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Chap 4

Magnetic Effect of Current

CONCEPT OF MAGNETIC FIELD:-

The space around a magnet within which its influence can be experienced is called its
magnetic field. However, now it is known that all magnetic phenomena result from forces
between electric charges in motion.

To explain the interaction between two charges in motion, its useful to introduce the
concept of magnetic field, and to describe the interaction in two stages:

1. A moving charge or a current sets up or creates a magnetic field in the space surrounding
it.

2. The magnetic field exerts a force on a moving charge or a current in the field.

NOTE:- The relation between electricity and magnetism was first noticed by an Italian Jurist
Gian Demenico Romagnosi in 1802.

OERSTED’S EXPERIMENT:-

The fact that a magnetic field is associated with an electric field was rediscovered in 1820
by a Danish Physicist Hans Christian Oersted.

He took a magnetic needle SN pivoted over a stand. Held a wire AB parallel to the needle
SN and connected it to a cell and a plug key as shown in the figure below.

He observed that:

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1. When the wire is held above the needle and the current flows from the south to the
north, the north pole of the magnetic needle gets deflected towards the west, as shown in
the figure.

2. When the direction of the current is reversed, so that it flows from the north to the
south, the north pole of the magnetic needle gets deflected towards the east, as shown in
the figure.

3. When the wire is placed below the needle, the direction of deflection of the needle is
again reversed.

4. When the current in the wire is stopped flowing, the magnetic needle comes back into its
initial position.

And since a magnetic needle can be deflected by a magnetic field only, he concluded that a
current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it.

BIO-SAVART LAW:-

It was stated by the Oersted’s experiment that a current carrying conductor produces a
magnetic field around it. We assume that this field is made up of contributions from
different segments of the conductor, called current elements.

A current element is denoted by ⃗⃗⃗ , and has the same direction as that of current

Derivation

DIRECTION OF ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ :-

The direction of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is the direction of the vector ⃗⃗⃗ . It is given by right hand screw rule.
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RIGHT HAND SCREW RULE:-

If we place a right handed screw at point P perpendicular to the plane of paper and turn its
handle from ⃗⃗⃗ to , then the direction in which the screw advances gives the direction ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
The direction of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ comes out to be perpendicular to and into the plane of paper, and is
shown by an encircled cross at point P.

SI UNIT OF MAGNETIC FIELD FROM BIOT-SAVART LAW:-

The SI unit of magnetic field is tesla.

According to Biot-Savart law,

If 1A, 1 m and 90 , then

Thus 1 tesla = times the magnetic field produced by a conducting wire of length 1
metre and carrying current of 1 ampere at a distance of 1 metre from it and perpendicular
from it.

COMPARISON OF BIOT-SAVART LAW WITH COULOMB’S LAW:-

Coulomb’s law gives the expression of electric field produced by a charged element at a
distance by

Biot-Savart law expresses the magnetic field produced by a current element ⃗⃗⃗ at a
distance by

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On comparing the above two equations, we get the following points of similarities and
differences between the two laws.

Points of similarity
1. Both fields depend inversely on the square of the distance from the source to the point
of observation
2. Both are long range fields
3. The principle of superposition is applicable to both fields. This is because the magnetic
field is linearly related to its source, namely, the current element ⃗⃗⃗ and the electrostatic
field is related linearly to its source, namely, the electric charge.
Points of difference
1. The magnetic field is produced by a vector source: the current element ⃗⃗⃗ . The
electrostatic field is produced by a scalar source: the electric charge .
2. The direction of the electrostatic field is along the displacement vector joining the source
and the field point. The direction of the magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane
containing
the displacement vector ⃗⃗ and the current element ⃗⃗⃗
3. In Bio-Savart law, the magnitude of the magnetic field is proportional to the sine of the
angle between the current element ⃗⃗⃗ and displacement vector ⃗⃗ while there is no such
angle dependence in the Coulomb's law for the electrostatic field. Along the axial line of the
current element and hence .

