2-1 Gain, Attenuation, and Decibels ‫معالجة‬

Most electronic circuits in communication are used to process signals, i.e., to manipulate
signals to produce a desired result. All signal processing circuits involve either gain or
attenuation.
‫مرغوب‬
‫ أي ﻟﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺔ اﻹﺷﺎرات ﻟﺗﺣﻘﯾق اﻟﻧﺗﯾﺟﺔ‬، ‫ﺗُﺳﺗﺧدم ﻣﻌظم اﻟدواﺋر اﻹﻟﻛﺗروﻧﯾﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻻﺗﺻﺎﻻت ﻟﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺔ اﻹﺷﺎرات‬
.‫ ﺗﺷﺗﻣل ﺟﻣﯾﻊ دواﺋر ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺔ اﻹﺷﺎرات إﻣﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻛﺳب أو اﻟﺗوھﯾن‬.‫اﻟﻣرﺟوة‬
Gain
Gain means ampliication. If a signal is applied to a circuit such as the ampliier shown Gain
in Fig. 2-1 and the output of the circuit has a greater amplitude than the input signal,
the circuit has gain. Gain is simply the ratio of the output to the input. For input (Vin )
and output (Vout ) voltages, voltage gain AV is expressed as follows:
Figure 2-1 An amplifier has
output Vout gain.
AV 5 5
input Vin Amplifier
The number obtained by dividing the output by the input shows how much larger Vin Vout
the output is than the input. For example, if the input is 150 µV and the output is Input signal Output signal
75 mV, the gain is AV 5 (75 3 1023 )y(150 3 1026 ) 5 500. Vout
A ⫽ gain ⫽
The formula can be rearranged to obtain the input or the output, given the other two Vin
variables: Vout 5 Vin 3 AV and Vin 5 Vout /AV.
If the output is 0.6 V and the gain is 240, the input is Vin 5 0.6/240 5
2.5 3 10 23 5 2.5 mV.
‫ يعني انها اكبر من واحد‬gain ‫مبني لي انها‬
voltage gain Output > input

Example 2-1
What is the voltage gain of an ampliier that produces an output of 750 mV for a
30-µV input?
Vout 750 3 1023
AV 5 5 5 25,000
Vin 30 3 1026

Since most ampliiers are also power ampliiers, the same procedure can be used to
calculate power gain AP:
Pout ‫نفس القانون ينطبق على البور‬
AP 5
Pin
where Pin is the power input and Pout is the power output.

Example 2-2
The power output of an ampliier is 6 watts (W). The power gain is 80. What is the
input power?
Pout Pout
AP 5     therefore    Pin 5
Pin AP
6
Pin 5 5 0.075 W 5 75 mW
80

Electronic Fundamentals for Communications 31

 Figure 2-2 Total gain of cascaded circuits is the product of individual stage gains.

Vin ⫽ 1 mV 5 mV 15 mV Vout ⫽ 60 mV
Cascaded Circuit ‫ يكون اسمها‬amplifiers ‫السلسلة املكونة من‬

A1 ⫽ 5 A2 ⫽ 3 A3 ⫽ 4
‫ لحاله‬voltage gain ‫* ضرب كل‬
AT ⫽ A1 ⫻ A2 ⫻ A3 ⫽ 5 ⫻ 3 ⫻ 4 ⫽ 60
‫ليس شرط ان يكونوا متساويني‬

When two or more stages of ampliication or other forms of signal processing are
cascaded, the overall gain of the combination is the product of the individual circuit
gains. Fig. 2-2 shows three ampliiers connected one after the other so that the output
of one is the input to the next. The voltage gains of the individual circuits are marked.
To ind the total gain of this circuit, simply multiply the individual circuit gains:
AT 5 A1 3 A2 3 A3 5 5 3 3 3 4 5 60.
If an input signal of 1 mV is applied to the irst ampliier, the output of the third
ampliier will be 60 mV. The outputs of the individual ampliiers depend upon their
individual gains. The output voltage from each ampliier is shown in Fig. 2-2.

