This specific form of feedback may be defined as:
• be delivered at different times.
‘information given by a teacher to pupil(s) about their
performance that aims to improve learning.’ 11 These four aspects of feedback are expanded in Figure 1.

Figure 1: What is teacher feedback?

12
CONTENT PEOPLE
The content of feedback may focus on: Feedback may be directed towards
different people, be that:
• the particular task that a pupil has
undertaken; • to the whole class;
• the underlying processes related to a • to specific groups; or
specific subject; or • just to individuals.
• a pupil’s self-regulation.

METHODS TIMES
Feedback may be delivered Feedback may be delivered
via different methods: at different times, be that:

• Verbally—this could be detailed • during a lesson;

conversation or quick verbal comment; or • immediately after a lesson; or
• written—this may be written comments, • sometime after a lesson.
written marks, scores, or a combination.

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 7

 The ‘opportunity cost’ associated with teacher feedback

Before exploring recommendations, it is important to need to sacrifice to provide feedback? Is the cost to
acknowledge a central challenge associated with the other aspects of teaching, such as reducing planning
delivery of teacher feedback: workload. Feedback, and time, worth the time spent on feedback? How can
particularly some forms of written feedback, continue we provide teachers with the time required to provide
to take up a large amount of teacher time, limiting the effective feedback whilst also delivering all other
time teachers can give to other tasks and often with a aspects of effective practice?
negative impact on their wellbeing.13
Although this opportunity cost may vary by subject
When designing feedback policies and delivering and phase, it is a cost experienced by all teachers.
feedback, schools should be particularly aware of this We remained very aware of this potential cost when
‘opportunity cost’. What other tasks may a teacher drafting the recommendations.

M T W Th F

8 Education Endowment Foundation

Reading this guidance report

Each recommendation begins with a reflective Each recommendation also features reflections on
vignette—an illustrative scenario that outlines common ‘what might work in the classroom’. While a large
challenges faced by teachers—before posing questions number of studies examine feedback, not every specific
that the recommendation attempts to answer or clarify. classroom approach has been rigorously evaluated in
Recommendations also include case studies of current an English setting.15 These reflections, therefore, offer
feedback practice in schools.14 Both the vignettes techniques and suggestions for what might work in the
and case studies seek to represent current practice in classroom based on our interpretation of the evidence
schools and contextualise the evidence. They do not and our panel’s expertise.
necessarily demonstrate best or poor practice.

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 9

 SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS

Principles

1 2 3
Lay the foundations for Deliver appropriately timed Plan for how pupils will
effective feedback feedback that focuses on receive and use feedback
moving learning forward

• Before providing feedback, • There is not one clear answer • Careful thought should be
teachers should provide high for when feedback should be given to how pupils receive
quality instruction, including the provided. Rather, teachers should feedback. Pupil motivation,
use of formative assessment judge whether more immediate self-confidence, their trust in
strategies. or delayed feedback is required, the teacher, and their capacity
considering the characteristics of to receive information can
• High quality initial instruction will the task set, the individual pupil, impact feedback’s effectiveness.
reduce the work that feedback and the collective understanding Teachers should, therefore,
needs to do; formative assessment of the class. implement strategies that
strategies are required to set encourage learners to welcome
learning intentions (which feedback • Feedback should focus on feedback, and should monitor
will aim towards) and to assess moving learning forward, whether pupils are using it.
learning gaps (which feedback will targeting the specific learning
address). gaps that pupils exhibit. • Teachers should also provide
Specifically, high quality feedback opportunities for pupils to use
may focus on the task, subject, feedback. Only then will the
and self-regulation strategies. feedback loop be closed so that
pupil learning can progress.
• Feedback that focuses on a
learner’s personal characteristics,
or feedback that offers only
general and vague remarks, is
less likely to be effective.

Page 12 Page 18 Page 26

10 Education Endowment Foundation

 Methods Implementation

4 5 6
Carefully consider how to Carefully consider how Design a school feedback
use purposeful, and time- to use purposeful verbal policy that prioritises
efficient, written feedback feedback and exemplifies the
principles of effective
feedback

• Written methods of feedback, • Verbal methods of feedback can • Enacting these

including written comments, improve pupil attainment and recommendations will require
marks, and scores, can may be more time-efficient when careful consideration and this
improve pupil attainment; compared to some forms of implementation should be a
however, the effects of written written feedback. staged process, not an event.
feedback can vary. This will include ongoing effective
• However, as with written professional development.
• The method of delivery (and feedback, the effects of verbal
whether a teacher chooses to feedback can vary and the • Schools should design
use written or verbal feedback) method of delivery is likely to be feedback policies which
is likely to be less important less important than ensuring the promote and exemplify the
than ensuring that the principles principles of effective teacher principles of effective feedback
of effective teacher feedback feedback (Recommendations (Recommendations 1–3).
(Recommendations 1–3) are 1–3) are followed. Policies should not over-specify
followed. Written feedback may features such as the frequency
be effective if it follows high or method of feedback.
quality foundations, is timed
appropriately, focuses on the
task, subject, and/or self-
regulation, and is then used
by pupils.

• Some forms of written feedback

have also been associated
with a significant opportunity
cost due to their impact on
teacher workload. This should
be monitored by teachers and
school leaders.

Page 34 Page 38 Page 42

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 11

 1 Lay the foundations
for effective feedback

Saïd is a Year 6 teacher in a primary school in the North West. He’s received regular CPD throughout the year, which has
explained the positive impact that feedback may have on pupil attainment. Saïd has also observed the feedback that
experienced teachers in his school offer, reviewed what he did last year, and tried out a range of new written and verbal feedback
techniques (such as coded marking, one-to-one conversations, and whole-class feedback discussions).

Saïd reflects that he is disappointed in the progress made by his class in response to these new feedback methods. Despite all
his hard work, he is unsure if it really paid off. In particular, pupils’ writing attainment, and their ability to write short stories, had
shown little improvement despite his focus on multiple new feedback strategies targeted at writing development.

Saïd asks himself two questions:

• Did my pupils have a strong enough understanding of the knowledge,

skills, and concepts to begin with, before I offered them feedback? They
may not have initially understood how to structure a story, design a sentence
structure, or how to use punctuation effectively. If so, the feedback may have
had too much work to do.

• Did I effectively assess my pupils’ understanding to target my feedback

at their specific learning gaps? Much of the feedback offered was the same
to all pupils, encouraging them to offer more description of their settings and
characters along with proof-reading for spelling errors. These may not have
been what all pupils were missing.

Saïd realises that to give effective feedback he must first lay the foundations.

Providing feedback to pupils is often associated with a that feedback needs to do while formative assessment
positive impact on pupil attainment. However, the impact strategies are required to:
of feedback varies and—in some cases—it can even
hamper pupil progress.16 Very careful thought is therefore 1. set learning intentions (which feedback will aim
required from teachers when using feedback to ensure towards); and
that it moves learning forward,17 and this thinking should
begin well before feedback is provided. To offer effective 2. assess learning gaps (which feedback will address).
feedback, teachers must first lay the foundations.
For this recommendation, we draw from work on
Specifically, they need to provide high quality instruction, feedback theory,18 expert panel guidance, and specific
including the use of two formative assessment studies found in the review commissioned to inform
strategies. Good initial instruction will reduce the work this guidance.

12 Education Endowment Foundation

Providing high quality instruction

As John Hattie and Helen Timperley noted in their In delivering effective teaching, teachers:
review of feedback, by its very definition, ‘Feedback
• build on pupils’ prior knowledge and experience;
can only build on something; it is of little use when
there is no initial learning or surface information. • avoid overloading pupils’ working memory by breaking
Feedback is what happens second’ (2007).19 The first down complex material into smaller steps;
task of the teacher, before feedback is delivered, is to
provide effective instruction. Feedback alone is unlikely • encourage the retention of learning by using repetition,
practice, and retrieval of critical knowledge and skills;
to provide pupils with a full understanding of the
knowledge, skills, and concepts required and so initial • deliver a carefully-sequenced curriculum which
teaching is crucial. Without it, feedback may be left teaches essential concepts, knowledge, skills, and
with too much work to do. principles;

Of course, the characteristics of effective instruction • use powerful analogies, illustrations, examples,
explanations, comparisons, and demonstrations;
vary by phase and subject; these are discussed in
several subject and phase-specific EEF guidance • are aware of common misconceptions and prepare
reports including four focused on improving literacy strategies to counter them;
across different phases (covering the early years and
Key Stages 1 to 4), two on maths (covering the early • plan effective lessons, making good use of modelling,
explanations, and scaffolds to support learning;
years to Key Stage 3), and guidance on improving
secondary science. However, we can outline some • adapt teaching in a responsive way to support
general principles. struggling and excelling learners while maintaining high
expectations for all (Early Career Framework);20 and

• provide pupils with tools and strategies to plan,

monitor, and evaluate their learning.21

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 13

 Formative assessment

Another key component of effective initial instruction These strategies were delivered as part of the EEF’s
that should be emphasised here—and is required Promising Project—Embedding Formative Assessment,
before feedback is given—is the use of two formative which was shown to improve pupil attainment in
assessment strategies. Since it was popularised a highly secure randomised controlled trial (see
by Paul Black and Dylan Wiliam in 1998, the term Research in Focus 1).23
‘formative assessment’ has been defined in different
ways, resulting in different applications in the Recommendations two to six in this guidance report
classroom. Most simply, it means providing teaching focus very much on the third strategy here—‘providing
that is adaptive to pupils’ needs and using evidence feedback that moves learning forward’—while other
about learning to adjust instruction to ensure that EEF resources address strategies four and five.24
learning moves forward. In terms of what this looks However, before providing feedback, teachers must
like in the classroom, this may be summarised in five implement the first two strategies: ‘clarifying, sharing,
strategies as seen in Figure 2. 22 and understanding learning intentions and success
criteria’ and ‘eliciting evidence of learning’.

Figure 2: The five key strategies of formative assessment (Wiliam, 2018)

Where the learner is going Where the learner is right now How to get there

3. Providing feedback that moves

Teacher 2. Eliciting evidence of learning.
forward.

1. Clarifying, sharing and

understanding learning intentions
Peer and success criteria. 4. Activating learners as instructional resources for one another.

Learner 5. Activating learners as owners of their own learning.

14 Education Endowment Foundation

What might sharing learning intentions look like in the classroom?

First, teachers need to have a clear idea of what the • ‘What not to write’: discuss with the class a list of
learning intention is and should share this with pupils. ‘what not to write’. This could follow a presentation
As Royce Sadler remarked, ‘the teacher must possess to the class of an incorrect pupil response to a task;
a concept of quality appropriate to the task’25, and this these are sometimes referred to as ‘non-examples’.
is what their feedback will direct pupils towards.
• Design questions: this could be a strategy for
There is limited evidence supporting specific KS2–5 pupils where, closely guided by the teacher,
techniques that teachers can use to set and share they design a question (and accompanying answer)
learning intentions. However, we can draw from for a topic they are learning.
suggestions for practice. Dylan Wiliam offers several26
and these techniques were deployed in Embedding • ‘Choose-Swap-Choose’: a strategy where a
Formative Assessment (Dylan Wiliam and Siobhan teacher asks pupils to do the same thing multiple
Leahy): times, before working with a partner to identify
which attempt was most successful. For instance,
• Strengths and weaknesses discussion: share in KS1 a teacher may ask pupils to write the letter
with pupils anonymised examples of other children’s ‘d’ ten times. Each student could then circle which
work, without informing them which you think is their best attempt before swapping with a partner
is high or low quality; discuss the strengths and and discussing whether they agree with their choice.
weaknesses of the work and use this discussion to This provides an opportunity to discuss the quality
construct a rubric for successful work in that area. of work and this technique could be used across
subjects and phases.
• Model work: share excellent examples of previous
pupils’ work; discuss with the class what makes Establishing and sharing the learning intention provides
this work high quality. You may wish to focus on the teacher and pupil with a shared understanding
particular elements of the model answers. of the ‘concept of quality’ that they are aiming for.
Feedback can then be used to move pupils towards
this concept.

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 15

 What might ‘eliciting evidence of learning’ look like in the classroom?

