PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 7A - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Category – A/B1 Sub Module 7.2 - Workshop Practices

MODULE 7A
Sub Module 7.2

WORKSHOP PRACTICES

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Contents

MAINTAINING TOOLS --------------------------------------------------- 1

TOOL CATEGORIES ----------------------------------------------------- 1
CARE OF TOOLS --------------------------------------------------------- 2
CONTROL OF TOOLS --------------------------------------------------- 5
USE OF WORKSHOP MATERIALS ---------------------------------- 7
DIMENSIONS -------------------------------------------------------------- 9
TOLERANCES AND ALLOWANCES --------------------------------13
STANDARDS OF WORKMANSHIP ---------------------------------16
CALIBRATION OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT -------------------17
CALIBRATION STANDARDS -----------------------------------------26

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MAINTAINING TOOLS
Common Tools – Tools that are required for performing specific
All the tools used for aircraft maintenance have to be of the tasks on specific aircraft and those tools that are too bulky or
highest quality to ensure expert maintenance of aircraft to the considered too expensive to be included in a personal toolkit
level prescribed by the manufacturer. At the most fundamental are included in this category.
level, woodshop tool maintenance simply means keeping your
tools operating as well as they did when you took them out of Procedures should be in place to ensure that all tools in the
the box. That's a minimum requirement for running a safe, inventory are available in serviceable condition. This can be
successful shop. But a good tool maintenance regimen can take achieved by implementing a tool maintenance program that
you even further. Taking a few extra steps in caring for work encompasses the following.
surfaces, cutting edges, alignment mechanisms and moving
parts can work wonders for the performance of your tools. Add  Care of tools – procedures for storing, cleaning,
in a few affordable power tool upgrades and you can improve lubrication of tools and equipment regularly or as per
the performance of your woodworking machinery beyond like- usage.
new condition. Below, we'll show you how easy it can be to go
beyond the basics in keeping the tools in your shop sharp, true,  Control of tools – procedures to ensure tools remain
clean, and running smooth serviceable and available as per the requirements.

TOOL CATEGORIES  Calibration of tools – Tools that are used for measuring
and checking should be checked and adjusted regularly
A maintenance organization usually has two basic categories of for continued accuracy of the measurements. Calibration
tools in use. of tools used for the determination of the serviceability of
equipment or correct execution of a procedure is of
Personal Tools – Tools that are issued to the maintenance absolute importance as the product quality of the
personnel permanently on individual basis depending on the organization is dependent on it.
function they perform in the organization. These tools will form a
personal toolkit comprised of tools that are of general nature 
and required by a considerable number of persons frequently.
These tools are selected for their familiarity and personal
quality, their low cost and convenience.

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CARE OF TOOLS
General cleaning can be done with a stiff brush and a rag to
Most high-quality tools are manufactured to the highest remove dust/dirt. A cleaning fluid such as solvents may be used
standards and are designed to last a long time, provided that to remove grease, paints and such hard to remove material.
they are not abused and necessary servicing is carried out in After necessary cleaning has been carried out a suitable
due time. lubrication and/or re-protection material should be applied to
prevent corrosion and to reduce wear.
Most of the tools are manufactured from alloy steels and are
susceptible to corrosion. To reduce this susceptibility to It is advisable to store measuring tools such as engineers’
corrosion most tools are manufactured with a corrosion resistant scales, feeler gauges, etc., that are part of personal toolkits in a
exterior finish and mechanisms that are sealed against
simple cover or case to offer them further protection from
moisture. Therefore, the corrosion resistance is dependent on
damage and degradation.
the integrity of such protections provided.

Despite efforts to reduce corrosion and associated degradation, Common tools

corrosion and wear still takes its toll unless cleaning and re-
protection such as lubrication is carried out on regular basis. Common Tools that are used frequently may also be cleaned
and protected the same way as personal tools, but lubrication of
Workshop fixtures and equipment supplied and installed by the internal mechanism should be carried out by authorized
appropriate department are maintained and repaired by that personnel only.
organization, and must not be interfered with by personnel,
except for general cleaning, re-painting externally, etc. Common tools that form a toolkit for a specific function and
those tools that are not regularly used should be cleaned after
Other equipment and machinery must be systematically every use and in addition, according to a schedule if such tools
cleaned, lubricated and adjusted by competent workshop have not been used for some time. Lubrication and re-protection
personnel; the following points have a general application. of exposed areas should be carried out using recommended
material so as to maintain protection against corrosion.
Personal tools
In the following sections specific actions to be carried out while
Personal tools should be cleaned periodically or immediately working on certain tools and machinery are briefly discussed.
after working in areas where the tools have been exposed to Such activities to be performed may also be stated when
corrosive materials. discussing about tools and their application in the following
Modules.
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CARE OF TOOLS – GENERAL