Example 2-3
Three cascaded ampliiers have power gains of 5, 2, and 17. The input power is
40 mW. What is the output power?
AP 5 A1 3 A2 3 A3 5 5 3 2 3 17 5 170
Pout
AP 5     therefore    Pout 5 APPin
Pin
Pout 5 170(40 3 1023 ) 5 6.8 W

Example 2-4
A two-stage ampliier has an input power of 25 µW and an output power of 1.5 mW.
One stage has a gain of 3. What is the gain of the second stage?
Pout 1.5 3 1023
AP 5 5 5 60
Pin 25 3 1026
AP 5 A1 3 A2
If A1 5 3, then 60 5 3 3 A2 and A2 5 60y3 5 20.

32 Chapter 2
Figure 2-3 A voltage divider introduces attenuation.

Vin
loss ‫قانون الديفايدر يمثل ان فيه‬

R1 ⫽ 200 ⍀

R2 ‫الرسمه مهمة‬
Vout ⫽ Vin
R1 ⫹ R2

R2 ⫽ 100 ⍀
R2 100
A⫽ ⫽ ⫽ 0.3333
R1 ⫹ R2 300

Attenuation
Attenuation refers to a loss introduced by a circuit or component. Many electronic circuits, Attenuation 1 ‫ولكن ليس بالسالب‬
sometimes called stages, reduce the amplitude of a signal rather than increase it. If the
Output < input
output signal is lower in amplitude than the input, the circuit has loss, or attenuation. Like
‫ اكبر من‬input‫طبيعي يكون أقل من واحد ألن الـ‬
gain, attenuation is simply the ratio of the output to the input. The letter A is used to output‫الـ‬
represent attenuation as well as gain:
output Vout
Attenuation A 5 5
input Vin
Circuits that introduce attenuation have a gain that is less than 1. In other words,
the output is some fraction of the input.
An example of a simple circuit with attenuation is a voltage divider such as that
shown in Fig. 2-3. The output voltage is the input voltage multiplied by a ratio based
on the resistor values. With the resistor values shown, the gain or attenuation factor of
the circuit is A 5 R2/(R1 1 R2 ) 5 100/(200 1 100) 5 100/300 5 0.3333. If a signal of
10 V is applied to the attenuator, the output is Vout 5 Vin A 5 10(0.3333) 5 3.333 V.
When several circuits with attenuation are cascaded, the total attenuation is, again,
the product of the individual attenuations. The circuit in Fig. 2-4 is an example. The
attenuation factors for each circuit are shown. The overall attenuation is

AT 5 A1 3 A2 3 A3

With the values shown in Fig. 2-4, the overall attenuation is

AT 5 0.2 3 0.9 3 0.06 5 0.0108

Given an input of 3 V, the output voltage is

Vout 5 ATVin 5 0.0108(3) 5 0.0324 5 32.4 mV

Figure 2-4 Total attenuation is the product of individual attenuations of each

cascaded circuit.

Vin ⫽ 3 V Vout
Loss Loss Loss
stage circuit component

A1 ⫽ 0.2 A2 ⫽ 0.9 A3 ⫽ 0.06

AT ⫽ A1 ⫻ A2 ⫻ A3 ⫽ 0.2 ⫻ 0.9 ⫻ 0.06 ⫽ 0.0108
Vout ⫽ ATVin ⫽ 0.0324 ⫽ 32.4 mV

Vout < Vin

Electronic Fundamentals for Communications 33

 Figure 2-5 Gain exactly ofsets the attenuation.
‫ وابي‬Attenuation ‫في حالة كان عندي فقد في الـ‬ Vin
‫ بحيث اشوف قيمة‬offset ‫اعوض هذا الفقد اسوي لها‬
‫ يعوض لي قيمة الفقد‬amplifier stage ‫الفقد واحط‬
1 ‫ويكون الجواب‬ 750 ⍀

Vout ⫽ Vin
A1
A2 ⫽ 4

250 ⍀
A2

250 - Vin=Vout
A1 ⫽
750 ⫹ 250 AT ⫽ A1A2 ⫽ 0.25(4) ⫽ 1 - Attenuation <1
250 - Gain >1
A1 ⫽ ⫽ 0.25
1000