To provide high quality feedback, a teacher also how a pupil is thinking and what this reveals about
needs to implement the second formative assessment their understanding. This will inform the feedback the
strategy: assess where a pupil’s learning gaps are for a teacher then gives.
given task or skill. Only then can they provide feedback
that targets these weaknesses.27 This will require All student response systems:30 These aim to assess
effective formative assessment of pupils’ understanding the whole class’ understanding of a topic, which may
using carefully designed tasks, activities, and then inform the feedback offered. For quick checks,
questioning to reveal pupil thinking before providing consider using practical approaches such as mini-
feedback on this thinking. whiteboards, true or false (or red and green) cards, or
thumbs up or down. ‘Hinge point questions’ also offer
Once again, there may be limited evidence for the use a potentially useful technique: these are multiple choice
of specific strategies, however, there are examples of questions where each incorrect answer demonstrates
techniques informed by evidence that may be useful, a pupil error in understanding. Ideally, answers will be
many of which were used in Embedding Formative very quick to assess in the lesson, so a teacher can
Assessment.28 These strategies are not new and are use these questions mid-lesson, to assess where to
used as part of many teachers’ daily practice: go next and what feedback to offer.31 At the end of a
lesson, pupil exit passes may be useful where pupils
• Effective questioning;
respond to questions on an exit pass before handing
• All student response systems; and30 them in.

• Carefully designed tasks.31

Carefully designed tasks: Whatever task is being
Effective questioning: This enables teachers
29
undertaken, teachers should design ‘tasks with
to assess pupil understanding, interpreting pupils’ feedback in mind’,32 so that the tasks provide evidence
responses to questions to determine what feedback to the teacher on what a pupil is thinking. Whether
to provide. Teachers should ensure they are asking all pupils are responding to a series of questions or writing
pupils for responses and consider using techniques an extended piece of work, whether they are engaging
such as ‘no hands up’. They should provide sufficient in practical tasks or conducting a discussion, whatever
‘wait time’ for pupils to respond and carefully frame the task, the teacher should ask themselves, ‘Will the
questions so that they reveal more about a pupil’s task reveal what the pupil is thinking, and can I use this
thinking. Additionally, a teacher should listen closely to to give feedback?’ If not, they may need to redesign
a pupil’s response, paying attention not only to whether the task. See Box 1 for an example from the teaching
they get the correct answer but, rather, try to interpret of apostrophes in English.

Box 1—Teaching apostrophes in English

In English, when teaching apostrophes, rather than asking pupils a broad question like, ‘When should an
apostrophe be used?’, the teacher may ask:

Add apostrophes to these phrases as necessary:

1. Hes very unhappy.

2. My dogs are unhappy.
3. Its on its way.
4. The ladies cars.

This will better reveal what specific misconceptions and learning gaps pupils have and will inform what feedback
is required.33 Teachers would go onto carefully monitor pupils’ use of apostrophes in their own writing.

16 Education Endowment Foundation

Research in focus 1
Embedding Formative Assessment (EFA) (2018)
Dr Stefan Speckesser, Johnny Runge, Francesca Foliano, Dr Matthew Burnsall, Nathan Hudson-Sharp,
Dr Heather Rolfe and Dr Jake Anders

+2

Developed by Dylan Wiliam and Siobhan Leahy in partnership with the Schools, Students, and Teachers
network (SSAT), Embedding Formative Assessment is a professional development programme that aims to
improve pupil outcomes by embedding the use of five formative assessment strategies across a school:

• clarifying, sharing, and understanding learning intentions;

• eliciting evidence of learning;
• providing feedback that moves learning forward;
• activating learners as learning resources for one another; and
• activating learners as owners of their own learning.

Many of the strategies suggested in this recommendation are deployed in the programme.

Schools receive detailed resource packs to run monthly teacher-led workshops on formative assessment,
known as Teacher Learning Communities, over two years and teachers conduct peer observations focusing
on the use of formative assessment strategies. Ongoing leadership support and training for effective
implementation of the programme is also provided by SSAT.

The EEF tested the impact of the programme in a randomised controlled trial in 140 secondary schools.
Students in the Embedding Formative Assessment schools made the equivalent of two additional months’
progress in their Attainment 8 GCSE score, and this result had a very high security rating. Analyses based
on a smaller sample of pupils (and therefore less secure) found that pupils eligible for free school meals in
schools that received the programme made one additional months’ progress in their Attainment 8 score while
the additional progress made by children in the lowest third for prior attainment was greater than that made
by children in the highest third.34

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 17

 2 Deliver appropriately timed feedback
that focuses on moving learning forward

Lucy is year 2 teacher in a primary school in the Midlands. She has been told that feedback can be impactful, but also
recognises the importance of high-quality instruction and effective formative assessment before providing feedback to children.
She commits time to ensuring she delivers well planned, effective lessons, and carefully crafts her tasks and questioning to elicit
a better understanding of where pupils’ learning gaps are for a given task.

However, despite having a good sense of what pupils’ weaknesses are, Lucy is unconvinced that her feedback is moving pupil
learning forward. She is currently providing very regular feedback to pupils (so much so that it sometimes becomes a burden),
and her feedback focuses on praising pupils and their talents. She regularly tells a pupil, for instance, that she is ‘a natural
mathematician’, but this doesn’t seem to be improving the pupil’s performance.

Lucy wonders:

• When exactly should I be providing feedback to pupils? Do I have to provide really

regular, immediate feedback?

• What should my feedback focus on? Should I comment on

particular aspects of the work or the abilities of the pupil?

Lucy realises that she needs to offer more appropriately timed feedback, which provides
specific information that can move learning forward.

Once effective initial instruction has been delivered—

and following the establishment of the learning intention “Research investigating the
and formative assessment of pupils’ understanding—
teachers should then provide appropriately timed relationship of feedback timing
feedback, which focuses specifically on the task, and learning/performance
subject, and/or pupils’ self-regulation strategies. This
recommendation draws from the review of evidence
reveals inconsistent findings”
that informs this guidance, alongside previous reviews,
feedback theory, reflections from practice, and our Valerie Shute (2008). 35
expert panel, to offer broad principles on when to
provide feedback and what to focus on.

18 Education Endowment Foundation

Delivering appropriately timed feedback

The evidence regarding the timing and frequency of The review that informs this guidance found that
effective feedback is inconclusive.36 On the one hand, feedback interventions delivered immediately after
immediate feedback may be effective as it could prevent learning, delivered up to a week after, and delivered
misconceptions from forming early on. However, delayed during learning are all associated with similarly sized
feedback could also be beneficial as it may force pupils positive effects on attainment.39 No studies were
to fully engage with the work before being given an found where feedback was given over a week after
answer.37 In turn, this may lead to them working hard to the learning.
retrieve information they’ve already learned, which could
help pupils to remember more of the learning.38

What might appropriately timed feedback look like in the classroom?

Given this ambiguity in the evidence, there is not one discussion of school feedback policies). Rather, it is
clear answer for when feedback should be provided. It likely to be more productive to leave decisions on the
may therefore be inappropriate for schools to mandate timing of feedback to classroom teachers, recognising
exactly when feedback is given. 69% percent of the crucial role that teacher judgement plays in
primary and 76% of secondary teachers surveyed by delivering feedback at the appropriate moment.
the review of practice stated that their school feedback
policies explicitly specified the frequency of written To guide this judgement, teachers should consider
feedback required.40 This level of specificity is likely three things: the task, the pupil, and the class. (see
unwarranted (see Recommendation 6 for further Table 1 overleaf).

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 19

 Table 1: Appropriately timed feedback

The task41 The pupil The class

The timing of feedback may need to be Some pupils may benefit from more immediate Upon setting a task, a teacher may notice early
adjusted depending on the task that pupils are feedback whereas others could improve as a on that a particular misconception has arisen
undertaking. Some tasks may give feedback result of delaying feedback.42 across a large proportion of the class. For
themselves so immediate feedback may not be example:
necessary. A teacher can monitor pupils’ progress
in tasks, assessing which pupils may be • When teaching the positioning of numbers
For instance, mistakes may arise quickly and struggling unproductively (who may require on a marked number line, a Year 1
obviously in music or art if a pupil can clearly a hint or a steer in the right direction or may teacher realises that many children do not
hear or see an error arising. The same may be want some immediate feedback in order to understand the model sufficiently and are
true for PE, where a pupil attempts an exercise feel more supported) and which pupils may be confused about why numbers are placed on
and quickly sees that it doesn’t achieve the progressing well. Providing feedback to pupils marks rather than in intervals.
required results. Missteps may also become already working well may distract them or even
self-evident in maths or science if upon deprive them of the opportunity to learn and get • Following a reading of Romeo and Juliet
completing a task, a pupil has not produced the to the answer themselves.43 and setting a task for pupils, a Year 8
answer they expected. English teacher realises that many pupils are
A pupil may well fall between these groups and confusing which characters belong to the
The specific task itself may also have been a teacher may then look to provide scaffolded Capulets and which to the Montague family.
designed to give immediate feedback—for feedback,44 varying the amount of feedback
example, a computer-aided quiz that informs depending on the pupil to ensure that they • When teaching GCSE geography, the
pupils of right or wrong answers. Or perhaps are not given the full answer but given enough teacher notes that half the class have
the teacher has revealed answers in advance guidance to usefully progress. misunderstood the definition of ‘low income’,
and has asked pupils to show their workings to ‘medium income’ and ‘high income’
get there. In these instances, a teacher will not As Dylan Wiliam explains: countries.
need to provide immediate feedback as the task
itself provides it. ‘Most teachers have had the experience of Teachers often catch these misconceptions
giving a student a new task only for the student early on and, if widespread enough, may opt
However, other tasks may not reveal errors, to ask for help immediately. When the teacher to provide immediate whole-class feedback or
gaps in knowledge, or misconceptions so asks, “What can’t you do?” a common reply re-teach that particular area of content.
swiftly: when writing an essay or conducting a is, “I can’t do any of it.” In such circumstances,
science practical, for example, students may be the student’s reaction may stem from anxiety
less likely to recognise the source of their errors about the unfamiliar nature of the task and it is
early on. Failure to correct these could lead to often possible to support the student by saying
these misconceptions enduring and hampering something like, “Copy out that table, and I’ll be
later understanding so teachers may opt to back in five minutes to help you fill it in.” This
intervene earlier. is usually all the support the student needs.
Copying out the table forces the student to look
in detail at how the table is laid out and this
busy-work can provide time for the student to
make sense of the task itself’.45

20 Education Endowment Foundation

These suggestions offer a prompt of what to
consider when thinking about when to give feedback.
Given the ambiguity in the
Given the ambiguity in the evidence, they serve to evidence, the timing of feedback
underline the crucial importance of in-the-moment should be left to the careful
teacher judgement—a key component of a teacher’s
professional skill—over policies that predetermine judgement of the classroom
feedback frequency based on arbitrary time periods teacher.
(such as once a week).

Focusing feedback on moving learning forward46

Compared to the timing of feedback, the evidence Feedback that focuses on a pupil’s personal
on what to focus feedback on may offer a clearer characteristics is less likely to be effective.48 This may
message. Feedback should focus on moving learning be because feedback about a person (rather than about
forward, targeting the specific learning gap identified the specifics of a task, their understanding of a subject,
by the teacher, and ensuring that a pupil improves. or their use of self regulation) may not provide enough
Specifically, high quality feedback can focus on the information to close a learning gap and move learning
task (its outcome and advice on how to improve when forward. In addition, it could distract the learner away
doing that specific type of task), the subject (and from learning, becoming self-conscious and focusing
the underlying processes within that subject), and instead on the impact the feedback has had on their
self-regulation strategies (how pupils plan, monitor, self-esteem. For example, calling a pupil a ‘natural
and evaluate their work).47 See Table 2 for further mathematician’ will not provide any additional information
definitions and examples. that they can use to improve their performance in maths
and it could even distract them away from learning.

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 21

 Table 2: What might the content of effective feedback look like in the classroom?

Effective feedback should focus on moving learning forward, targeting the task, subject, and self-regulation strategies. The
examples given here also demonstrate that pupils need to be given opportunities to act on feedback; further guidance on this is
given in Recommendation 3. These messages may be delivered via written or verbal feedback (and the method of delivery is
likely to be less important than the content).