GRINDER
BENCHES
The grinding machine must be kept clean and as free from
Metal-covered and portable benches should have the bench abrasive dust as possible. The bearings should be lubricated
surfaces cleaned with kerosene rag, while those of plain regularly, but care must be taken to prevent oil or grease
wooden benches should be cleaned with a stiff brush and by coming in contact with the grinding wheels. The tool rests
scraping if necessary. Some form of protection, such as a piece should be kept in adjustment at a position as near as possible to
of hardwood or a lead block, should be laid on the bench top the grinding wheels. These wheels should be turned up, as
when carrying out punching or similar operations and care required, by a wheel dresser; the resulting abrasive dust should
should be taken to prevent nails, pieces of metal etc., from be carefully removed after the operation has been completed,
becoming embedded in the bench surface. Portable benches and the tool rests must then be reset.
should be given a thorough examination for security at regular
intervals, during which all nuts should be checked to ensure that MOTOR DRIVES
they are tight; the wheel bearings should also be lubricated as
required. Electric motors used for driving machine tools and portable
apparatus must be kept clean and free from dust both internally
VICES and externally. Regular attention by authorized personnel is
essential for the effective maintenance of electrical equipment,
Vices should be wiped over frequently with an oily rag. The and the work of these personnel is assisted if any defect, such
moving jaw should be withdrawn to the limit of its movement to as overheating or excessive sparking, is reported immediately.
permit lubrication of the screw bearings and the thread, the jaw
inserts screws and the bolts securing the vice to the bench WORKSHOP TOOL KITS
should be tightened periodically, and the vice handle should be
kept rust-free so that it may slide freely when in use. Special tool kits are supplied for servicing certain machines,
assemblies, etc., and these kits must, of necessity, be available
DRILLING MACHINE for general use. The fact that a kit is used by more than one
person is not an excuse for neglect or maltreatment by the
The drilling machine should be cleaned and lubricated regularly; individual; such kits must be given the same care and attention
during this process the clamping screws of the drilling table that a good craftsman gives to his personal kit.
should be slackened several turns to enable the threads and
thrust faces to be lubricated.

A piece of planed hardwood should be kept on the drilling table

to protect the machined face when drilling sheet metals, etc.
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MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND APPLIANCES

Equipment of this nature are normally kept in the workshop or

tool store locker, and is issued on short-term loan as required.
These items must be returned immediately after use; under no
circumstances should they be left lying about on workbenches
or stowed in personal toolboxes. In order to maintain the
accuracy measuring instrument need proper handling Measuring
instruments are usually issued with the storage box and other
than during the time at which measurements are taken the
instrument should be kept in the case.

GAUGES AND SPECIAL TOOLS

These items should be kept in labeled boxes whenever

practicable; the label should indicate the special purpose for
which the gauge or tool may only be used.

DRILLS AND REAMERS

Twist drills, when not in use, should be kept in a graded drill

stand. Reamers should be kept in partitioned boxes or laid in
grooved trays cut to receive each type of reamer.

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3 Tools that require specialized storage conditions should
CONTROL OF TOOLS be identified and handled accordingly. Tools that require
calibration and or servicing should be categorized and a
The number and variety of tools in an aircraft maintenance procedure setup to ensure such activities are carried out
organization can be in hundreds if not in thousands. Each tool in due time without affecting the tool availability
may have to be maintained in a different way and be made requirements.
available to certain group of persons frequently.
4 Maintaining an efficient issuing and tracking system to
In such an environment proper procedure have to be ensure tools are issued to identify individuals by
established to prevent the tool being misplaced or mishandled. responsible persons who are well versed with the tools
Added to this certain tool require calibration and/or special and procedures involved.
servicing compounds the situation.
Common tools of a maintenance organization can be located
Following procedures are generally adapted by most and controlled in several ways.
maintenance organizations to address such needs.
Tool Store or Tool crib – This is a centrally located secure
1 A person or persons are tasked with identifying the tool location for a large inventory of tools that are arranged in a
requirement of the organization and deciding tools that precise manner with identified positions for tools. Such a
should form the personal toolkit and tools that should be location can also be equipped to handle tools with special
categorized as common tools which should be storage requirements. Access into the location is strictly
maintained at a suitable accessible location to the controlled and tools are issued to required personnel or
required personnel. authorized persons after the required information had been
entered in a properly maintained ‘issue register’.
2 Ensure that personal toolkits are complete and
maintained in an acceptable manner by carrying out Tool containers or toolbox kits – Tools that have a specific
audits periodically. Also, non-approved tools, application such as all specific tools required for an engine
consumables and aircraft hardware should not be change on a specific aircraft may be located in a container that
contained along with personal toolkits. may be ‘purpose-designed’ for easy transportation and
handling. These toolkits are also usually controlled by the
central tool store and may be located at the main tool store or at
another secure location.