‫ﻣن اﻟﺷﺎﺋﻊ ﻓﻲ أﻧظﻣﺔ وﻣﻌدات اﻻﺗﺻﺎل أن ﺗﺗﺳﻠﺳل اﻟدواﺋر‬

‫ ﯾﻣﻛن‬، ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺑﯾل اﻟﻣﺛﺎل‬.‫واﻟﻣﻛوﻧﺎت اﻟﺗﻲ ﻟﮭﺎ ﻣﻛﺎﺳب وﺗوھﯾن‬ It is common in communication systems and equipment to cascade circuits and
‫ﺗﻌوﯾض اﻟﺧﺳﺎرة اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺣدﺛﮭﺎ اﻟداﺋرة ﻋن طرﯾق إﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻣرﺣﻠﺔ‬ components that have gain and attenuation. For example, loss introduced by a circuit can
‫ ھﻧﺎ‬.5-2 ‫ ﻣﺛﺎل ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟك ﻣوﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺷﻛل‬.‫ﺗﺿﺧﯾم ﺗﻌوﺿﮭﺎ‬
be compensated for by adding a stage of ampliication that offsets it. An example of this
‫ أو ﺗوھﯾن ﻗدره‬، 1 ‫ إﻟﻰ‬4 ‫ﯾﻘدم ﻣﻘﺳم اﻟﺟﮭد ﺧﺳﺎرة ﺟﮭد‬
.4 ‫ ﯾﺗم اﺗﺑﺎﻋﮫ ﺑﻣﺿﺧم ﯾﻛون رﺑﺣﮫ‬، ‫ ﻟﺗﻌوﯾض ھذا‬.0.25 is shown in Fig. 2-5. Here the voltage divider introduces a 4-to-1 voltage loss, or an
‫اﻟﻛﺳب اﻟﻌﺎم أو اﻟﺗوھﯾن ﻟﻠداﺋرة ھو ﺑﺑﺳﺎطﺔ ﻧﺎﺗﺞ ﻋواﻣل‬ attenuation of 0.25. To offset this, it is followed with an ampliier whose gain is 4. The
A ‫ ﯾﻛون اﻟﻛﺳب اﻹﺟﻣﺎﻟﻲ‬، ‫ ﻓﻲ ھذه اﻟﺣﺎﻟﺔ‬.‫اﻟﺗوھﯾن واﻟﻛﺳب‬ overall gain or attenuation of the circuit is simply the product of the attenuation and gain
.T 5 A1 A 2 5 0.25 (4) 5 1 factors. In this case, the overall gain is AT 5 A1A2 5 0.25(4) 5 1.
Another example is shown in Fig. 2-6, which shows two attenuation circuits and
‫ واﻟذي ﯾوﺿﺢ داﺋرﺗﯾن‬، 6-2 ‫ﯾظﮭر ﻣﺛﺎل آﺧر ﻓﻲ اﻟﺷﻛل‬
‫ ﺗم إﻋطﺎء ﻋواﻣل اﻟرﺑﺢ واﻟﺗوھﯾن‬.‫ﻟﻠﺗوھﯾن وداﺋرﺗﯾن ﻣﻛﺑرﯾن‬ two ampliier circuits. The individual gain and attenuation factors are given. The overall
A T 5 A 1 A 2 A 3 A ‫ اﻟﻛﺳب اﻟﻛﻠﻲ ﻟﻠداﺋرة ھو‬.‫اﻟﻔردﯾﺔ‬ circuit gain is AT 5 A1 A2 A3 A4 5 (0.1)(10)(0.3)(15) 5 4.5.
.4 5 (0.1) (10) (0.3) (15) 5 4.5 For an input voltage of 1.5 V, the output voltage at each circuit is shown in
Fig. 2-6.
‫ ﯾظﮭر ﺟﮭد اﻟﺧرج ﻓﻲ ﻛل‬، ‫ ﻓوﻟت‬1.5 ‫ﺑﺎﻟﻧﺳﺑﺔ ﻟﺟﮭد دﺧل‬ In this example, the overall circuit has a net gain. But in some instances, the overall
.6-2 ‫داﺋرة ﻓﻲ اﻟﺷﻛل‬
circuit or system may have a net loss. In any case, the overall gain or loss is obtained
‫ وﻟﻛن ﻓﻲ‬.‫ اﻟداﺋرة اﻟﻛﻠﯾﺔ ﻟﮭﺎ ﻣﻛﺎﺳب ﺻﺎﻓﯾﺔ‬، ‫ﻓﻲ ھذا اﻟﻣﺛﺎل‬ by multiplying the individual gain and attenuation factors.
.‫ ﻗد ﯾﻛون ﻟﻠداﺋرة أو اﻟﻧظﺎم ﻛﻛل ﺧﺳﺎرة ﺻﺎﻓﯾﺔ‬، ‫ﺑﻌض اﻟﺣﺎﻻت‬ Important
‫ ﯾﺗم اﻟﺣﺻول ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟرﺑﺢ أو اﻟﺧﺳﺎرة اﻹﺟﻣﺎﻟﯾﺔ‬، ‫ﻓﻲ أي ﺣﺎل‬
1 ‫ يساوي‬AT ‫ االوفيست هو اللي يخلي ناتج‬-
How to find the offset ?
loss ‫ يتساوى مع الـ‬gain ‫ اي ان الـ‬-