Feedback more likely to move learning forward Less likely

Task Subject Self-regulation strategies Personal

Feedback focused on improving a Feedback targets the underlying Feedback is focused on the About the person. It
specific piece of work or specific processes in a task, which are learner’s own self-regulation. It may imply that pupils
type of task. It can comment on used across a subject. The is usually provided as prompts have an innate ability
whether an answer is correct or feedback can, therefore, be and cues—and aims to improve (or lack of) and is
incorrect, can give a grade, and applied in other subject tasks. the learner’s own ability to plan, often very general and
will offer specific advice on how to monitor, and evaluate their lacking in information.
improve learning. learning.

KS1 In maths, pupils have been asked In English, a pupil is struggling In art, pupils are painting self- ‘Great work—you’re
examples to order objects from lightest to with letter formation. The teacher portraits. The teacher is helping brilliant at maths!’
heaviest. The teacher explains to discusses this with them: ‘Let’s children to practice completing
one child: ‘You’re nearly there, but just look at how you are writing activities in a given time. He
two of these are the wrong way your ‘d’s. Can you see you have explains: ‘At the end of today I’m
around. Can you use the balance started at the top and gone down going to put the portraits up for
scales again and see which and done a loop? Remember we our exhibition, so we need to
object is really the heaviest?’ start writing a ‘d’ by doing a letter think about finishing in the next 15
‘c’ shape. Let’s try that again.’ minutes—do you think you’ll be
able to finish? If you haven’t started
on your eyes, make a start now.’

KS2 In science, a class is identifying In history, pupils are having In maths, pupils have been set a ‘This is ok, but you are
examples the components of a circuit. a class debate on whether problem to solve. One child does better than this!’
The teacher notes that they are Boudica was a hero. The teacher not know where to start. The
missing some key features. notes that not enough historical teacher prompts them to review
terminology is being used and plan: ‘Look at our display of
‘Many of you are identifying the and explains: ‘Historians use strategies that we’ve use to solve
bulbs and wires in this circuit. Can appropriate historical terminology. problems we’ve tackled in the
you also label the switches and In every point you each make, I past. I think one of those could
cells?’ want you to use a specialist term help you to solve this problem.’
we’ve learned, such as “rebellion”
or “Iceni tribe”.’

22 Education Endowment Foundation

 Feedback more likely to move learning forward Less likely

Task Subject Self-regulation strategies Personal

KS3 In computing, pupils have been A maths teacher notes that many Pupils in PE are trying a shot put. ‘You’re a gifted
examples asked to complete a series of pupils are not ordering their One throws a personal best but historian—superb effort
sums where they add together operations correctly, which they her following effort only reaches half as always!’
two binary numbers. The teacher need to do across the subject. the distance. The teacher asks her:
reviews the work and informs She selects an example problem ‘Why do you think that attempt was
each pupil how many they have to complete as a whole class less successful? What should you
got correct. She asks them to before asking pupils: ‘Find the do differently next time?’ The pupil
revisit the questions, work out problems from the last lesson identifies that she was holding the
which are incorrect, and correct where you incorrectly ordered shot put in the base of her middle
them. your operations and correct them.’ fingers for her better attempt, rather
than her palm. She is asked to try
again and monitor the difference.

KS4 In English literature, a teacher A German teacher is reflecting on A geography class are ‘This is poor work—I
examples has read pupil essays on An the oral mock exam that pupils have approaching their exams. They expect better from
Inspector Calls and reflected that just undertaken. Some pupils failed created individual revision plans a student of your
many pupils are not including to use the correct grammatical at the start of term but, having standard’
enough evidence to support gender when speaking, which is just marked pupil mock papers,
their points. She shows pupils an required across the subject. He the teacher suspects that some
example of a former pupil’s work feeds back to some pupils: pupils may only be revising the
featuring a paragraph lacking in topics they are already strong
evidence, and another paragraph ‘You need to use der, die, or das in. She feeds back to one pupil
with sufficient evidence. She in the correct places. For the first who is struggling: ‘Review which
feeds back: ‘Review these ten minutes of this lesson, practice questions you struggled on in
paragraphs. Can you notice the speaking about your part time job the mock exam. Amend your
difference? Now, revisit your with your partner and correct each revision plan to give more priority
work, and add in evidence where other when you use the incorrect to your areas of weakness.’
you think it is necessary.’ der, die or das.’

KS5 A health and social care class A politics teacher is giving A psychology student has ‘Fantastic work—you’re
examples are discussing the factors that feedback on pupil essays on the submitted an essay which is of a born Chemist’
contribute to disease. The teacher strength of select committees in a much poorer quality than their
notes that only genetic factors U.K. politics. Pupils were asked previous attempt. The teacher
are being identified and feeds to include ‘well-substantiated asks them to consider: ‘Thinking
back: ‘The discussion is showing conclusions’, a key skill in politics, about your preparation, and with
a rich understanding of the but one pupil’s essay featured a reference to the assessment
genetic factors, but what about conclusion that did not match the objectives, what three things
environmental factors? Can you argument in the rest of their essay. did you do differently this time
name some environmental causes The teacher feeds back: ‘Your which has resulted in a poorer
of disease?’ conclusion is unsubstantiated and outcome?’ Once these are
does not match the rest of your identified, the pupil will be asked
essay. Re-examine your argument to remedy these shortcomings in
and redraft your conclusion.’ a redrafted essay.

As some of these examples demonstrate, it can often and the lines between them may be blurred. The
be challenging to clearly demarcate the difference key distinction to make is to ensure that feedback
between feedback at the task, subject, and self- is directed towards the task, subject, and/or self-
regulation level. However, teachers and leaders do regulation—it is less likely to be effective if it provides a
not need to be overly concerned by this. These types general comment about the pupil’s characteristics.
illustrate the sort of feedback that may be effective,

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 23

 Grading, praise, and effort

Debates remain over whether to provide a grade on praise may also be given when pupils demonstrate the
pupil work, whether to use praise, and whether to use of social and emotional skills in order to support
comment on effort. their social and emotional development (as detailed by
the EEF’s Improving Social and Emotional Learning in
On grading, there is evidence which suggests that Primary Schools guidance report).53
grades alone may not improve pupil performance
and that they are better replaced by comments.49 Effort is a similarly challenging area to offer clear
However, more recent studies have demonstrated guidance to teachers. Some teachers comment on
mixed results following the provision of comments the effort that pupils have put into an activity when
instead of grades.50 Perhaps giving a grade alone could providing feedback. There is limited evidence on the
still provide information to progress learning providing impact of these comments or effort scores. They may
preparatory work has been done to ensure that the well be time-consuming to administer while it may
learner already knows what that grade means and what also be tricky for a teacher to ascertain precisely how
improvements they need to make on specific types of much effort a pupil has put into a task. However, if a
task—and in that subject generally—to reach the next teacher chooses to comment on effort, it may be useful
grade. Careful planning may also be needed to ensure to link the comment to actions students can take to
that pupils are not disheartened or distracted by the improve at the task, the subject, or their self-regulation
grade (see Recommendation 3 for more discussion rather than a comment on a pupil’s general effort. For
of how pupils receive feedback). If these conditions are instance, rather than saying ‘you haven’t tried hard
not in place, and if this preparation has not been done, enough’, a maths teacher may say, ‘I really think you
a comment that replaces or accompanies a grade may could improve your answer to question 2 if you spent
be preferable to a grade alone. a little more time on it’ (task), ‘your graphs would be
perfect if you just think a little bit more about how you
Praise is another area that has been contested. While have labelled your axes’ (subject) or ‘make sure you
pupils may like praise, some reviews have suggested give yourself time at the end of your work session to
that it may be ineffective in improving pupil progress— review your working and ensure you’re correct’ (self-
it may distract the learner away from the learning regulation).
towards a focus on their self esteem.51 If praise is to
be given, it may be more effective to praise pupils for Despite these complexities, we are left with a clear
a specific task, subject, or self-regulatory achievement message for what to focus feedback on:
(rather than more general praise and comments
such as ‘great work!’). For instance, a drama teacher Regardless of whether a teacher chooses to give
saying, ‘Fantastic work there on your characterisation grades, offer praise, or comment on effort, the
of that character. Your use of body language and feedback they give on learning is more likely to be
facial expressions was brilliant!’, may well be more effective at improving pupil attainment if it includes
effective than ‘well done, great acting!’. The former a focus on the task, subject, and/or self-regulation
provides more information. A teacher may also opt strategies. It is less likely to be effective if it focuses
to provide praise in the classroom for purposes other on a learner’s personal characteristics or provides a
than feedback on learning. For example, praise can be general or vague comment.
used to reinforce positive behaviour and keep pupils on
task, as explained by the EEF’s Improving Behaviour
in Schools guidance report.52 Specific and focused

24 Education Endowment Foundation

Research in focus 2
‘They don’t give us our marks’: the role of
formative feedback in student progress
Emma Smith and Stephen Gorard, 2005 54

Academics from the University of York conducted an evaluation of a change in feedback practice in one
Welsh secondary school. The school divided Year 7 into four mixed-attainment teaching groups. The aim was
for one of these groups to be given enhanced formative feedback comments on their work for one year, but
no marks or grades. The other three groups were given marks and grades with minimal comments.

Following the intervention, the groups that received marks, grades, and minimal comments had superior
outcomes for English, maths, and Welsh. There was no clear difference in science attainment. The evaluation
concluded that aiming to provide enhanced formative feedback for a year (while removing marks and grades)
did not improve results.

However, rather than providing a clear answer on the arbitrary ‘grades or marks versus comments’ debate,
this study may further support our recommendation to focus feedback on the learning, on the specific
learning gaps identified, and on the task, subject, and self-regulatory strategies. This is because it would
appear from pupil interviews in the evaluation that the ‘enhanced formative comments’ were not delivered
effectively and did not provide enough information to progress learning. As one pupil remarked, ‘Miss, I’d like
to know my marks because comments don’t tell us much.’ Students explained that they received comments
such as ‘try harder next time’, ‘try and improve’, or just ‘very good’ and, broadly, the feedback provided
appears to have been ‘poorly understood by the students and did little to enhance the learning process’.

It is unsurprising, therefore, that pupils in the ‘marks and grades with minimal comments’ group made more
progress as their feedback appears to have included more information than their peers in the ‘enhanced
formative feedback’ group. One useful lesson this provides is not to focus on debates regarding grades or
comments, effort or praise; instead, teachers should be intent on providing feedback that specifically targets
the learning gaps pupils have, whether they be related to the task, subject, or self-regulation.

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 25

 3 Plan for how pupils will
receive and use feedback

Amelia is a high attaining Year 10 pupil in a school in the South West who is very confident in history. She was delighted with the
essay she submitted on the strengths and weaknesses of the Weimar constitution. Having spent a long time planning and writing
her response, she was convinced she would receive very positive feedback.

Amelia’s teacher provided useful and purposeful feedback, focusing on the task (pointing out that Amelia could have explained
more about the impact of proportional representation on the German parliament), subject (providing tips on how to construct an
argument), and self-regulation (suggesting that Amelia could read back over her essay at the end to monitor and correct errors).
The teacher pointed to specific high quality elements of Amelia’s essay, while also giving suggestions for improvement.

Amelia is disheartened by the feedback and it knocks her confidence. She had expected that her essay would be perfect and,
therefore, wouldn’t need any further changes. The next lesson then focuses on a different topic so she has no opportunity to act
on the feedback and improve her work.

Amelia’s teacher wonders:

• How can I ensure I provide feedback while considering Amelia’s response

to it? I want to give constructive and useful information, but don’t want to knock
her confidence and reduce her motivation.

• How can I ensure that Amelia has the time and opportunity to use the
feedback offered?

The teacher realises that she needs to pay careful attention to how Amelia receives
feedback while also ensuring that students are given the opportunity to act on the
feedback provided.