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Some large organization may have several identical toolkits
used for the same frequent function positioned at several line Tool control procedures
stations to reduce delays due to non-availability of such tools.
Although these toolkits are located elsewhere, controlling of  Each tool in the inventory should be assigned a unique
such toolkits will still be carried out by the centralized tool store identification number and an entry should be maintained
or a dedicated section.
on each tool in a suitable register including relevant
Overseas or Line station tools – Large aviation maintenance details about the tools.
organizations usually maintain ‘satellite-maintenance sections’
in addition to the main base, at other parts of the country or at  In addition, a complete record should be maintained on
overseas locations. These satellite-maintenance sections each tool used for measuring and quality control that
provide limited support for scheduled and unscheduled includes service history and calibration details.
maintenance on aircraft depending on the requirement at these
locations. For such organizations a separate section under  An issue register will be maintained at the issue counter
inventory control department may exist, tasked with monitoring of the tool store where the details pertaining to the
and controlling tools within the entire organization including the individual receiving the tools are to be documented.
tools at such line stations. Local control and maintaining of tools
at such location may be carried out by dedicated staff seconded  A new set of pages or section of the register is used for
from the main tool control section at main base or may be every shift and issued items are tallied with received
assigned to a member of the maintenance personnel of such items at the end of the shift and handover to the next
locations if the inventory of tools involved is simple. shift is carried out.
Tools on loan – Some maintenance activities may require tools
 Issue and receipt is usually indicated on adjacent
to be acquired on loan basis from other organizations as the
columns so that outstanding entries can be identified at
frequency of such activity or cost involved may not warrant the
a glance. Those entries that have not been tallied are
purchase and maintenance of such tools.
transferred to another part of the register or separate
documents for alternate action.
In organizations where a separate tool control is available, the
task of acquiring tools on loan basis depending on the
requirement, and also ensuring tool availability and  If work is not spanned across shifts then outstanding
serviceability will be the responsibility of such a section. entries are to be considered very serious and an
investigation should be carried out to locate the tools as
the possibility exists of such tools becoming the source
of FOD (Foreign Object Damage).

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 When the user should carry out a cursory inspection of USE OF WORKSHOP MATERIALS
the tool at book out and should bring to the notice of the
stores personnel of any discrepancy immediately. Many of the wide variety of materials, used in workshops,
require some form of control in their handling. This control can
 Upon completion of the work the user should make an involve:
effort to return the tools to the stores as soon as it is  Safety: relating to such topics as the toxicity, corrosiveness
convenient to enable another user to use the same tool or other health risks associated with the use of certain
if required and also to minimize the chances of materials
misplacing the tools.
 Management: referring to the storage, use and correct
 When returning the tools to the tool stores the staff at
the issue counter should check for the condition of the handling of all materials whether they are solid, liquid, or, in
tool and properly mark the issue register for received some instances, gaseous
status and position the tools in the assigned location.
When documenting of a toolkit is done the number of  Economy: involving such matters as to the using of the
tools issued and received are also mentioned in the correct dosage or proportions when mixing compounds,
register. using only as much material as required for a specific task
and to the keeping in stock of only sufficient materials and
 It is the responsibility of the user to report of any thus avoiding ‘lifed’ items reaching their expiry dates before
damaged or malfunctioning tool or equipment to the being used.
relevant person in charge of tools so that it can be
repaired in time.
Abrasive papers, solder and brazing materials, wire wool, tyre
 Unserviceable tools due to damage or malfunction is to powder, oil spill powder and so on, all require control of issue
be routed to the relevant sections or external repair and use, though they may not, normally, require stringent safety
organization for repair at the first available instance to precautions.
prevent disruption due to unavailability. For tools that
require frequent repairs an investigation should be done A huge range of liquids can be used in the workshop situation,
for possible mishandling or misuse. some of which are harmless and some of which are extremely
toxic. It is vital that the work-force make themselves aware of
 Tools that require calibration will be tracked and sent for the risks involved when dealing with ANY materials, and
necessary re-calibration prior to calibration due date or
especially when working within enclosed areas.
earlier if continued availability during a critical period is
forecasted.