Direction of magnetic field. For an infinitely long conductor,

Clearly, the magnitude or the magnetic field will be same at all points located at the same
distance from the conductor. Hence the magnetic lines of force of a straight current
carrying conductor are concentric circles with the wire at the centre and in a plane
perpendicular to the wire. A line of force is a curve, the tangent to which at any point gives
the direction of magnetic field at that point have anticlockwise sense and if the current
flows downwards, then the lines of force have clockwise sense.

Rules for finding the direction of magnetic field due to straight current carrying
conductor. Either of the following two rules can be used for this purpose:

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1. Right hand thumb rule. If we hold the straight conductor in the grip of our right hand in
such a way that the extended thumb points in the direction of current, then the direction of
the curl of the fingers will give the direction of the magnetic field

2. Maxwell's cork screw rule. If a right handed screw be rotated along the wire so that it
advances in the direction of current, then the direction in which the thumb rotates gives
the direction of the magnetic field.

Variation of magnetic field with distance from straight current carrying conductor.
For a straight current carrying conductor,

Thus the graph plotted between the magnetic field B and the distance from the straight
conductor is a hyperbola.

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Ampere's circuital law. Just as Gauss's law is an alternative form of Coulomb's law in
electrostatics similarly we have Ampere's circuital law as an alternative form of Biot-Savart
law in magnetostatics.
Ampere's circuital law states that the line integral of the magnetic field ⃗ around any closed
circuit is equal to (permeability constant) times the total current threading or passing
through this closed circuit. Mathematically,
∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
In a simplified form, Ampere's circuital law states that if field ⃗ is directed along the tangent
to every point on the perimeter L of a closed curve and its magnitude is constant along the
curve, then

wheré is the net current enclosed by the closed circuit. The closed curve is called
Amperean loop.

MAGNETIC FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE:-

The electric charges moving in a magnetic field experience a force.

While there is no such force on static charges.

Suppose a positive charge moves with velocity in a magnetic field ⃗ and makes an
angle of with ⃗ . As shown in the figure below.

It was found that this charge moving in the magnetic field ⃗ experiences a force such
that,

1. The force is proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic field i.e.,

2. The force is proportional to the charge i.e.,

3. The force is proportional to the component of the velocity in the perpendicular

direction of the field , i.e.,

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By combining the above factors, we get

Or

The unit of magnetic field is so defined that the proportionality constant becomes unity in
the above equation. Thus

This force deflects the charged particle sideways and is called MAGNETIC LORENTZ FORCE.

As the direction of is perpendicular to both and ⃗ , so we can express in terms of the

vector product of and ⃗ and write it as:-

1. FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE:-

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2. RIGHT HAND (PALM) RULE:-

DEFINITION OF MAGNETIC FIELD:-

We know that

If , then

Thus the magnetic field at a point may be defined as the force acting on a unit charge
moving with a unit velocity at right angles to the direction of the field.

SI UNIT OF MAGNETIC FIELD:-

Again we take,

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If 1N, 1C, 1 ms-1, , then

The SI unit of magnetic field is tesla (T).

We should know:- 1 gauss tesla

LORENTZ FORCE:-

The total force experienced by a charged particle moving in a region where both electric
and magnetic fields are present, is called Lorentz force.

A charge in an electric field ⃗ experiences the electric force,

This force acts in the direction of the field ⃗ and is independent of the velocity of the
charge.

The magnetic force experienced by the charge moving with velocity in the magnetic
field ⃗ is given by

This force acts perpendicular to the plane of and ⃗ and depends on the velocity of the
charge.

The total or the Lorentz force, experienced by the charge is:

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Or

⃗ ⃗

WORK DONE BY A MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CHARGED PARTICLE IS ZERO

The magnetic force ( ⃗ ) always acts perpendicular to the velocity or the
direction of motion of charge q. Therefore,
( ⃗)
According to Newton’s second law,

[ ]

( )

Motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field.