In addition to delivering high-quality initial instruction effectiveness of the feedback provided. Moreover,
(including formative assessment), carefully judging the careful planning is required to provide time and
appropriate timing, and crafting the most impactful opportunities for pupils to use the feedback given.
content, when providing effective feedback teachers
also need to pay close attention to how pupils receive Unfortunately, we lack a clear idea of exactly what
feedback and what they do with it after. As Stiggins, influences the receipt of feedback and which specific
Arter, Chappuis and Chappuis remark, the most methods can support the use of it. However, drawing
important decisions taken in classrooms are not taken from studies found by the review underpinning this
by teachers but rather by learners.55 guidance, the expertise of our panel, and reflections
from the review of practice, we can suggest some
A variety of pupil-level factors, such as pupil motivation, pupil-level factors likely to influence the effectiveness of
self-confidence, trust in the teacher, and capacity feedback and offer ideas on how to plan activities that
to manage information, are all likely to impact the enable pupils to make use of feedback.

26 Education Endowment Foundation

Receiving feedback

A variety of factors may influence whether pupils seek Figure 3: Factors that may influence a pupil’s use of feedback
and welcome feedback—and are then able to use it
effectively—and these may affect pupils differently.
Careful consideration is therefore needed when offering Pupil motivation and Self-confidence
feedback to pupils; a ‘one-size fits all’ approach may
desire for feedback and self-concept
not be so impactful. Teachers surveyed in the review
of practice already recognised this challenge: 80% of
primary and 71% of secondary teachers surveyed vary
their expression of feedback depending on the pupil.56

Factors that may influence a pupil’s use of

Trust in the Working
feedback include:
teacher memory
• Pupil motivation and desire for feedback;

• Self-confidence and self-concept;

• Trust in the teacher; and

• Working memory.

Pupil motivation and desire for feedback: 69% Trust in the teacher: If pupils do not trust their
of secondary and 47% of primary teachers surveyed teacher, they may be unlikely to use the feedback
by the review of practice identified a lack of pupil provided. If they do not think their teacher is acting
motivation as a reason why pupils may not use in good faith, they may believe that suggestions
feedback. A further 49% across both groups stated that for improvement are unfair criticisms and reject
pupils declaring ‘I’ve done this piece of work, it’s over’ them. Indeed, 9% of primary and 19% of secondary
prevented pupil use of feedback.57 Evidently, teachers teachers surveyed in the review of practice suggested
recognise that pupils need to seek and welcome that a lack of respect for the source of feedback
feedback for it to be effective and that different pupils stops pupils from using it. However, if they do trust
may be motivated by different types of feedback. their teacher, and believe that feedback is being
Whereas one pupil may be motivated by feedback provided because the teacher has high expectations
targeted at improving their learning and skills, another of them and wants them to improve, the feedback is
may be more interested in feedback that directly more likely to be effective.60
addresses how they can perform better in tests.58

Self-confidence and self-concept: Pupil levels of self ‘Working memory’: This is where information that
confidence in their academic performance and their is being actively processed is held but its capacity
‘self-concept’ (what they believe they can achieve) is limited and can be overloaded.61 Teachers may
may impact whether they use the feedback provided, therefore need to consider how the feedback they
particularly when the feedback given contradicts their provide interacts with a pupil’s working memory, being
view of themselves. If learners believe they are very careful not to overload it.62 Different pupils will have
capable, and then receive constructive feedback different capacities and so teachers may need to adapt
which suggests that they need to make changes and and provide simpler, clearer feedback to some pupils.
improvements, this may agitate and distract them from
the learning (as is the case of Amelia).59 Indeed, 21%
of primary and 33% of secondary teachers surveyed
in the practice review identified being ‘disheartened by
feedback’ as a reason why pupils may not use it.

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 27

 How might a teacher prepare pupils for receiving feedback?

More research is needed if we are to fully understand • Providing clear, concise, and focused feedback.
how students receive feedback, what some Sometimes less is more. Providing clear and concise
researchers call ‘recipience processes’64—pupil-level feedback (which still features task, subject, and/
factors that affect whether a pupil wants to, and is or self-regulation advice) may support teachers in
capable of, using the feedback provided. Until then offering feedback that does not ‘overload’ pupils.67
we can suggest some ideas for how a teacher might
prepare pupils for receiving feedback that take into • Ensuring pupils understand the feedback given.
account these potential factors. Of course, careful thought should be given to the
language and content used in feedback to ensure
• Discussing the purpose of feedback. Conducting that pupils understand what the teacher is saying. If
discussions with the class, or with particular providing written feedback, teacher handwriting also
individuals, on why feedback is being given may needs to be clear enough for pupils to comprehend.68
support pupil motivation and desire to receive
feedback. The key is to emphasise that feedback is
provided not to be critical but because the teacher
has high standards and fully believes pupils can “Giving feedback to learners does
meet them.65
not “magically” improve their
• Modelling the use of feedback. Pupils may skills or boost their grades without
be more likely to welcome and use feedback if those learners acting.”
this is modelled to them by their peers. If a peer
expresses a willingness to receive feedback
and recognises that feedback is not designed Naomi E. Winstone, Robert A. Nash, Michael
to be critical of them but offered to improve their Parker & James Rowntree, 2017 63
learning, a pupil is more likely to use feedback
to improve their own learning.66 Teachers may,
therefore, look to explore ways of modelling the
effective use of feedback. For example, could Whichever strategy a teacher opts to use, they should
whole-class discussions focus on a learner who monitor whether their feedback is being used by
has improved their work because of feedback? pupils. If not, the approach will need to be adapted to
Additionally, could the effective use of feedback be ensure that pupils are welcoming and acting on the
celebrated when it happens in the classroom? information provided.

28 Education Endowment Foundation

Planning time and opportunities to use feedback

As Dylan Wiliam has explained, effective feedback

needs to be used as a windscreen, rather than a rear-
view mirror. In other words, it should be a ‘recipe for
future action’. It is crucial that pupils are given the time
and opportunity to use the feedback given so that it
moves learning forward. Rather than just commenting “Formative feedback
on work that has been finished, it needs to impact the
future work that a pupil will undertake. might be likened to
“a good murder” in
Wiliam remarks that this ‘is inherent in the origin of the
term feedback—a term borrowed from engineering
that effective and
…the important feature of feedback as it is used in useful feedback
engineering is that it forms part of a feedback loop’. depends on three
After identifying a learning gap with effective formative
assessment, feedback is then offered to close this gap. things: (a) motive
Only when that feedback is used by the pupil is the (the student needs it),
learning gap, and therefore the feedback loop, closed.69
(b) opportunity (the
Teachers in English schools recognise this and already student receives it in
aim to provide opportunities for learners to use and act time to use it), and (c)
upon feedback: 86% of primary and 87% of secondary
teachers surveyed in the review of practice described means (the student is
having a specific mechanism in place to allow pupils to able and willing to use
use feedback in lesson. Specific activities undertaken
during this time include correcting errors, redoing work,
it).”
or discussing feedback. However, despite this, 59%
of primary and 44% of secondary teachers surveyed Valerie Shute (2008) 70
still stated that ‘a lack of time’ prevented pupils from
effectively using feedback. Being mindful of these time
constraints, teachers should consider: Are there short,
powerful activities, that could be deployed to enable
pupils to act on feedback?71

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 29

 What might effective post-feedback activities look like in the classroom?

• Detective activities. As explained by Wiliam: ‘The • ‘Three questions’. In this strategy, a teacher
most important thing is to make the way students poses three focused questions at the end of a
respond to feedback a direct task, rather than just written piece of work. The pupils then respond to
presenting feedback. So, the way I describe it is to these.76 Teachers should ensure that questions are
make feedback into detective work. For example, meaningful and focused and they will be different for
rather than saying to students, “If you swap these different students.
two paragraphs around the story would be better”,
you would say, “I think it would be better if two of • Correcting errors and editing work. Teachers may
these paragraphs were reversed. Find out which two ask pupils to make specific corrections and edits to
you think I’m talking about”.’72 A teacher may also previous work. A checklist of common errors, with
put dots in the margin where there may be errors appropriate modelling of use by the teacher, may
and ask pupils to find and correct them (which helpfully steer this approach.
could be further scaffolded for some students if they
replace the dot with codes which identify the type • Completing similar problems with feedback
of correction needed, such as ‘e’ for ‘include more in mind. This technique is very compatible with
evidence’). Another example, which could be more practical subjects such as PE, music, and art where
useful for maths or science teachers, is informing pupils can instantly repeat performances but it
pupils that a certain number of their responses can also be used across the curriculum. A maths
are correct but not informing them which ones; teacher, for instance, could set a pupil another
they then need to figure this out for themselves.73 problem which requires them to use the feedback
These ‘detective’ activities require careful planning provided.77
to ensure that they are tailored to pupils’ level of
understanding. • Redrafting work. (see Ash Grove case study)

• Class discussion of feedback. Providing

opportunities for the class to collectively discuss
the feedback provided may improve pupil use
of feedback and their subsequent attainment.74
Teachers could, therefore, use a class discussion to
explore, explain, and clarify feedback before pupils “The important point
use it in their next activity.
is that the feedback is
focused, is more work
for the recipient than
the donor, and causes
thinking rather
than an emotional
reaction.”

Dylan Wiliam (2018) 75

30 Education Endowment Foundation

Using feedback to inform next year’s teaching

Using feedback to inform future teaching and learning to give, this informs them of the learning gaps and
may not only be confined to a teacher’s current misconceptions that often arise. In turn, this can be
class. Indeed, all teachers interviewed in the review used to adapt the initial instruction provided to pupils
of practice explained that they use the feedback they next time the teacher teaches this topic, improving the
provide to inform how they teach the topic next year.79 quality of initial teaching.
By identifying the feedback that they regularly need

Case study: Ash Grove Primary School—Redrafting via one-to-one verbal conferencing 78
In Ash Grove Primary School in Macclesfield, and across the Aspire Educational Trust, teachers have introduced one-to-one
pupil conferences where teachers provide one-to-one verbal feedback part way through the writing process before pupils redraft
work. This enables them to do two things:

• manage the emotional response to feedback; and

• ensure that feedback is used as a ‘recipe for future action’.

After being set a task, pupils draft a piece of writing, fully aware that this piece will only be a draft. They are comfortable editing
sections and deleting parts as they go. They then discuss the piece with their teacher in a short one-to-one conference during a
lesson (while other pupils work independently). After a feedback conversation on how to take their writing forward, students redraft
their response as a final version.

Teachers at Ash Grove suggest one of the key considerations required to effectively deliver this approach is being able to set
valuable work which students can do independently, rather than time fillers, while conferencing happens. It is also important to note
that this type of feedback is not given on all pieces of work all the time—it offers one method that ensures pupils use the feedback.

Ash Grove pupils have commented on how much it makes them feel their work is valued, and teachers prefer the approach to
deep, time-intensive written feedback on all drafts. The conversation process means they can tailor feedback to individuals,
particularly in terms of handling emotional reactions to feedback, while the process provides feedback at an opportune time for
pupils to then use it to produce a high-quality final piece of work.

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 31

 REFLECTION

Reflecting on the first three recommendations

Recommendations 1, 2, and 3 explain what effective feedback practice

is likely to look like. They provide the core principles that should inform a
teacher’s feedback to pupils and following them is more important than using
a particular method of feedback delivery (such as written or verbal).

Therefore, before we discuss methods of feedback delivery, we invite both

classroom teachers and senior leaders to reflect on these principles:

• To what extent do these principles reflect your current practice?

• What are the challenges that you may face in implementing these
principles? How might you overcome these?

1 Lay the foundations

for effective feedback

32 Education Endowment Foundation

 2 Deliver appropriately timed feedback
that focuses on moving learning forward

3 Plan for how pupils will

receive and use feedback

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 33

 4 Carefully consider how to use purposeful,
and time-efficient, written feedback

Elena is a secondary school geography teacher at a school in the South East who teaches several classes totalling around 180
pupils. Outside of teaching her lessons, she spends at least six hours a week providing written feedback—usually completed in
her evenings and weekends. Elena isn’t convinced that the hours she is putting in are resulting in pupil progress and the heavy
feedback workload is affecting her wellbeing.

Elena’s school feedback policy stipulates that there should be ‘teacher marking, in green pen, on a frequent basis (after every
other lesson)’, which provides a brief comment about the work. However, given the time constraints, Elena rarely has time to
fully engage with pupil work. While she has managed to get some ‘green pen’ into her books after every other lesson, these are
usually vague comments such as ‘Brilliant work!’, that Elena recognises aren’t likely to have much impact on her pupils’ learning.