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Some materials are flammable and must, therefore, be stored The disposal of liquids is a critical operation, and must only be
outdoors. These include oils, greases, some adhesives, sealing carried out in accordance with company (and, often, national or
and glazing compounds in addition to many paints, enamels international) regulations.
and epoxy surface finishes, which are stored in metal cabinets
and, usually, located (in the Northern hemisphere) on the North Liquids must never be disposed of by pouring them into spare
side of a workshop or hangar. This ensures that the cabinet or unidentified containers and they must not be allowed to enter
remains in the shade of the building and does not get exposed the ‘domestic’ drains systems.
to the sun’s hot rays during the day. It is also important that only
the minimum amount of these materials is taken indoors for the The working with, and the use of, high pressure gas containers
work which is being done. and oxygen systems, was adequately discussed in the Safety
Precautions topic.
When handling materials that give off fumes, it may be
necessary to have the area well ventilated and/or have the
operator wearing a mask or some form of remote breathing
apparatus. The finished work may also give off fumes for some
time afterwards, so care must be taken to keep it ventilated if
necessary.

Obviously, all liquids must only be used for the purpose for
which they are designed and never mixed together, unless the
two materials are designed to be mixed, such as with two-part
epoxy adhesives and sealants.
Many liquids used in workshops and in the hangar, have (as
mentioned earlier) a fixed ‘life’. This date is printed on the
container and must be checked before use, because many
materials are unsafe if used beyond their expiry date.

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DIMENSIONS
Time (T) can be defined as a period or interval between two
Information is communicated from one person to another events. It is a component of the measuring system used to
primarily through spoken and written word. Such communication sequence events, to compare the durations of events and the
requires the use of previously defined, basic characters, the intervals between them, and to quantify the motions of objects.
complete set of which is commonly known as an alphabet.
Likewise, the scientific community has, in effect, established an Temperature is physical property of a system that measures
alphabet of its own. The elements, or most basic parts of this degree of hotness or coldness of object, ambience, etc. The
communication system, are known as dimensions. temperature of a substance is a measure of the internal energy
of the molecules (i.e., energy caused by movement of its
Common dimensions molecules).
The following are a few common dimensions and their Temperature is measured with thermometers that may be
definitions: calibrated to a variety of temperature scales. The Celsius scale
is used for most temperature measuring purposes. Many
The length of an object is the distance between its ends, its engineering fields also use the Kelvin and degrees Celsius
linear extent as measured from end to end. It is usually scales. Other engineering fields also rely upon the Rankine
represented by the capital letter L. scale and Fahrenheit scale
Mass (M) is the amount of matter in an object. Every object has
a mass that does not change as the object is moved from one
place to another.

A force (F) has the capacity to change the motion of a body or

cause stress in a body. It can also be described as a push or
pull that can cause an object with mass to change its velocity
(which includes to begin moving from a state of rest), i.e., to
accelerate, or which can cause a flexible object to deform.
Force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector
quantity.

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Fundamental and derived dimensions Derived dimensions

After a few dimensions are defined, it should be obvious that Dimensions obtained by combining one or more fundamental
other dimensions can be obtained by combining one or more of dimensions are called derived dimensions.
them. This observation leads to the need to differentiate
between the “original” dimensions and the “combined”  Area (L2) and volume (L3) are examples of derived
dimensions, and thus the terms fundamental and derived dimensions obtained by combining the same dimension
dimensions were born. (i.e., L).

Fundamental dimensions  Velocity (LT-1), acceleration (LT-2), and pressure (ML-

1T-2), on the other hand, are examples of derived
The most elementary dimensions, like length (L), mass (M), and dimensions obtained by combining different fundamental
time (T), are known as fundamental dimensions. dimensions (i.e., M, L, and T).
Fundamental units

Quantity Standard Unit Symbol

1 Length meter m
2 Mass kilogram kg
3 Time second s
4 Electric Current ampere A
5 Temperature Kelvin K
Luminous
6 Candela Cd
Intensity
7 Matter mole mol
8 Plane Angle Radian rad
9 Solid Angle Steradian sr