When a charged particle having charge q and velocity enters a magnetic field ⃗ , it
experiences a force
( ⃗)

The direction of this force is perpendicular to both and ⃗ ,. The magnitude of this force is

Following three cases are possible :

1. When the initial velocity is parallel to the magnetic field. Here θ = 0°, so F = qvB sin0° =
0.
Thus the parallel magnetic field does not exert any force on the moving charged particle.
The charged particle will continue to move along the line of force
2. When the initial velocity is perpendicular to the magnetic field. Here θ = 90°, so F = qvB
sin 90°= qvB = a maximum force. As the magnetic force acts on a particle perpendicular to
its velocity, it does not do any work on the particle. It does not change the kinetic energy or
speed of the particle.

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Figure shows a magnetic field ⃗ directed normally into the plane of paper, as shown by
small crosses. A charge + q is projected with a speed v in the plane of the paper. The
velocity is perpendicular to the magnetic field. A force acts on the particle
perpendicular to both and ⃗ . This force continuously deflects the particle sideways
without changing
its speed and the particle will move along a circle perpendicular to the field. Thus the
magnetic force provides the centripetal force. Let r be the radius of the circular path. Now

Centripetal force,

Thus the radius of the circular orbit is inversely proportional to the specific charge (charge
to mass ratio q/ m) and to the magnetic field.
Circumference

Clearly, the time period is independent of v and r. If the particle moves faster, the radius is
larger, it has to move along a larger circle so that the time taken is the same.
The frequency of revolution is

This frequency is called cyclotron frequency

3. When the initial velocity makes an arbitrary angle with the field direction.
A uniform magnetic field ⃗ is set up along +ve X-axis. A particle of charge q and mass m
enters the field ⃗ with velocity inclined at angle θ with the direction of the field ⃗ , as
shown.

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The velocity can be resolved into two rectangular components:
1. The component along the direction of the field i.e., along X-axis. Clearly

The parallel component remains unaffected by the magnetic field and so the charged
particle continues to move along the field with a speed of v cos θ
2. The component perpendicular to the direction of the field ie, in the YZ-plane. Clearly

Due to this component of velocity, the charged particle experiences a force

which acts perpendicular to both , and ⃗ . This force makes the particle move along a
circular path in the YZ-plane.
The radius of the circular path is

The period of revolution is

Thus a charged particle moving in a uniform magnetic field has two concurrent motions : a
linear motion in the direction of ⃗ (along X-axis) and a circular motion in a plane
perpendicular to ⃗ (in YZ-plane). Hence the resultant path of the charged particle will be a
helix, with its axis along the direction of ⃗
The linear distance travelled by the charged particle in the direction of the magnetic field
during its period of revolution is called pitch of the helical path.

MOTION OF A CHARGE IN PERPENDICULAR MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS

Velocity selector. Suppose a beam of charged particles, say electrons, possessing a range of
speeds passes through a slit and then enters a region in which crossed (perpendicular)
electric and magnetic fields exist. As shown in Fig. 4.64, the electric field ⃗ acts in the
downward direction and deflects the electrons in the upward direction. The magnetic field
⃗ acts normally into the plane of paper and deflects the electrons in the downward
direction.

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Only those electrons will ass undeflected through the slit on which the electric and
magnetic forces are equal and opposite. The velocity v of the undeflected
electrons is given by

Such an arrangement can be used to select charged particles of a particular velocity out of a
beam in which the particles are moving with different speeds. This arrangement is called
velocity selector or velocity filter. This method was used by Thomson to determine the
charge to mass ratio(e/ m)of an electron.

Cyclotron
It is a device used to accelerate charged particles like protons, deutrons, particles, etc., to
very high energies. It was invented by E.O. Lawrence and M.S Livingston in 1934 at
Berkeley, California University.

Principle. A charged particle can be accelerated to very high energies by making it pass
through a moderate electric field a number of times. This can be done with the help of a
perpendicular magnetic field which throws the charged particle into a circular motion, the
frequency of which does not depend on the speed of the particle and the radius of the
circular orbit.