Elena wishes that she had more time for planning lessons and making careful adaptations to the curriculum so that she can
capitalise on her pupils’ strengths as geographers and to identify areas for improvement. She would also like to spend less time
on light-touch, general written feedback and instead provide purposeful written feedback, which addresses specific learning
gaps and aims to move learning forward.

Elena wonders:

• How can I offer purposeful written feedback?

• What alternative approaches—such as ‘live marking’ or the use of ‘marking

codes’—could be more time efficient?

Elena realises that she has to balance the opportunity cost of written feedback,
deploying a broader repertoire of approaches, whilst ensuring that any feedback she
does give reflects the principles of effective feedback. Additionally, she hopes her
school feedback policy could be amended to reflect this.

Written feedback—whether that is written comments, However, more recently it has been recognised that
marks, scores, or a combination of these—has written feedback can be heavily time intensive for
traditionally been at the heart of school feedback teachers—that it comes with significant ‘opportunity
practices and has been viewed more broadly as a costs’.82 As the Early Career Framework states,
fundamental aspect of teaching. In many cases, written ‘written marking is only one form of feedback’83
‘marking’ has often been conflated with ‘feedback’ and and schools should carefully consider how written
may indeed have unhelpfully supplanted other forms of feedback is delivered and how it sits alongside verbal
feedback. For instance, the review of practice revealed feedback (Recommendation 5). This will allow them
that in a sample of 22 school feedback policies, only to monitor the opportunity cost experienced by
seven included the term ‘feedback’ in the title compared committed teachers such as Elena.
with 12 that included ‘marking’ or ‘assessment’.80

34 Education Endowment Foundation

The review underpinning this guidance did find
that written feedback interventions (which include
comments, marks, or scores) are associated with
improved pupil attainment when compared to no
‘Marking should serve a single
feedback or usual practice. There was no specific purpose – to advance pupil
evidence on the use of certain techniques (such as ‘live progress and outcomes. Teachers
marking’ or ‘marking codes’) but written feedback can
be useful if delivered effectively.84 should be clear about what they
are trying to achieve and the best
However, crucially, rather than focusing on the
method by which feedback is delivered, schools
way of achieving it. Crucially,
and teachers should ensure that all feedback the most important person in
fulfils the principles of effective feedback outlined deciding what is appropriate is
in Recommendations 1 to 3. If written feedback
does this, it may well prove effective; however, such the teacher.’
practices should be closely monitored for their impact
on teacher workload and schools should continue Eliminating unnecessary workload around marking,
to consider the role that verbal feedback can also the Report of the Independent Teacher Workload
play. The choice of method (written or verbal) should Review Group (2016), chaired by Dawn Copping.81
also be left to the classroom teacher, who can better
judge what is appropriate (see Recommendation 6
for more discussion of what school feedback policies
should specify).

Are teachers spending too much time providing written feedback?

Teachers spend a significant proportion of their time In addition to considering the relative impact on
giving written feedback on pupils’ work. In both teacher wellbeing, extensive written feedback may
2013 and 2018, Key Stage 3 teachers, for instance, have a significant opportunity cost when it comes to
spent 6.3 hours per week on written feedback.85 what meaningful work teachers could be undertaking
Unsurprisingly, 65% of secondary teachers and 58% of instead. As such, school leaders should consider:
primary teachers reported that their ‘marking workload’ what other tasks will a teacher need to sacrifice to
was ‘too much’ in 2018,86 and surveys indicate that provide feedback? Is the cost to other areas—reducing
written feedback has a particularly problematic impact planning time, for example—worth the time spent on
on teacher wellbeing.87 written feedback? How can I provide enough time for
teachers to provide impactful feedback, some of which
Perhaps due to this workload and the stresses may be written?
associated with written feedback, 81% of primary
and 63% of secondary teachers surveyed in the
review of practice noted ‘recent’ changes in feedback
policies, the most common including a reduction in When asked by Teacher Tapp in November
the frequency of feedback expected and a shift away 2019, ‘If a genie could fund one thing for every
from written feedback on individual books and towards teacher in the country, what would it be?’, more
teachers requested a marking assistant who
whole-class and verbal feedback.89 However, in some
could mark for them for two hours a week (21%),
schools extensive written feedback remains a burden
than a £1,000 pay rise (16%).88
for teachers and the time teachers spend on it does
not appear to have reduced substantially.

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 35

 What might effective and time-efficient written feedback look like in the classroom?

Although the impact on workload needs to be • Coded marking. Using the shared understanding of
monitored, written feedback, if delivered effectively, can the ‘concept of quality’ that teachers have devised
support pupil progress. So, what might high-quality, for a task (Recommendation 1), a teacher can
workload-conscious written feedback look like? design (or develop in consultation with their pupils) a
number of codes which they can use to mark pupil
First and foremost, in order to be effective, written work. Indeed, 84% of primary teachers and 58%
feedback likely needs to reflect the principles of of secondary teachers surveyed in the review of
effective feedback explained in Recommendations practice stated that their school feedback policies
1 to 3. As such, it will be preceded by effective recommended the use of written marking codes.90
instruction (including considered formative For example, for Amelia’s aforementioned history
assessment), will be timed appropriately, will focus on essay (Recommendation 3), her teacher could
the task, subject, and/or self-regulation (reflecting the devise coded marking focused on the learning
examples in Table 2, Recommendation 2), and there intentions of the task. These codes could be in the
will be careful consideration of how pupils receive and form of letters that correlate to aspects of a high-
then use feedback. quality essay:

Beyond these broad principles, we lack evidence on — R: Does this answer refer to the question?
specific strategies and methods for delivering written — E: Does this offer clear evidence to substantiate
feedback that may be impactful (both for improving your argument?
pupil attainment and reducing teacher workload).
Drawing from our expert panel, the experience of — C: Does this address the causes and
consequences of key events?
practitioners, and our interpretation of the theoretical
literature, we suggest that the following strategies — A: Does this analyse and present both sides of
could prove useful (alongside other strategies that the argument?
schools may devise themselves):
— P: How can you proofread this to make your
point more clearly?
• Live marking (see Charles Dickens Primary School
case study). ‘Live marking’—where marking is given The teacher could add these codes in the margin
during rather than after the lesson—can be enacted where these elements are present—or lacking—and
in a variety of ways so that it proves an efficient may then prompt Amelia to make specific corrections
approach. It may be undertaken with individual or redraft the essay using the codes as prompts.
pupils during typical class teaching (careful If these codes were used over a number of tasks,
consideration of the learning and focus of all pupils Amelia may be asked to review previous work to
during this time is important) or it may be modelled compare and evaluate her performance on particular
to the whole class collectively using tools such as a skills. Amelia could even use the codes herself to
visualiser (see the case study in Recommendation plan, monitor, and review her own work providing
5 for more on this tool). This method may well save they have been fully explained and understood.
teachers time although teachers should still ensure
that the feedback given is thoughtful and purposeful
(rather than just adding the teacher’s pen to books
for the sake of it) and that pupils are provided with
opportunities to use it. The approach may also allow
for additional verbal interaction with pupils, which
may support the understanding of feedback.

36 Education Endowment Foundation

• ‘Thinking like the teacher’. The quality of written • Written comments. It is worth noting that written
feedback may be constrained by the quality of comments can be effective and should not be
planning, editing, and reflection exhibited in pupils’ rejected by teachers because of the opportunity
written work. Before the teacher expends significant cost associated. Indeed, they may offer an
effort on targeted written feedback, pupils could invaluable opportunity to provide task, subject,
spend time pre-empting teacher comments and and self-regulation feedback. The key is to carefully
editing and revising their work (with scaffolds and consider when they are offered, ensure they include
modelling used where appropriate). This is likely to useful information (see Recommendation 2), and
make the opportunity cost of written feedback more carefully monitor the time being spent on them.
of an opportunity for meaningful learning. A teacher may not need to give them all the time,
for every task, and if they are taking the time to
provide them, they should ensure that this time
is not wasted, ensuring that pupils are then given
ample opportunity to use and act on the feedback
(Recommendation 3).

Case study: Charles Dickens Primary School—Live Marking 91

Charles Dickens Primary School in Southwark adapted its feedback policy in 2016 to reduce the burden of
some of its written feedback. Its new policy featured live marking.

Live marking involves the teacher moving around the room, reviewing work, and giving instant feedback, and
only writing in books as required. At Charles Dickens, it operates as part of a range of strategies, including
deep feedback conversations, to prevent feedback becoming solely concerned with surface features such as
spelling and punctuation errors. It may be important to pick these out, but feedback also needs to focus on
other elements of the task and subject in addition to supporting pupils’ self-regulation.

Teachers at Charles Dickens Primary School report feeling more confident about knowing the progression
of their pupils, what needs re-teaching, which pupils need support, and when they can move on with their
instruction. Another reported benefit was that because the live marking was accompanied by spoken
feedback, students may have received it better; teachers commented that their pupils better understood
what the feedback meant and were able to act on it rather than struggling with the intended meaning of the
teachers’ written feedback.

The shift to giving feedback on work during lessons also meant that at the end of the school day, teachers
could spend time planning effective instruction.

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 37

 5 Carefully consider how to
use purposeful verbal feedback

Declan is a Year 4 teacher at a primary school in Yorkshire. His school has recently transitioned from a feedback policy which
mandated mainly written methods of feedback to one where teaching staff are encouraged to use more verbal feedback,
including whole-class verbal feedback.

Declan is delighted. The burden of written feedback caused by the previous feedback policy was sizable, thereby preventing him
from providing thoughtful and purposeful feedback to all pupils. However, having tried whole-class feedback a few times, he is
concerned that his feedback may be too generic and that pupils may not be using it.

Declan wonders:

• Is my whole-class feedback moving learning forward? Is it targeted enough at

the learning gaps my pupils have?

• How could I improve my whole-class feedback to have a better chance of my

pupils making progress? Is this adequately serving the needs of struggling pupils?

Declan recognises that even though he is now giving more verbal feedback, this still
requires effective initial formative assessment (to identify which gaps need filling) and
then focused feedback which addresses the task, subject and pupils’ self-regulation
strategies. Verbal feedback may take less time but it should still be as pedagogically rich.

Verbal feedback is an integral aspect of effective The review that informs this guidance found that verbal
instruction that can be delivered in a variety of different feedback interventions were associated with a positive
ways. It can be pre-planned and highly structured, impact on pupil attainment when compared to no
such as whole-class feedback or a structured one-to- feedback or usual practice. No evidence was found
one discussion; alternatively, it can be instantaneous on the use of specific techniques (such as whole-
and spontaneous, such as quick prompt task advice class feedback or one-to-one verbal discussions);93
(‘you could do with more detail in that answer’). It can however, as with written feedback, verbal feedback
be directed to an individual pupil or a specific group can be impactful if delivered effectively.
with shared learning needs. On the other hand, it could
be offered to a whole class. It can accompany written The central message, as with written feedback, is
feedback, whether that be comments, marks, or to ensure that any verbal feedback given adheres
grades, or it can stand alone. to the principles of Recommendations 1 to 3.
The principles of effective feedback are more
Regardless of how it is delivered, it is crucial to note important than the methods of delivery and the
that verbal feedback is not simply an ‘easy’ alternative choice of method should be left to the teacher.
to written feedback. While it may offer a time-efficient Before it is provided, effective instruction should be
alternative to some forms of written feedback, careful deployed, feedback should be timed appropriately,
thought and consideration is still required when it should focus on moving learning forward, and
delivering it. teachers should plan for how pupils receive and use it.

38 Education Endowment Foundation

The review of practice revealed several perceived As the review of practice concludes:
advantages of verbal feedback which may support the
delivery of feedback in line with these principles. For ‘Spoken feedback is valued by teachers because
instance, the conversational aspect of teacher feedback it is consistent with their views of good feedback,
could support pupils in using the feedback. One namely that it … is possible to tune spoken feedback
secondary school teacher observed: ‘When you have to the student based on their understanding in the
a conversation with them, they take it more seriously moment, that it focuses on next steps, and that it
than when they just read it on a sheet, I find. And avoids some of the problems associated with written
you can also clarify whether they actually understand marking in terms of communication … It is further
what you mean by their target because sometimes valued because of its connection to the personal
they don’t.’ This also returns to the importance of how relationship between student and teacher’
pupils receive feedback (Recommendation 3) and is a
reflection shared by many teachers. (Velda Elliott, et al., 2020). 94

Case study: The Grove Primary School: providing whole-class feedback via visualisers99
At the Grove School in Wiltshire teachers deploy whole-class feedback with the aid of visualisers. Instead of discussing pupils’
work individually with each of them, teachers use visualisers to share and collectively discuss examples of work.