Example 2-5
A voltage divider such as that shown in Fig. 2-5 has values of R1 5 10 kV and
R2 5 470 V.
a. What is the attenuation?
R2 470
A1 5 5    A1 5 0.045
R1 1 R2 10,470
b. What amplifier gain would you need to offset the loss for an overall gain of 1?
AT 5 A1A2
where A1 is the attenuation and A2 is the amplifier gain.
1
1 5 0.045A2   A2 5 5 22.3
0.045
Note: To ind the gain that will offset the loss for unity gain, just take the
reciprocal of attenuation: A2 5 1yA1.

34 Chapter 2
 Figure 2-6 The total gain is the product of the individual stage gains and attenuations.

Vin ⫽ 1.5 V 0.15 V 1.5 V 0.45 V Vout ⫽ 6.75 V

Loss Loss Bigger than 1
stage stage Gain
A1 ⫽ 0.1 A2 ⫽ 10 A3 ⫽ 0.3 A4 ⫽ 15
AT ⫽ A1A2A3A4 ⫽ (0.1)(10)(0.3)(15) ⫽ 4.5
Gain stage Attenuation stage

Stage = circuit

Example 2-6
An ampliier has a gain of 45,000, which is too much for the application. With an
input voltage of 20 µV, what attenuation factor is needed to keep the output voltage
from exceeding 100 mV? Let A1 5 ampliier gain 5 45,000; A2 5 attenuation factor;
AT 5 total gain.
Vout 100 3 1023
AT 5 5 5 5000
Vin 20 3 1026
AT 5000
AT 5 A1A2    therefore    A2 5 5 5 0.1111
A1 45,000

Decibels
The gain or loss of a circuit is usually expressed in decibels (dB), a unit of measurement Decibel (dB)
that was originally created as a way of expressing the hearing response of the human
ear to various sound levels. A decibel is one-tenth of a bel.
When gain and attenuation are both converted to decibels, the overall gain or atten-
uation of an electronic circuit can be computed by simply adding the individual gains or
attenuations, expressed in decibels.
Why use dB It is common for electronic circuits and systems to have extremely high gains or
dB ‫ الى‬loss ‫ او الـ‬gain ‫اذا تحول الـ‬
attenuations, often in excess of 1 million. Converting these factors to decibels and using ‫ للدائرة الكهربائية تحسب‬AT ‫الـ‬
logarithms result in smaller gain and attenuation igures, which are easier to use. loss ‫ او‬gain ‫بإضافة‬

Decibel Calculations. The formulas for computing the decibel gain or loss of a
circuit are
Vout ‫ يسهل استخدامها‬dB ‫تحويل الى الـ‬
dB 5 20 log (1)
Vin
Iout
dB 5 20 log (2)
Iin
Pout
dB 5 10 log (3)
Pin
Formula (1) is used for expressing the voltage gain or attenuation of a circuit; for-
mula (2), for current gain or attenuation. The ratio of the output voltage or current to
the input voltage or current is determined as usual. The base-10 or common log of the
input/output ratio is then obtained and multiplied by 20. The resulting number is the
gain or attenuation in decibels.

Electronic Fundamentals for Communications 35

 Formula (3) is used to compute power gain or attenuation. The ratio of the power
output to the power input is computed, and then its logarithm is multiplied by 10.