Construction. As shown in Fig., a cyclotron consists of the following main parts:

1. It consists of two small, hollow, metallic half-cylinders and called dees as they are
in the shape of D
2. They are mounted inside a vacuum chamber between the poles of a powerful
electromagnet
3. The dees are connected to the source of high frequency alternating voltage of few
hundred
kilovolts
4. The beam of charged particles to be accelerated is injected into the dees near their
centre, in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic field

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5. The charged particles are pulled out of the dees by a deflecting plate (which is negatively
charged) through a window W
6. The whole device is in high vacuum (pressure ~ mm of Hg) so that the air molecules
may not collide with the charged particles

Working. Suppose a positive ion, say a proton, enters the gap between the two dees and
finds dee to be negative. It gets accelerated towards dee , As it enters the dee it
does not experience any electric field due to shielding effect of the metallic dee. The is
perpendicular magnetic field throws it into a circular path. At the instant the proton comes
out of dee it finds dee positive and dee negative. It now gets accelerated towards
dee ,. It moves faster through , describing a larger semicircle than before. Thus if the
frequency of the applied voltage is kept exactly the same as the frequency of revolution of
the proton, thern every time the proton reaches the gap between the two dees, the electric
field is reversed and proton receives a push and finally it acquires very high energy. This is
called the cyclotron's resonance condition. The proton follows a spiral path. The
accelerated proton is ejected through a window by a deflecting voltage and hits the target.

MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER

A galvanometer is a device to detect current in a circuit. The commonly used moving coil
galvanometer is named so because it uses a current-carrying coil that rotates in a magnetic
field due to the torque acting on it.

Principle. A current carrying coil placed in a magnetic field experiences a current dependent
torque, which tends to rotate the coil and produces angular deflection.

Construction. As shown in Fig., a Weston (pivoted-type) galvanometer consists of a

rectangular coil of fine insulated copper wire wound on a light non-magnetic metallic
(aluminium) frame. The two ends of the axle of this frame are pivoted between two
jewelled bearings. The motion of the coil is controlled by a pair of hair springs of phosphor-

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bronze. The inner ends of the springs are soldered to the two ends of the coil and the outer
ends are connected to the binding screws. The springs provide the restoring torque and
serve as current leads. A light aluminium pointer attached to the coil measures its
deflection on a suitable scale.

The coil is symmetrically placed between the cylindrical pole pieces of a strong permanent
horse-shoe magnet.
A cylindrical soft iron core is mounted symmetrically between the concave poles of the
horse-shoe magnet. This makes the lines of force pointing along the radii of a circle. Such a
field is called a radial field. The plane of a coil rotating in such a field remains parallel to the
field in all positions, as shown in Fig. Also, the soft iron cylinder, due to its high
permeability, intensifies the magnetic field and hence increases the sensitivity of the
galvanometer.

Since the field is radial, the plane of the coil always remains parallel to the field ⃗ . The
magnetic forces on sides PQ and SR are equal, opposite and collinear, so their resultant is
zero. According to Fleming's left rule the side PSexperiences a normal inward force equal to
while the side QR experiences an equal normal outward force. The two forces on
sides PS and QR are equal and opposite. They form a couple and exert a torque given by

Here θ , because the normal to the plane of coil remains perpendicular to the field ⃗
in all positions. The torque τ deflects the coil through an angle α. A restoring torque is set
up in the coil due to the elasticity of the springs such that

where k is the torsion constant of the springs ie, torque required to produce unit angular
twist. In equilibrium position,

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The factor G=k/NBA is constant for a galvanometer and is called galvanometer constant or
current reduction factor of the galvanometer.

SENSITIVITY OF A GALVANOMETER
A galvanometer is said to be sensitive if it shows large scale deflection even when a small
current is passed through it or a small voltage is applied across it.
Current sensitivity. It is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer when a
unit current flows through it.

Voltage sensitivity. It is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer when a

unit potential difference is applied across its ends.