To prepare, teachers read books but rarely write in them. They then use a handwritten sheet of comments which summarises the
strengths and targets for the entire class, naming a number of students, before moving onto a small number of examples from
books that exemplify some of those strengths and weaknesses, using the visualiser to further highlight these to the class.

In the younger classes, the teacher guides the students to pick the good points out of these examples. An ‘even better if’ example
is also shared from the class, but usually anonymously. Before showing it to the class, the teacher may choose to check this is
OK with the pupil, and explain why this is a positive activity, as their work will help the rest of the children to improve. Following a
whole-class discussion about the examples, the class might then switch to paired talk to identify (for example) where full stops
should go. After eliciting improvements from the class, the teacher and the children all work together to model an improved version
of the answer via the visualiser.

In an older class, a greater range of work might be shared with strengths and targets identified by the same pupils who are
considered mature enough to be able to share their weaknesses as well as their strengths. Pupils’ emotional responses to this
feedback are carefully managed as the feedback is carefully framed.

The school has an established culture of all learning together so that pupils do not feel threatened by the use of their work to
model together; it is framed as ‘helping the others’, which echoes the collaborative approach of whole-class feedback.

Teachers reported that the whole-class feedback approach was quicker than offering extensive written feedback on all work for
them but it was still pedagogically rich. It made them (and the pupils) think more deeply about the work because of the need to talk
about it in class and do something with it. It also, they reported, shifted the mindset about ‘finished’ work; a piece of writing would
become part of a longer process including editing and learning from each other to constantly improve.

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 39

 What might effective verbal feedback look Verbal feedback is
like in the classroom? considered by schools
As discussed, effective verbal feedback is likely to need ‘across the board … to
to reflect the principles of effective feedback explained in
Recommendations 1 to 3 (and will mirror the examples
be a constant, and a
offered in Table 2, Recommendation 2). vital part of teaching
and learning’.
Beyond these broad principles, we suggest here some
methods that might be useful:
Velda Elliott et al. (2020) 92

• Targeting verbal feedback at the learning • Verbal feedback using a visualiser. Pupils may
intentions. Using verbal feedback that explicitly find verbal feedback to be too abstract and separate
uses the language set out in your initial learning from the task. By offering feedback whilst showing
intentions and directs pupils’ attention back towards previously completed or currently ongoing work via
this could support more structured and focused a visualiser, the teacher can both maintain focused
verbal feedback. For instance, you may have feedback on the task whilst also using the example
designed a ‘pre-flight checklist’ at the outset of a to model and discuss learning intentions (see the
task as a class. This checklist may have set out Grove School case study).
the success criteria for the task, ensuring that all
were clear about the learning intentions. Your verbal • Video or audio recording. The global Covid-19
feedback, whether at an individual or whole-class pandemic, which led to sustained partial school
level, could refer specifically to this, providing a closures, led to teachers adapting and using new
targeted and focused discussion.95 digital modes of feedback, which they may continue
to use.96 For example, some applications offered
• ‘Action points’. Pupils may find it challenging teachers the digital means to record verbal feedback
to process detailed verbal feedback. As such, for pupils. This could be used to provide pupils
encouraging pupils to write down (or record in a feedback that they could replay, which could perhaps
recording device) and summarise the actions or support their retention of it. However, as we state in
goals resulting from a detailed verbal conversation our Using Digital Technology to Improve Learning
may overcome the often transitory nature of verbal guidance report, ‘as with all uses of technology,
feedback (mitigating ‘I forgot what you said, Miss!’). success will ultimately be determined by the quality of
It is crucial that opportunities are then provided the pedagogy underpinning a programme’s design’.97
for pupils to act on this feedback and close the Put simply, it is the quality of feedback that trumps
feedback loop. the mode of feedback. Using technology to record
feedback may prove both an efficient and effective
approach, however, the key consideration is to
ensure that it fulfils the principles of effective feedback
(Recommendations 1 to 3). See the Sandringham
School case study for an example of the use of audio
recorded feedback in art.

40 Education Endowment Foundation

Following the move to more verbal feedback practices, carefully consider why they are using such methods,
some schools and teachers opt to use verbal which are unlikely to improve pupil outcomes. We
feedback stamps to evidence this practice. Indeed, should ask critical questions: who are these stamps
56% of primary teachers reported using them in their for? What is their purpose? This is further discussed in
teaching back in November 2019.98 Schools should the final recommendation.

Case study: Sandringham School—one to one tutorials in secondary art100

In secondary art lessons at Sandringham School in St Albans students often work on thematic projects
across several lessons. To provide useful and focused feedback, which pupils may then use to improve
their learning, Sandringham’s art teachers use one-to-one tutorials during lessons to talk through pupils’
ideas and support them in developing their portfolios. These tutorials are recorded electronically and
shared with the student.

Tutorials aim to enable and support students to take a creative and personal response to the set theme.
They also allow the teacher to share examples of relevant work from students in other classes to illustrate
what the students might aim for. This includes sharing work produced by older students.

The teachers find that tutorials help the feedback to be personalised and appropriately timed, enabling the
students to adapt what they are working on at the time rather than waiting until the work is submitted. The
electronic record also supports students in continuing to use the feedback beyond the session.

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 41

 6 Design a school feedback policy that prioritises
and exemplifies the principles of effective feedback

Antonia is the headteacher of an all-through school in the North East of England. Addressing feedback has been a long-term
challenge for teachers in the school, with colleagues looking to be more effective and efficient with their feedback, so she reads
the new guidance report, Teacher Feedback to Improve Pupil Learning, with great interest.

Teachers have made some positive changes to a varied diet of feedback in the last school year. However, some approaches to
feedback—such as always offering extensive written feedback once a week for all pupils in Key Stage 2—still appear a somewhat
arbitrary legacy of practices associated with a previous leadership regime.

Antonia wants to ensure the feedback policy of the school is rooted in

evidence-informed principles. She wonders:

• What changes should we make to the feedback policy?

• How can we embed effective practice across the whole school and all
key stages?

• How can we ensure pupils, parents, and teachers understand the

changes and understand their value for pupils’ learning?

Antonia recognises the crucial importance of implementation along with the

need for close attention to supporting teachers with professional development
and wrap-around support so that they can make sustained habit changes.

Feedback is part of the complex fabric of high-quality and not an event.104 Indeed, teachers may have to
teaching that teachers work hard to implement align any proposed new feedback practices ‘with
successfully in their classrooms. As the available hundreds of existing practices’.105 As a result, changes
‘tangled web’102 of research evidence on feedback to even small daily practices are likely to be effortful
indicates, the range of impacts can be wide, which for teachers and can even come into conflict with hard
is a likely indicator of the difficulty in translating the won and crystalised habits.
principles of effective feedback into successful and
sustained classroom practices.103 As such, attempting The implementation process from Putting Evidence to
to implement and enact the recommendations from Work: A School’s Guide to Implementation guidance
this guidance report will require careful consideration. report (Figure 4) can be a helpful starting point to
consider the staged process for teachers to develop
Successful implementation of new teaching their feedback practices in the classroom.
approaches is necessarily a carefully staged process

42 Education Endowment Foundation

Figure 4: Implementation Process Diagram

IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS BEGINS

Treat scale-up as a new Identify a key priority that is

implementation process amenable to change

Continuously acknowledge Systematically explore

support and reward good programmes or practices
implementation practices to implement

Plan for sustaining and Examine the fit and

scaling the intervention feasibility with the
from the outset school context

SUSTAIN EXPLORE
STABLE USE ADOPTION
OF APPROACH DECISION
DELIVER PREPARE

Use implementation data Develop a clear, logical

to drive faithful adoption and well specified plan
and intelligent adaption
NOT READY
- ADAPT PLAN

Reinforce initial training Assess the readiness of

with follow-on support the school to deliver the
within the school implementation plan
READY

Support staff and solve Prepare practically e.g.

problems using a flexible train staff, develop
leadership approach infrastructure

DELIVERY BEGINS

“It doesn’t matter how great an educational

idea or intervention is in principle; what
really matters is how it manifests itself in the
day-to-day work of people in schools.”

‘Putting Evidence to Work: A School’s Guide to Implementation’

Guidance report 101

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 43

 The best available evidence on effective expectations for how feedback should be delivered.
implementation indicates that the development of new Indeed, 96% of primary and 91% of secondary
feedback strategies requires effective professional teachers surveyed in the review of practice stated that
development.106 This is necessary to develop they ‘mostly’ followed their school feedback policy and
both a thorough grasp of the feedback principles they believed that their colleagues did too.107
underpinning new approaches and for all colleagues to
be able to apply the resultant strategies in practice. The application of an implementation strategy such
as developing a new whole-school feedback policy
Effective professional development is likely to be is unlikely to be sufficient in successfully supporting
part of a targeted yet multi-stranded package of change in isolation but it can prove a helpful
implementation strategies. An important driver to starting point and can then be aligned with effective
support teachers and steer practice is the school professional development.
feedback policy—one that provides a formal set of

Research in focus 3:
Anglican Schools Partnership:
Effective Feedback
Evaluated for the EEF by Stephen Gorard, Beng Huat See and Nadia Siddiqui 114

This EEF pilot project focused on improving teachers’ understanding and use of effective feedback.
Participating teachers tried to incorporate evidence-informed feedback into their lessons to help pupils
understand their learning goals and develop strategies to reach them.

The project employed a cyclical action research design through which teachers reviewed academic literature
on effective feedback before developing ways to apply it in the classroom. It was delivered over one school
year and involved nine treatment and five comparator schools in the London Borough of Bexley. All pupils in
Years 2 to 6 took part in the study.

The pilot evaluation concluded that while effective feedback had shown promise in previous studies,
improving feedback consistently is challenging. Teachers often struggled to interpret, understand, and
apply findings from academic research, and they likely required more resources and examples to support
their practice.

The Anglican Schools Partnership evaluation reveals that it can be difficult to communicate and implement
effective feedback. To support change, it may be useful to include clear exemplification in feedback policies
while also supporting teachers with high-quality professional development.

44 Education Endowment Foundation

Box 2: Insights from Feedback in Action: A Review of Practice in English Schools 108
The Feedback in Action review of school feedback practices (Elliott et al., 2020) searched for the feedback
policies from 40 randomly sampled schools (20 primary and 20 secondary); 22 of these were available online
(11 from primary schools; 11 from secondary schools). Insights from these policy documents include:

• Twelve policies included the word ‘assessment’ or ‘marking’ in the title; only seven included the word
‘feedback’ in the policy title.

• The length of feedback policies varied from half a page to 19 pages (the average length was seven pages).

• Seven of the policies referred to an ‘evidence base’, though none of the policies referred to a lack of
evidence for specific practices.

• One secondary school and one primary school explicitly referred to methods that aimed to make written
feedback more manageable.

• Common feedback practices cited include:

— whole-class feedback (four primary schools; two secondary schools);

— live marking (seven primary schools; four secondary schools);

— marking codes (seven primary schools; two secondary schools); and

— feedback conversations (four primary schools; five secondary schools).

Surveys and interviews with teachers were also undertaken as part of the review of practice. Several
reflections were shared with regards to school feedback policies, including positive reflections. For instance,
in line with Recommendation 3, 81% of primary and 74% of secondary teachers stated that their feedback
policies encouraged them to provide opportunities to use feedback. Others reflected that their feedback
policies are deployed to support purposeful and manageable practice: ‘The policy is designed for teachers
to use best judgement about how and why they feedback; it discourages written feedback unless it is
purposeful’, reflected one primary teacher.

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 45

 What might an effective feedback policy look like?—‘The Alphabet model’ (A–F)

A
B The following insights can guide school leaders, such as Antonia, to work with colleagues
C
D to make constructive changes to feedback policies to support changes in practice:
E

A void the over-specification of the wrong things.