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Named units derived from SI base units
Expression in terms of other Expression in terms of SI base
Name Symbol Quantity
units units
hertz Hz frequency 1/s s-1
Newton N force, weight m∙kg/s2 m∙kg∙s−2
Pascal Pa pressure, stress N/m2 m−1∙kg∙s−2
joule J energy, work, heat N∙m = C·V = W·s m2∙kg∙s−2
watt W power, radiant flux J/s = V·A m2∙kg∙s−3
coulomb C electric charge or electric flux s∙A s∙A

voltage, electrical potential

volt V W/A = J/C m2∙kg∙s−3∙A−1
difference, electromotive force

farad F electric capacitance C/V m−2∙kg−1∙s4∙A2

electric resistance, impedance,

ohm Ω V/A m2∙kg∙s−3∙A−2
reactance

m−2∙kg−1∙s3∙
Siemens S electrical conductance 1/Ω
A2
m2∙kg∙s−2∙
Weber Wb magnetic flux J/A
A−1
V∙s/m2 =
magnetic field strength, magnetic kg∙s−2∙
tesla T Wb/m2 =
flux density A−1
N/(A∙m)
m2∙kg∙s−2∙
Henry H inductance V∙s/A = Wb/A
A−2

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Although dimensions are necessary to describe an object or an

event, they are not sufficient. That is, it could be correctly stated
that both a football field and a matchstick possess the
fundamental dimension of length, but if one were interested in
knowing their relative sizes, additional information would
obviously have to be provided about the dimension of length.
This additional information is provided in the form of the units
associated with each dimension.

A unit is the standard of measurement applicable to a given

dimension. For example, inches, feet, meters, furlongs, and
fathoms all are units associated with the dimension of length.
Similarly, cubic inches, liters, cubic meters, and gallons are
units associated with the dimension of volume.

Throughout history, different units have been adopted for

quantifying the various dimensions, as illustrated for length and
volume. Therefore, we may often need to convert numbers from
one set of units into another (e.g., feet to meters, yards to
centimeters).

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TOLERANCES AND ALLOWANCES Approximate or rough-cut dimension by which a material is

generally called or sold in trade, but which differs from the
An impossible task to do in engineering manufacture is to make actual dimension. In lumber trade, for example, a finished
a part to exact dimensions called for by a design document. (dressed) 'two by four' piece is less than 2 inches thick and less
than 4 inches wide. Also called nominal size.
Dimensions may seem to match if measured using a measuring
instrument with less accuracy, but if the measurements are Basic Size –The basic size is that size from which the limits of
taken using an instrument with higher accuracy, a dimensional size are derived by the application of allowances and
discrepancy will exist between the stipulated and manufactured. tolerances.

When production to exact dimensions is not achievable during Limits - The stated maximum and minimum allowable
manufacture, the next possible scenario is to achieve the dimensions when variation on the basic size is taken into
closest possible dimensions to what is required. consideration. Here, the largest allowable dimension is called
the upper limit and the least allowable dimension is called the
Method of dimensioning and tolerance wherein the tolerance is lower limit.
taken as plus or minus from an explicitly stated dimension; the
dimension represents the size or location which is nearest the Tolerance – The difference between the upper limit and the
critical condition (that is maximum material condition), and the lower limit of a dimension. The amount that the size of a
tolerance is applied either in a plus or minus direction, but not in machine part is allowed to vary above or below a basic
both directions, in such a way that the permissible variation in dimension; for example, 3.650 ± 0.003 centimeters indicates a
size or location is away from the critical condition. tolerance of ± 0.003 centimeter.

The following terms are used generally when indicating Bilateral Tolerance – When variation is allowable in both
dimensions. directions from the basic size. Here the actual dimensions of the
object may be larger or smaller than the basic size by an
Nominal size – The dimension of an object when variations in allowable margin.
size are disregarded; the actual size of a part will be
approximately the same as the nominal size but need not be Unilateral Tolerance – When the variation is allowed only in
exactly the same; for example, a rod may be referred to as ¼ one direction from the basic size. Here the actual dimensions of
inch, although the actual dimension on the drawing is 0.2495 the object must comply with either of the following conditions
inch, and in this case ¼ inch is the nominal size. but not both.

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Actual size can be larger than the basic size but the minimum
allowable size should be that of the basic size and not less.

OR

Actual size can be smaller than the basic size but maximum
allowable size should be that of the basic size and not more.

Allowance – An allowance is a planned deviation between an

actual dimension and a nominal or theoretical dimension, or
between an intermediate-stage dimension and an intended final
dimension. The unifying abstract concept is that a certain
amount of difference allows for some known factor of
compensation or interference. For example, an area of excess
metal may be left because it is needed to complete subsequent
machining.