Factors on which the sensitivity of a moving coil galvanometer depends

1. Number of turns N in its coil.
2. Magnetic field B.
3. Area A of the coil.
4. Torsion constant k of the spring and suspension wire

Factors by which the sensitivity of a moving coil galvanometer can be increased

1. By increasing the number of turns N of the coil. But the value of N cannot be increased
beyond a certain limit because that will make the galvanometer bulky and increase its
resistance R.
2. By increasing the magnetic field B. This can be done by using a strong horse-shoe magnet
and placing a soft iron core within the coil.
3. By increasing the area A of the coil. However, increasing A beyond a certain limit will
make
the galvanometer bulky and unmanageable.
4. By decreasing the value of torsion constant k. The torsion constant k is made small by
using suspension wire and springs of phosphor bronze.

Advantages of a moving coil galvanometer

1. As the deflection of the coil is proportional to the current passed through it, so a linear
scale
can be used to measure the deflection.
2. A moving coil galvanometer can be made highly sensitive by increasing N, B, A and
decreasing k.

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3. As the coil is placed in a strong magnetic field of a powerful magnet, its deflection is not
affected by external magnetic fields. This enables us to use the galvanometer in any
position.
4. As the coil is wound over a metallic frame, the eddy currents produced in the frame bring
the coil to rest quickly

Disadvantages of a moving coil galvanometer

1. The main disadvantage is that its sensitiveness cannot be changed at will.
2. All types of moving coil galvanometers are easily damaged by overloading. A current
greater than that which the instrument is intended to measure will burn out its hair-springs
or suspension.

MEASUREMENT OF CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

Introduction. A galvanometer is a basic instrument for electrical measurements. It is a
sensitive current detector. It produces a deflection proportional to the current flowing
through it. It can be easily converted into an ammeter for measuring current and into
voltmeter for measuring voltage.
Following essential requirements should be met while converting a galvanometer into
ammeter or voltmeter:
1. Ammeter or voltmeter should be accurate, reliable and sensitive.
2. The use of these devices in a circuit must not alter the current in the circuit or the
potential
difference across any element in the circuit.

CONVERSION OF A GALVANOMETER INTO AN AMMETER

An ammeter is a device used to measure current through a circuit element. To measure
current through a circuit element, an ammeter is connected in series with that element so
that the current which is to be measured actually passes through it. In order to ensure that
its insertion in the circuit does not change the current, an ammeter should have zero
resistance. So ammeter is designed to have very small effective resistance. In fact, an ideal
ammeter should have zero resistance.

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An ordinary galvanometer is a sensitive instrument. It gives full scale deflection with a small
current of few microamperes. To measure large currents with it, a small resistance is
connected in parallel with the galvanometer coil. The resistance connected in this
way is called a shunt.
As galvanometer and shunt are connected in parallel, so

So by connecting a shunt of resistance S across the given galvanometer, we get an ammeter

of desired range. Moreover,

The deflection in the galvanometer is proportional to I, and hence to I. So the scale can be
graduated to read the value of current I directly.
Hence an ammeter is a shunted or low resistance galvanometer. Its effective resistance is

Shunt. A shunt is a low resistance which is connected in parallel with a galvanometer (or
ammeter) to protect it from strong currents.
Uses of shunt:
1. To prevent a galvanometer from being damaged due to large current.
2. To convert a galvanometer into ammeter.
3. To increase the range of an ammeter.

CONVERSION OF A GALVANOMETER INTO A VOLTMETER

A voltmeter is a device for measuring potential difference across any two points in a circuit.
It is connected in parallel with the circuit element across which the potential difference is
intended to be measured. As a result, a small part of the total current passes through the
voltmeter and so the current through the circuit element decreases. This decreases the
potential difference required to be measured. To avoid this, the voltmeter should be
designed to have very high resistance. In fact, an ideal voltmeter should have infinite
resistance

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A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series
with it. The value of this resistance is so adjusted that only current which produces full
scale deflection in the galvanometer, passes through the galvanometer
Let

By Ohm's law,

So by connecting a high resistance R in series with the galvanometer, we get a voltmeter of

desired range. Moreover, the deflection in the galvanometer is proportional to current I,
and hence to V. The scale can be graduated to read the value of potential difference
directly.
Hence a voltmeter is a high resistance galvanometer. Its effective resistance is

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