You will want to specify a good conception
of what effective feedback is likely to look like (see
C osts associated with feedback practices
need to be carefully considered. School
leaders need to recognise the opportunity costs
Recommendations 1 to 3). However, you still need to that attend feedback—particularly written feedback.
allow for teachers to exercise their evidence-informed Where possible, time-efficient methods should be
professional judgement on elements such as timing and suggested—to mitigate teacher workload—as long
method (written or verbal). The key is to balance what as these are not detrimental to pupils’ learning. As
you need to specify (principles of effective feedback) discussed, the exact methods used should be decided
with what you do not (a specific frequency, a method, by the teacher, but a policy could offer suggestions for
or surface level features of feedback such as colour of how to make methods more manageable.
the pen used for written feedback or the use of ‘verbal
feedback stamps’ simply to provide an accountable
record of verbal feedback with no real purpose
associated with improving learning).
D emonstrate helpful worked examples of
effective feedback practices. Ensuring
teacher autonomy to exercise their evidence-informed
professional judgment is likely to prove valuable,

B e clear on your purpose. Effective feedback

should be focused on enhancing the learning
of pupils, not to make judgements about a teachers’
alongside providing examples of what effective practice
looks like. In the EEF’s Anglican Schools Partnership:
Effective Feedback pilot study, which focused on
performance or to match parents’ expectations (in supporting teachers to enact effective feedback, a
the review of practice, 31% of primary and 20% of ‘number of teachers suggested that the inclusion
secondary teachers reported that they provided of examples of the different types of feedback and
feedback to satisfy the SLT).110 modelling of feedback styles would have improved
the training’.111 Examples of potentially effective
practices may be found in Recommendations 1 to 3,
particularly Table 2 in Recommendation 2.

“The driver for

feedback should
not be the means of
checking it”
Secondary teacher, interviewed
in the Review of Practice (Velda
Elliott et al., 2020).109

46 Education Endowment Foundation

E xpectation management—of pupils, parents,
and teachers—matters.
• Teachers can align their feedback practices
with the very ideals of their professionalism. For
example, the review of practice described how
• Pupils value feedback on their learning. As such, several participants indicated they experienced
you will need to communicate any changes in your the ‘psychological safety of having extensive
practice so that they understand the ‘why’ of any written feedback, or a record of verbal feedback’.
new approach to feedback. One secondary school Additionally, a teacher from one of the primary
in the review of practice described how—when it schools said, ‘There’s quite a nice feeling you
implemented an approach to reduce the provision get from working, which is a totally kind of false
of extensive written feedback with a combination one really, of working through a pile of books and
of book sampling and verbal feedback—a series marking them, needing to be working hard doing
of assemblies for all year groups were held to that.’113 It is clear that teachers are likely to require
communicate the change.112 both practical support and psychological safety to
change their feedback habits. A feedback policy
• Parents can also put value on feedback for their that explicitly secures teachers’ beliefs that they can
child’s learning. Often, written feedback in books exercise their autonomy and professional judgement
is one of the few overt ways a parent can find out is likely to offer teachers a helpful aid.
whether teachers are engaging with the learning of
their child, and so any absence of written feedback
can elicit negative inferences about attending to
the efforts of, and paying attention to, their child. As
F ocus on the foundations of learning. Feedback
does not exist in isolation; it must be rooted in the
firm foundations of effective instruction. Any school
such, carefully orchestrated communications with feedback policy should therefore be sensitive to the
parents could be beneficial—along with pupils—to characteristics of effective instruction and how they
communicate any substantive changes to feedback may vary by phase and subject. This takes us back to
practices (perhaps especially if they remove more Recommendation 1, ensuring that the foundations are
‘visible’ approaches to feedback). laid for effective feedback.

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 47

 REFERENCES

1. Kulhavy, R. W. (1977) Feedback in Written Instruction, 10. Newman, M et al (2021, in press), A Systematic Review
Review of Educational Research, 47 (2, 211–232) p.211. of Feedback Approaches in the Classroom, EEF

2. Stiggins, R. J., Arter, J. A., Chappuis, J. and Chappuis, 11. Adapted from the definition used in the Higgins
J. (2004) Classroom Assessment for Student Learning, S, et al. EEF Evidence Database: https://
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4. Newman, M et al (2021, in press), A Systematic Review 81–112; Fletcher-Wood, H (2018), Responsive Teaching,
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Teaching and Learning Toolkit; Wisniewski B, Zierer
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Frontiers in Psychology. An empirical analysis of four datasets, Research Papers
in Education; Jerrim, J., & Sims, S. (in press). When is
5. Wiliam, D (2018), Feedback, At the Heart of—But high workload bad for teacher wellbeing? Accounting
Definitely Not All of—Formative Assessment, in for the non-linear contribution of specific teaching tasks.
Lipnevich, A and Smith, J, (2018) The Cambridge Teaching and Teacher Education.
Handbook of Instructional Feedback, Cambridge
University Press, p.15 14. Taken from Elliott, V et al (2020), Feedback in Action:
A review of practice in English schools, Department of
6. Shute, V. (2007), Focus on Formative Feedback, Education, University of Oxford, Education Endowment
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V (2008), Focus on Formative Feedback, Review of
Educational Research 78(1), 153–189. 15. Newman, M et al (2021, in press), A Systematic Review
of Feedback Approaches in the Classroom, EEF
7. Newman, M et al (2021, in press), A Systematic Review
of Feedback Approaches in the Classroom, EEF; 16. Newman, M et al (2021, in press), A Systematic Review
Wisniewski B, Zierer K, Hattie J (2020). The Power of of Feedback Approaches in the Classroom, EEF;
Feedback Revisited: A Meta-Analysis of Educational Wisniewski B, Zierer K, Hattie J (2020). The Power of
Feedback Research. Frontiers in Psychology; Kluger, Feedback Revisited: A Meta-Analysis of Educational
A. N., & DeNisi, A. (1996). The effects of feedback Feedback Research. Frontiers in Psychology; EEF
interventions on performance: A historical review, a Teaching and Learning Toolkit.
meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention
theory. Psychological Bulletin, 119(2), 254–284 17. Wording of ‘Move learning forward’ taken from Wiliam,
D (2018), Embedded Formative Assessment (Second
8. We have also referenced the work of some of Edition), Solution Tree Press
these panel members (Dann, Fletcher-Wood, and
Wiliam) where they have provided exemplification of 18. Hattie, J and Timperley, H, (2007), The Power of
recommendations in published works. Feedback, Review of Educational Research, 77 (1), 81–
112; Wiliam, D (2018), Embedded Formative Assessment
9. Elliott, V et al (2020), Feedback in Action: A review of (Second Edition), Solution Tree Press
practice in English schools, Department of Education,
University of Oxford, Education Endowment Foundation. 19. Hattie, J and Timperley, H, (2007), The Power of
Feedback, Review of Educational Research, 77 (1),
81–112, p.82.

48 Education Endowment Foundation

20. For further guidance on how to deliver high quality initial 29. Wiliam, D (2018), Embedded Formative Assessment
instruction, and for the evidence underpinning it, see (Second Edition), Solution Tree Press, Chapter 3
the Early Career Framework: https://assets.publishing.
service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/ 30. Ibid.
attachment_data/file/913646/Early-Career_Framework.
pdf 31. Fletcher-Wood, H (2018), Responsive Teaching, p.80

21. EEF, Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning: 32. Ibid p.97

Guidance Report
33. Ibid, p.63
22. Wiliam, D (2018), Embedded Formative Assessment
(Second Edition), Solution Tree Press, p.52 34. Speckesser, S et al (2018), Embedding Formative
Assessment, EEF
23. Speckesser, S et al (2018), Embedding Formative
Assessment, EEF 35. Shute, V (2008), Focus on Formative Feedback, Review
of Educational Research 78 (1), 153–189, p.163;
24. EEF, Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning:
Guidance Report; EEF Teaching and Learning Toolkit: 36. Shute, V (2008), Focus on Formative Feedback, Review
Peer Tutoring of Educational Research 78 (1), 153–189, p.163; Dann,
R (2018), Developing Feedback for Pupil Learning,
25. Sadler, DR (1989), Formative Assessment and the Teaching, Learning and Assessment in Schools,
design of instructional systems, Instructional Science, Routledge, p.38
18: 119–144. p.121
37. Ruth Dann (2018, p.38) summarises these discussions.
26. Wiliam, D (2018), Embedded Formative Assessment A specific example of a study drawn from Newman, M
(Second Edition), Solution Tree Press, Chapter 3. et al (2021, in press), A Systematic Review of Feedback
Approaches in the Classroom, EEF is: Fyfe ER, and
27. For example, Rakoczy, K et al (2019) Formative Rittle-Johnson B. (2017). Mathematics practice without
assessment in mathematics: Mediated by feedback’s feedback: A desirable difficulty in a classroom setting.
perceived usefulness and students’ self-efficacy, Instructional Science, 45(2), pp.177–194; An example
Learning and Instruction 60 154–165. This study from Higher Education: Mullet, H.G, Butler, A. C., Verdin,
found that when teachers formatively assessed pupils, B., von Borries, R., & Marsh, E. J. (2014). Delaying
they provided feedback which pupils perceived as feedback promotes transfer of knowledge despite
being more useful. It did not improve pupil attainment student preferences to receive feedback immediately.
(although the authors suggest that this could be due to Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition,
the short nature of the intervention, and suggest that 3(3), 222–229.
more thought may be needed to consider how pupils
received the feedback, and what they did with it after: 38. Wiliam, D (2018), Feedback, At the Heart of—But
‘for learning progress, it is particularly important to Definitely Not All of—Formative Assessment, in
strengthen students’ feeling of being competent and Lipnevich, A and Smith, J, (2018) The Cambridge
to provide them with additional learning opportunities Handbook of Instructional Feedback, Cambridge
or strategies’. How pupils receive and use feedback is University Press
discussed at length in Recommendation 3). This study
was identified by Newman, M et al (2021, in press), A 39. when compared with no feedback or usual practice.
Systematic Review of Feedback Approaches in the Newman, M et al (2021, in press), A Systematic Review
Classroom, EEF. of Feedback Approaches in the Classroom, EEF

28. Speckesser, S et al (2018), Embedding Formative 40. Elliott, V et al (2020), Feedback in Action: A review of
Assessment, EEF practice in English schools, Department of Education,
University of Oxford, Education Endowment Foundation.

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 49

 REFERENCES CONTINUED

41. Fletcher-Wood, H (2018), Responsive Teaching, 49. Butler, R. (1987), Task-involving and ego-involving
Routledge, p.107 properties of evaluation: Effects of different feedback
conditions on motivational perceptions, interest and
42. Fyfe ER, and Rittle-Johnson B. (2017). Mathematics performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 474–
practice without feedback: A desirable difficulty in 482; Butler, R (1988). Enhancing and undermining intrinsic
a classroom setting. Instructional Science, 45(2), motivation: The effects of task involving and ego-involving
pp.177–194. This study was identified by Newman, M evaluation on interest and performance. British Journal
et al (2021, in press), A Systematic Review of Feedback of Educational Psychology, 58, 1–14; Elawar M C and
Approaches in the Classroom, EEF. Corno L (1985), A factorial experiment in Teachers’ Written
Feedback on Student Homework: Changing Teacher
43. Fletcher-Wood, H (2018), Responsive Teaching, Behaviour a Little Rather Than a Lot, Journal of Educational
Routledge p.107; Wiliam, D (2018), Embedded Formative Psychology, Vol. 77, No. 2, 162–173; See a useful
Assessment (Second Edition), Solution Tree Press, p.127 summary in Lipnevich, A and Smith, J (2008), Response
to Assessment Feedback: The Effects of Grades, Praise,
44. Wiliam, D (2018), Embedded Formative Assessment and Source of Information, Education Testing Service,
(Second Edition), Solution Tree Press, p.127–8 p.4–7. Also see Wiliam, D (2018), Embedded Formative
Assessment (Second Edition), Solution Tree Press, p.123–
45. Ibid. 126 and Hattie, J and Timperley, H, (2007), The Power of
Feedback, Review of Educational Research, 77 (1), 81–112,
46. ‘Moving learning forward’ is a phrase used extensively p.92 for brief summaries.
by Dylan Wiliam in (2018), Embedded Formative
Assessment (Second Edition), Solution Tree Press. 50. Smith, E, and Gorard, S, (2005) ‘They don’t give us
our marks’: The role of formative feedback in student
47. Conceptualisation drawn from. Hattie, J and Timperley, progress, Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy
H, (2007), The Power of Feedback, Review of & Practice,12:1, 21–38; This study was identified by
Educational Research, 77 (1), 81–112; Fletcher-Wood, Newman, M et al (2021, in press), A Systematic Review of
H (2018), Responsive Teaching, Routledge, pp.98–102. Feedback Approaches in the Classroom, EEF
The review that informs this guidance found that pupils
who received feedback that commented on the task 51. For a brief summary see Hattie, J and Timperley, H,
and its outcome, and feedback that commented on (2007), The Power of Feedback, Review of Educational
the task, its outcome and underlying processes and Research, 77 (1), 81–112, p.96–7; See a detailed
strategy, saw their attainment improve compared to summary of both sides of the debate in Lipnevich, A and
pupils who didn’t receive the feedback. Newman et Smith, J (2008), Response to Assessment Feedback:
al (2021, in press), A Systematic Review of Feedback The Effects of Grades, Praise, and Source of Information,
Approaches in the Classroom, EEF Education Testing Service, p.7.