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Bilateral Tolerance
Unilateral Tolerance
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STANDARDS OF WORKMANSHIP

Whilst the standards of workmanship, during the hand-working There are a variety of machines that can generate a smooth
of metals and other materials, is controlled by the craftsperson, surface on a piece of metal, the selection between them being
once machinery is used in the manufacturing process, then the decided by the quality of finish. A lathe can produce an
standards of finish and workmanship depend upon the exceptionally smooth surface on a bar or some other rotated
allowances set by the designer and on the type of machinery shape. If a large area is required to have a smooth finish, then
being used. perhaps, after initial casting or forging, the choice may be of
employing either a grinding machine or a milling machine, to
With hand tools, there are standards of finish, but these depend provide the desired result.
upon the skill of the craftsperson and, again, on the tools being
used. For example, when filing metal, different grades of files In summary, the quality of the finished article is dependent both
are used, to obtain a comparatively smooth surface finish while on the skill of the craftsperson and the equipment available to
other methods, such as abrasive papers, pastes and polishes, complete the task. It does not matter whether the tools in use
are then used, to provide the final finish. are files and emery cloth or an expensive milling machine; the
standard of workmanship of the craftsperson can make a great
When sawing, the same procedures apply in that blades with deal of difference to the finished article.
finer teeth will give a better finish to the sawn edges, which may
then be further smoothed, using an appropriate selection of
files.

When drilling a hole, the conventional twist drill will only produce
a finish of a certain standard. If a finer finish, to the inside of the
hole, is required, then a reamer would be used, to smooth the
material inside the hole, so that, if a tight-fitting pin is to be fitted
through the hole, there will be better surface contact.

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CALIBRATION OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

In trying to maintain and improve on product quality and level of
Instrument calibration is one of the primary processes used to safety, a fundamental requirement is the use of instruments that
maintain instrument accuracy. Calibration is the process of will provide measurements that are accurate to a high degree of
configuring an instrument to provide a result for a sample within the actual property being measured. Before dealing with
an acceptable range. Eliminating or minimizing factors that calibration it is important to know the characteristics of
because inaccurate measurements is a fundamental aspect of measuring instruments and what factors affect their accuracy.
instrumentation design. their accuracy.

In any industry, measurements related to product quality are an

essential part of quality control systems. In the aviation
maintenance industry such measurements play a more
important role, as decisions that have a direct impact on safety
may be based on them.

Measurements affect the product quality directly or indirectly.

 Measurements affect the product directly when they take

the form of dimensional measurements that determines
the quality of the product. E.g. Diameter of a roller when
checking for wear.

 Measurements affect product quality indirectly when

they take the form of monitoring and control
measurements of a process. E.g. Temperature
maintained during heat treatment of material.

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Instrument classification, characteristics Active/ passive instruments

Knowledge of the possible error level in measurements is Instruments are divided into active or passive ones according to
essential, and a necessary pre-requisite for this is a proper whether the instrument output is entirely produced by the
understanding of the operational characteristics of instruments quantity being measured or whether the quantity being
and an examination of the way in which instrument performance measured simply modulates the magnitude of some external
is specified. A convenient way to achieve this knowledge is to power source. This might be more easily understood if it were
classify instruments into different types and then to study the illustrated by an example.
characteristics of each of these various instrument sub-groups.
An example of a passive instrument is the pressure-measuring
Instruments consist of one or more separate components, which device. The pressure of the fluid is translated into movement of
a pointer against a scale. The energy expended in moving the
together serve to give an output reading, which is some function
pointer is derived entirely from the change in pressure
of a measured physical quantity. The primary component in an measured; there are no other energy inputs to the system.
instrument is a transducer, which translates the measured
physical quantity into another form. Further possible An example of an active instrument is a petrol-tank-level
components within the instrument are an amplifier, an amplifier- indicator, as sketched in Figure 2.2. Here, the change in petrol
analyzer and an output display system. The term 'instrument' level moves a potentiometer arm, and the output signal consists
is used somewhat loose, throughout this text, as is fairly of a proportion of the external voltage source applied across the
common practice, to describe any or all of these components. two ends of the potentiometer. The energy in the output signal
comes from the external power source; the primary transducer
float system is merely modulating the value of the voltage from
Instrument classification this external power source.

Instruments can be sub-divided into separate classes according In active instruments, the external power source is usually in
to several criteria. These sub-classifications are useful in electrical form, but in some cases, it can be other forms of
broadly establishing several attributes of particular instruments energy, such as pneumatic or hydraulic.
such as accuracy, cost, and general applicability to different
applications.