Example 2-7
a. An amplifier has an input of 3 mV and an output of 5 V. What is the gain in
decibels?
5
dB 5 20 log 5 20 log 1666.67 5 20(3.22) 5 64.4
0.003
b. A filter has a power input of 50 mW and an output of 2 mW. What is the gain
or attenuation?
2
dB 5 10 log 5 10 log 0.04 5 10(21.398) 5 213.98 ‫تجي سالب‬
50
Note that when the circuit has gain, the decibel igure is positive. If the gain is
less than 1, which means that there is an attenuation, the decibel igure is negative.

Now, to calculate the overall gain or attenuation of a circuit or system, you simply add
the decibel gain and attenuation factors of each circuit. An example is shown in Fig. 2-7,
where there are two gain stages and an attenuation block. The overall gain of this circuit is
AT 5 A1 1 A2 1 A3 5 15 2 20 1 35 5 30 dB
Decibels are widely used in the expression of gain and attenuation in communication
circuits. The table on the next page shows some common gain and attenuation factors
and their corresponding decibel igures.
Ratios less than 1 give negative decibel values, indicating attenuation. Note that a
2:1 ratio represents a 3-dB power gain or a 6-dB voltage gain.

Antilogs. To calculate the input or output voltage or power, given the decibel gain
Antilog or attenuation and the output or input, the antilog is used. The antilog is the number
obtained when the base is raised to the logarithm, which is the exponent:
Pout dB Pout
dB 5 10 log    and    5 log
Pin 10 Pin
and
Pout dB dB
5 antilog 5 log21
Pin 10 10
The antilog is simply the base 10 raised to the dB/10 power.

Figure 2-7 Total gain or attenuation is the algebraic sum of the individual stage
gains in decibels.

A2 ⫽ ⫺20 dB
stages ‫ تكون مجموع الـ‬AT‫ الـ‬dB ‫اذا كانت‬ A1 ⫽ 15 dB A3 ⫽ 35 dB
Loss
stage

AT ⫽ A1 ⫹ A2 ⫹ A3
AT ⫽ 15 ⫺ 20 ⫹ 35 ⫽ 30 dB

36 Chapter 2
 d B G A I N O R AT T E N U AT I O N

Ratio (Power or Voltage) Power Voltage

0.000001 260 2120

0.00001 250 2100

0.0001 240 280

0.001 230 260

0.01 220 240

0.1 210 220

0.5 23 26

1 0 0

2 3 6

10 10 20

100 20 40

1000 30 60

10,000 40 80

100,000 50 100

Remember that the logarithm y of a number N is the power to which the base 10
must be raised to get the number.
N 5 10 y   and   y 5 log N
Since
Pout ‫للتحويل الى الـ‬
dB 5 10 log
Pin
dB Pout
5 log
10 Pin
Therefore
Pout dB ‫ الى الشكل العادي‬dB‫للتحويل من الـ‬
5 10dB/10 5 log21
Pin 10
The antilog is readily calculated on a scientiic calculator. To ind the antilog for a
common or base-10 logarithm, you normally press the Inv or 2nd function key on the
calculator and then the log key. Sometimes the log key is marked with 10 x, which is the
antilog. The antilog with base e is found in a similar way, by using the Inv
or 2nd function on the In key. It is sometimes marked e x, which is the same as the
antilog.

Electronic Fundamentals for Communications 37

 Example 2-8
A power ampliier with a 40-dB gain has an output power of 100 W. What is the input
power?
Pout
dB 5 10 log    antilog 5 log21
Pin
dB Pout
5 log
10 Pin
40 Pout
5 log
10 Pin
Pout
4 5 log
Pin

antilog 4 5 antilog alog b

Pout
Pin
Pout
log21 4 5
Pin
Pout
5 104 5 10,000
Pin
Pout 100
Pin 5 5 5 0.01 W 5 10 mW
10,000 10,000
antilog = log = 10

Example 2-9
An ampliier has a gain of 60 dB. If the input voltage is 50 µV, what is the output
voltage?
Since
Vout
dB 5 20 log
Vin
dB Vout
5 log
20 Vin
Therefore
Vout dB
5 log21 510dB/20
Vin 20
Vout
5 1060/20 5 103
Vin
Vout
5 103 5 1000
Vin
Vout 5 1000Vin 5 1000 (50 3 1026 ) 5 0.05 V 5 50 mV