48. The review underpinning this guidance only found 1 52. EEF, Improving Behaviour in Schools, guidance report
study that featured feedback about the person, which
was also accompanied by feedback at the task, subject 53. EEF, Improving Social and Emotional Learning in Primary
process and self regulation levels (VanEvera, 2003). The Schools, guidance report
lack of studies on this type of feedback is likely to be
due to the consensus that it is unlikely to be effective. 54. Smith, E, and Gorard, S, (2005) ‘They don’t give us
Previous reviews and conceptual models of feedback our marks’: The role of formative feedback in student
have questioned the value of feedback about the progress, Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy
person: Hattie, J and Timperley, H, (2007), The Power of & Practice, 12:1, 21–38. This study was identified by
Feedback, Review of Educational Research, 77 (1), 81–112. Newman, M et al (2021, in press), A Systematic Review
Kluger, A. N., & DeNisi, A. (1996). The effects of feedback of Feedback Approaches in the Classroom, EEF
interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-
analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory.
Psychological Bulletin, 119(2), 254–284.

50 Education Endowment Foundation

55. Stiggins, R.J, Arter, J.A, Chappuis, J, Chappuis, J 62. Fyfe, ER and Rittle-Johnson (2016), Feedback Both
(2004), Classroom Assessment for Student Learning, Helps and Hinders Learning: The Causal Role of Prior
Assessment Training Institute, p.17. Knowledge, Journal of Educational Psychology, 108
(1), pp.82–97. p.88; van Loon MH, and Roebers CM.
56. Elliott, V et al (2020), Feedback in Action: A review of (2020). Using feedback to improve monitoring judgment
practice in English schools, Department of Education, accuracy in kindergarten children. Early Childhood
University of Oxford, Education Endowment Foundation. Research Quarterly, 53, pp.301–313. p.309; Stevenson
CE. (2017). Role of Working Memory and Strategy-Use
57. All of the survey results discussed in this section are in Feedback Effects on children’s Progression in Analogy
drawn from Elliott, V et al (2020), Feedback in Action: Solving:an Explanatory Item Response Theory Account.
A review of practice in English schools, Department of Int J Artif Intell Educ 27(3), pp.393–418. These studies
Education, University of Oxford, Education Endowment were identified by Newman, M et al (2021, in press),
Foundation. A Systematic Review of Feedback Approaches in the
Classroom, EEF
58. Beckmann N, Beckmann JF, and Elliott JG. (2009).
Self-Confidence and Performance Goal Orientation 63. Winstone, E, Nash, R, Parker, M & Rowntree, J, (2017)
Interactively Predict Performance in a Reasoning Test Supporting Learners’ Agentic Engagement With
with Accuracy Feedback, Learning And Individual Feedback: A Systematic Review and a Taxonomy of
Differences, 19(2), pp.277–282. This study was identified Recipience Processes, Educational Psychologist, 52:1,
by Newman, M et al (2021, in press), A Systematic 17–37 2017. This is a review primarily focused on studies
Review of Feedback Approaches in the Classroom. from Higher Education. However, it still provides a useful
conceptualisation of ‘recipience processes’.
59. Baadte C, and Schnotz W. (2014). Feedback Effects
on Performance, Motivation and Mood: Are They 64. Ibid.
Moderated by the Learner’s Self-Concept?—Updated.
Scandinavian Journal Of Educational Research, 58(5), 65. Yeager, D, Purdie-Vaughns, V, Garcia, J, Apfel, N,
pp.570–591. Also supported by: Fyfe, ER and Rittle- Master, A, Brzustoski, P, Hessert, W, Williams, M,
Johnson (2016), Feedback Both Helps and Hinders Cohen, G, (2014), Breaking the Cycle of Mistrust: Wise
Learning: The Causal Role of Prior Knowledge, Journal Interventions to Provide Critical Feedback Across the
of Educational Psychology, 108 (1), pp.82–97. These Racial Divide, Journal of Experimental Psychology:
studies were identified by Newman, M et al (2021, in General Vol. 143, No. 2, 804–824
press), A Systematic Review of Feedback Approaches in
the Classroom, EEF. 66. Ibid.

60. Yeager, D, Purdie-Vaughns, V, Garcia, J, Apfel, N, 67. Wiliam, D (2018), Embedded Formative Assessment
Master, A, Brzustoski, P, Hessert, W, Williams, M, (Second Edition), Solution Tree Press, p.145.
Cohen, G, (2014), Breaking the Cycle of Mistrust: Wise
Interventions to Provide Critical Feedback Across the 68. Elliott, V et al (2020), Feedback in Action: A review of
Racial Divide, Journal of Experimental Psychology: practice in English schools, Department of Education,
General Vol. 143, No. 2, 804–824 University of Oxford, Education Endowment Foundation

61. Early Career Framework: https://assets.publishing.service. 69. Wiliam, D (2018), Embedded Formative Assessment
gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_ (Second Edition), Solution Tree Press, p.139–142.
data/file/913646/Early-Career_Framework.pdf
70. Shute, V (2008), Focus on Formative Feedback, Review
of Educational Research 78 (1), 153–189; p.175.

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 51

 REFERENCES CONTINUED

71. Elliott, V et al (2020), Feedback in Action: A review of 82. Elliott, V et al (2020), Feedback in Action: A review of
practice in English schools, Department of Education, practice in English schools, Department of Education,
University of Oxford, Education Endowment Foundation. University of Oxford, Education Endowment Foundation.

72. Wiliam, D. (2017) Assessment, marking and feedback. In 83. Early Career Framework: https://assets.publishing.service.
Hendrick, C. and McPherson, R. (Eds.) What Does This gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_
Look Like in the Classroom? Bridging the gap between data/file/913646/Early-Career_Framework.pdf
research and practice. Woodbridge: John Catt.
84. Newman, M et al (2021, in press), A Systematic Review
73. Wiliam, D (2018), Embedded Formative Assessment of Feedback Approaches in the Classroom, EEF
(Second Edition), Solution Tree Press. p.146. For a
specific study of effective ‘detective’ type techniques 85. Allen, R.; Benhenda, A.; Jerrim, J. and Sims, S. (2019)
when correcting errors in an English language essay New evidence on teachers’ working hours in England.
(in a Nigerian schools context), see: Eyengho T, and An empirical analysis of four datasets, Research Papers
Fawole O. (2013). Effectiveness of indirect and direct in Education.
metalinguistic error correction techniques on the essays
of senior secondary school students in South Western 86. Elliott, V et al (2020), Feedback in Action: A review of
Nigeria. Educational Research Review, 8(17), pp.1613– practice in English schools, Department of Education,
1620. University of Oxford, Education Endowment Foundation:
Original citation: Jerrim, J. & Sims, S. (2019) The
74. Ajogbeje OJ, and Alonge MF. (2012). Effect of Feedback Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2018
and Remediation on Students’ Achievement in Junior Research report (London: HMSO)
Secondary School Mathematics International Education
Studies, 5(5), pp.153–162. p.160. This study was rated 87. Jerrim, J., & Sims, S. (in press). When is high workload
by M Newman et al 2021 (in press) to have a serious risk bad for teacher wellbeing? Accounting for the non-linear
of bias contribution of specific teaching tasks. Teaching and
Teacher Education.
75. Wiliam, D (2018), Embedded Formative Assessment
(Second Edition), Solution Tree Press.p.146 88. https://teachertapp.co.uk/votes-vouchers-and-your-
remarkable-resistance-to-neuromyths/
76. Ibid, p.144.
89. Elliott, V et al (2020), Feedback in Action: A review of
77. Fletcher-Wood, H (2018), Responsive Teaching, practice in English schools, Department of Education,
Routledge, p.103. University of Oxford, Education Endowment Foundation.

78. Elliott, V et al (2020), Feedback in Action: A review of 90. Ibid.

practice in English schools, Department of Education,
University of Oxford, Education Endowment Foundation. 91. Ibid.

79. Ibid. 92. Ibid.

80. Ibid. 93. Newman, M et al (2021, in press), A Systematic Review

of Feedback Approaches in the Classroom, EEF
81. Eliminating unnecessary workload around marking, the
Report of the Independent Teacher Workload Review 94. Elliott, V et al (2020), Feedback in Action: A review of
Group (2016), chaired by Dawn Copping. practice in English schools, Department of Education,
University of Oxford, Education Endowment Foundation.

52 Education Endowment Foundation

95. Wiliam, D (2018), Embedded Formative Assessment 107. Elliott, V et al (2020), Feedback in Action: A review of
(Second Edition), Solution Tree Press, p.145: As Wiliam practice in English schools, Department of Education,
has explained, ‘feedback should relate to the learning University of Oxford, Education Endowment Foundation.
goals that the teacher has shared with the students’
108. Ibid.
96. https://teachertapp.co.uk/live-lessons-relaxing-in-the-
pandemic-and-are-teachers-going-abroad-this-summer/ 109. Ibid.

97. EEF, Using Digital Technology to Improve Learning 110. Ibid.

guidance report
111. Gorard, S, See, B and Siddiqui, N (2014), Anglican
98. https://teachertapp.co.uk/how-do-you-plan-on-voting- Schools Partnership: Effective Feedback. Evaluation
what-worries-you-about-your-school-plus-four-other- Report and Executive Summary, Education Endowment
intriguing-findings-from-this-weeks-tapping/ Foundation, p.17 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/
ED581096.pdf
99. Elliott, V et al (2020), Feedback in Action: A review of
practice in English schools, Department of Education, 112. Elliott, V et al (2020), Feedback in Action: A review of
University of Oxford, Education Endowment Foundation. practice in English schools, Department of Education,
University of Oxford, Education Endowment Foundation.
100. Ibid.
113. Ibid.
101. EEF, Putting Evidence to Work—A School’s Guide to
Implementation guidance report. 114. Gorard, S, See, B and Siddiqui, N (2014), Anglican
Schools Partnership: Effective Feedback. Evaluation
102. Shute, V. (2007), Focus on Formative Feedback, Report and Executive Summary, Education Endowment
Education Teaching Service, p.1. Foundation, p.17 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/
ED581096.pdf
103. See for example: Gorard, S, See, B and Siddiqui,
N (2014), Anglican Schools Partnership: Effective
Feedback. Evaluation Report and Executive Summary,
Education Endowment Foundation, p.17 https://files.eric.
ed.gov/fulltext/ED581096.pdf With regards to formative
assessment more generally, implementation can also be
challenging. This is summarised in the introduction here:
Schildkampf, K, van der Kleij, FM, Heitink, MC, Kippers,
WB, Veldkamp, BP (2020), Formative assessment: A
systematic review of critical teacher prerequisites for
classroom practice, International Journal of Educational
Research, 103.

104. EEF, Putting Evidence to Work—A School’s Guide to

Implementation, guidance report

105. Robinson, V (2017), Reduce change to increase

improvement, Corwin Impact Leadership Series, p.13

106. EEF, Putting Evidence to Work—A School’s Guide to

Implementation, guidance report.

Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning 53

 NOTES

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