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One very important difference between active and passive

instruments is the level of measurement resolution, which can
be obtained. With the simple pressure gauge shown, the
amount of movement made by the pointer for a particular
pressure change is closely define by the nature of instrument.

While it is possible to increase measurement resolution by

making the pointer longer, such that the pointer tip moves
through a longer arc, the scope for such improvement is clearly
bounded by the practical limit on how long the pointer can
conveniently be.

In an active instrument, however, adjustment of the magnitude Fig. 2.1 – Passive Pressure Gauge
of the external energy input allows much greater control over
measurement resolution. While the scope for improving
measurement, resolution is much greater but it is not infinite
because of limitations placed on the magnitude of the external
energy input, in consideration of heating effects and for safety
reasons.

In terms of cost, passive instruments are normally of a simpler

construction than are active ones, and are therefore cheaper to
manufacture. Choice between active and passive instruments
for a particular application thus involves balancing the
measurement-resolution requirements carefully against cost.
Fig. 2.2 – Petrol Tank Level Indicator (Active)

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In terms of usage, the deflection-type instrument is clearly more
Null/ deflection-type instruments convenient. It is far simpler to read off the position of a pointer
against a scale than to add and subtract weights until a null
In deflection-type device, the measured quantity produces some point is reached. A deflection-type instrument is therefore the
physical effect that engenders a similar but opposing effect in one that would normally be used in the workplace. For
same part of the instrument. The opposing effect increases until calibration purposes, however, the null-type instrument is
balance is achieved, at which point deflection is measured and preferable because of its superior accuracy. The extra effort
the value of measured quantity inferred. The last pressure required to use such an instrument is perfectly acceptable
gauge is a good example of a deflection type of instrument, because of the infrequent nature of calibration operations.
where the value of the quantity being measured is displayed in
terms of the amount of movement of a pointer.

A null-type device attempts to maintain deflection at zero by

suitable application an effect opposing that generated by the
measured quantity but not suitable for dynamic measurement
(fluctuating). An alternative type of pressure gauge is the dead-
weight gauge shown in Figure 2.3, which is a null-type
instrument. Here, weights are put on top of the piston until the
downward force balances the fluid pressure. Weights are added
until the piston reaches a datum level, known as the null point.
Pressure measurement is made in terms of the value of the
weights needed to reach this null position.

The accuracy of these two instruments depends on different

things. For the former, it depends on the linearity and calibration
of the spring, while for the latter; it relies on the calibration of the
weights. As calibration of weights is much easier than the
careful choice and calibration of a linear-characteristic spring, it
follows that the second type of instrument will normally be the
more accurate. This is in agreement with the general rule that
null-type instruments are more accurate than deflection types.

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Fig. 2.4
Fig. 2.3

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Monitoring/ control instruments

An important distinction between different instruments is made

according to whether they are suitable only for monitoring
functions or whether their output is in a form that can be directly
introduced as an input into an automatic control system.
Instruments, which only give an audio or visual indication of the
magnitude of the physical quantity measured, such as a liquid-
in-glass thermometer, are only suitable for monitoring purposes.
This class normally includes all null-type instruments and mostly
passive transducers.

For an instrument to be suitable for inclusion in an automatic

control system, its output must be in a suitable form for direct
input into the controller. This usually means that an instrument
with an electrical output is required, although other forms of
output such as optical or pneumatic signals are used in some
systems.

Fig. 2.5 – Dead Weight Pressure Gauge (Null Type)

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Analogue/ digital instruments

Instruments which use a needle or a hand moving around a dial The distinction between analogue and digital instruments has
to provide information are called analogue instruments while become particularly important with the rapid growth in the
digital Instruments provide a numerical display of information An application of microcomputers to automatic control systems.
analogue instrument gives anoutput, which varies continuously
as the quantity being measured changes. The output can have Any digital computer system, of which the microcomputer is but
an infinite number of values within the range that the instrument one example, performs its computations in digital form. An
is designed to measure. The deflection type of pressure gauge instrument whose output is in digital form is therefore particularly
described earlier in this chapter is a good example of an advantageous in such applications, as it can be interfaced
analogue instrument. As the input value changes, the pointer directly to the control computer. Analogue instruments must be
moves with a smooth continuous motion. Though the pointer interfaced to the microcomputer by an analogue-to-digital (A/D)
can therefore be in an infinite number of positions within its converter, which converts the analogue output signal from the
range of movement, the number of different positions, which the instrument into an equivalent digital quantity, which can be read
eye can discriminate between, is strictly limited, this into the computer. This conversion has several disadvantages.
discrimination being dependent upon how large the scale is and Firstly, the A/D converter adds a significant cost to the system.
how finely it is divided. Secondly, a finite time is involved in the process of converting
an analogue signal to a digital quantity, and this time can be
A digital instrument has an output, which varies in discrete steps critical in the control of fast processes where the accuracy of
and so can only have a finite number of values. The rev counter control depends on the speed of the controlling computer.
sketched in Figure 2.6 is an example of a digital instrument. In Degrading the speed of operation of the control computer by
this, a cam is attached to the revolving body whose motion is imposing a requirement for A/D conversion thus degrades the
being measured, and on each revolution the camp opens and accuracy by which the process is controlled.
closes a switch. The switching operations are counted by an
electronic counter. This system can only count whole
revolutions and therefore cannot register any motion, which is
less than a full revolution.