38 Chapter 2
 !!‫ فقط‬power ‫مع الـ‬

dBm. When the gain or attenuation of a circuit is expressed in decibels, implicit is a

comparison between two values, the output and the input. When the ratio is computed,
the units of voltage or power are canceled, making the ratio a dimensionless, or relative,
figure. When you see a decibel value, you really do not know the actual voltage or
power values. In some cases, this is not a problem; in others, it is useful or necessary
to know the actual values involved. When an absolute value is needed, you can use Reference value
a reference value to compare any other value.
dBm
An often used reference level in communication is 1 mW. When a decibel value is
computed by comparing a power value to 1 mW, the result is a value called the dBm. It
is computed with the standard power decibel formula with 1 mW as the denominator of
the ratio:
GOOD TO KNOW
Pout (W )
dBm 5 10 log From the standpoint of sound
0.001(W )
measurement, 0 dB is the least
Here Pout is the output power, or some power value you want to compare to 1 mW, and perceptible sound (hearing
0.001 is 1 mW expressed in watts.
threshold), and 120 dB equals the
The output of a 1-W ampliier expressed in dBm is, e.g.,
pain threshold of sound. This list
1 shows intensity levels for com-
dBm 5 10 log 5 10 log 1000 5 10(3) 5 30 dBm
0.001 mon sounds. (Tippens, Physics,
Sometimes the output of a circuit or device is given in dBm. For example, if a micro- 6th ed., Glencoe/McGraw-Hill,
phone has an output of 250 dBm, the actual output power can be computed as follows: 2001, p. 497)
Pout Intensity
250 dBm 5 10 log
0.001 Sound level, dB
250 dBm Pout Hearing threshold 0
5 log
10 0.001 Rustling leaves 10
Therefore Whisper 20
Quiet radio 40
Pout
5 10250 dBm/10 5 1025 5 0.00001 Normal conversation 65
0.001 Busy street corner 80
Pout 5 0.001 3 0.00001 5 1023 3 1025 5 1028 W 5 10 3 1029 5 10 nW Subway car 100
Pain threshold 120
Jet engine 140–160

Example 2-10
A power ampliier has an input of 90 mV across 10 kV. The output is 7.8 V across
an 8-V speaker. What is the power gain, in decibels? You must compute the input and
output power levels irst.
V2
P5
R
(90 3 1023 ) 2
Pin 5 5 8.1 3 1027 W
104
(7.8) 2
Pout 5 5 7.605 W
8
Pout 7.605
AP 5 5 5 9.39 3 106
Pin 8.1 3 1027
AP (dB) 5 10 log AP 5 10 log 9.39 3 106 5 69.7 dB

Electronic Fundamentals for Communications 39

 ‫مهم‬
dBc. This is a decibel gain attenuation figure where the reference is the carrier. The
‫جاء في امليد االول‬ carrier is the base communication signal, a sine wave that is modulated. Often the ampli-
tude’s sidebands, spurious or interfering signals, are referenced to the carrier. For exam-
: ‫كان السؤال‬ ple, if the spurious signal is 1 mW compared to the 10-W carrier, the dBc is
What is dBc? Psignal
dBc 5 10 log
Pcarrier
0.001
dBc 5 10 log 5 10(24) 5 240
10

Example 2-11
An ampliier has a power gain of 28 dB. The input power is 36 mW. What is the
output power?
Pout
5 10dBy10 5 102.8 5 630.96
Pin
Pout 5 630.96 Pin 5 630.96(36 3 1023 ) 5 22.71 W

dB ‫ارجعها ألصلها بدون‬

Example 2-12 ‫ مشترك للكل‬dB ‫الـ‬
A circuit consists of two ampliiers with gains of 6.8 and 14.3 dB and two ilters with
attenuations of 216.4 and 22.9 dB. If the output voltage is 800 mV, what is the input
voltage?
AT 5 A1 1 A2 1 A3 1 A4 5 6.8 1 14.3 2 16.4 2 2.9 5 1.8 dB
Vout
AT 5 5 10dBy20 5 101.8y20 5 100.09
Vin
Vout
5 100.09 5 1.23
Vin
Vout 800
Vin 5 5 5 650.4 mV
1.23 1.23

Example 2-13
Express Pout 5 12.3 dBm in watts.
Pout ‫هذا اللي تجيبه‬
5 10dBmy10 5 1012.3y10 5 101.23 5 17
0.001
Pout 5 0.001 3 17 5 17 mW

40 Chapter 2