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Fig. 2.6 – Revolution Counter (Digital)

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Static instrument characteristics Steps in Static Calibration

Instrument Performance Characteristics are of two types: 1. Examine the construction of the instrument and identify
and list all the possible inputs.
Static – having nonlinear or statistical effects
Dynamic – described by linear differential equations 2. Decide which of the inputs will be significant in the
application for which the instrument is to be calibrated.
Static calibration
3. Procure apparatus that will allow you to vary all the
All inputs (desired, interfering and modifying) except one are significant inputs over the ranges considered necessary.
kept at some constant values. Then the input under study is Procure standards to measure each input.
varied over some range of constant values. The input-output
relationship is valid under the stated constant conditions of all
the other inputs. 4. By holding some inputs constant, varying others, and
recording the output(s), develops the desired static
Measurement method: ideal situation “all other inputs are held input-output relations.
constant”
The various static characteristics are defined in the following
Measurement process: physical realization of the paragraphs.
measurement method

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CALIBRATION STANDARDS

History Requirement

In United Kingdom, the appropriate procedures for attaining As specified in BS 5750,

quality assurance are defined in document BS 5750 (Parts 0-4). ‘The supplier shall provide, control, calibrate and maintain
This was first published by British Standards Institution in 1979, inspection, measuring and test equipment suitable to
since then it has been adopted in a wide range of industries. demonstrate the performance of the product to the specified
This first version has been modified in collaboration with the requirements. Equipment shall be used in a manner, which
International Standards Organization in the light of user ensures that measurement uncertainty is known.’

A revised version was published in 1987 by both the British STANDARD PROCEDURE
standards Institution and the International Standards
Organization as two separate but identically worded documents. BS 5750 lays down procedures to be followed when selecting,
ISO versions are numbered ISO 9000–ISO 9004. At the end of using, calibrating, controlling and maintaining measurement
1987, the procedures were also adopted by the European standards and measuring equipment. A summary of the
requirements is given below:
Committee for Standardization and published as identically
worded documents numbered EN 29000-EN 29004.3. Prior to 1 The supplier shall establish and maintain an effective
1987, a separate document, B8 5781, existed that detailed the system for the control and calibration of measurement
necessary measurement and calibration procedures associated standards and measuring equipment.
with quality assurance systems, but this became obsolete when
these procedures were subsumed within BS 5750 in 1987. 2 All personnel performing calibration functions shall have
adequate training.

3 The calibration system shall be periodically and

systematically reviewed to ensure its continued
effectiveness.

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4 All measurements, whether for purposes of calibration or  a statement of the cumulative effects of
product assessment, shall take into account all the
uncertainties in calibration data;
errors and uncertainties in the measurement process.

5 Calibration procedures shall be documented.  the environmental conditions required for

calibration;
6 Objective evidence that the measurement system is
effective shall be readily available to customers.  the source of calibration used to establish
traceability;
7 Calibration shall be performed by equipment traceable to
national standards.
 details of any repairs or modifications which
8 A separate calibration record shall be kept for each might affect the calibration status;
measuring instrument. These records must demonstrate
that all measuring-instruments used are capable of  Any use limitations of the instrument.
performing measurements within the designated limits.
The record” for instrument shall contain as minimum:
9 All equipment shall be labeled to show its calibration
 a description of the instrument and a unique status and any usage limitations (if practicable).
identifier;
10 Any instrument, which has failed or is suspected (or
 the calibration date; known) to be out of calibration shall be withdrawn from
use and labelled conspicuously to prevent accidental
 the calibration results; use.

The calibration interval (plus date when next calibration due). 11 Adjustable devices shall be sealed to prevent tampering.
Some or all of the following information is also required in the
calibration record, according to the type of instrument involved:
 the calibration procedure;
 the permissible error limits;

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