PIA Training Centre (PTC) Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

Category – B Sub Module 3.10 – Magnetism

MODULE 3
Sub Module 3.10

MAGNETISM

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Contents
INTRODUCTION ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
MAGNETIC THEORIES --------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES ------------------------------------------------------------------ 3
ACTION OF MAGNET SUSPENDED IN THE EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD --------- 3
PRODUCTION OF A MAGNET (MAGNETISATION) ---------------------------------- 4
DEMAGNETIZATION ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
MAGNETIC SHIELDING -------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS ------------------------------------------------------ 8
ELECTROMAGNETISM -------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
PRINCIPLE OF ELECTROMAGNETISM -------------------------------------------------- 9
RIGHT HAND GRASP RULE --------------------------------------------------------------13
MAGNETIC TERMS ------------------------------------------------------------------------14
MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE (MMF) ----------------------------------------------------14
MAGNETIC CIRCUIT -----------------------------------------------------------------------14
MAGNETIZING FORCE (H) ---------------------------------------------------------------14
RELUCTANCE -------------------------------------------------------------------------------15
PERMEABILITY -----------------------------------------------------------------------------15
HYSTERESIS LOOP -------------------------------------------------------------------------15
EDDY CURRENT LOSS ---------------------------------------------------------------------17
FLUX DENSITY ------------------------------------------------------------------------------17
VARIATION OF PERMEABILITY WITH FLUX DENSITY ------------------------------18
CARE OF MAGNETS -----------------------------------------------------------------------18

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Examination of a simple bar magnet similar to that illustrated in
INTRODUCTION Figure 3.10-A discloses some basic characteristics of all
magnets
The phenomenon of magnetism has been known and used for
much longer than any other property in the science of electricity.
Magnetism occurs naturally in some minerals, .e.g. lodestone
and has the property of attracting and picking up small pieces of
iron or steel. A further property of these minerals is that if they
are freely suspended they will come to rest pointing in a north-
south direction. This is because the earth itself behaves like a
huge natural magnet and its magnetism pulls the piece of
mineral into line with it. This property forms the basis of the
magnetic compass and has been used by mariners for
navigation for many years.
Magnetism is defined as the property of an object to attract
certain metallic substances. In general, these substances are
ferrous materials; that is, materials composed of iron or iron
alloys, such as soft iron, steel, and alnico. These materials,
sometimes called magnetic materials, today include at least
three nonferrous materials: nickel, cobalt, and gadolinium,
which are magnetic to a limited degree. All other substances
are considered nonmagnetic, and a few of these nonmagnetic FIGURE 3.10.1 one end of magnetized strip points to
substances can be classified as diamagnetic since they are magnetic north pole
repelled by both poles of a magnet. Magnetism is an invisible
force, the ultimate nature of which has not been fully
determined. It can best be described by the effects it produces.

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MAGNETIC THEORIES Considering each atom - orbital electrons not only orbit the
nucleus but spin axially on their own axis.
MOLECULAR THEORY In nonmagnetic materials the same number of electrons spin
If we continue cutting our magnet into smaller and smaller clockwise as anti-clockwise. In magnetic materials more
pieces we would eventually arrive at the smallest piece, which electrons spin one way than the other way
would be a molecule and this molecule would be a magnet. The unbalanced spin creates twists called magnetic moments.
Thus the molecular theory of magnetism states that:
In un-magnetized state the moments of the electrons are in the
 All materials contain molecules with magnetic properties. same direction in a single domain, but the domains produce
 In un-magnetised substances, these molecules are random pockets of magnetism.
arranged in a random manner and no external magnetic
effect is produced. As the magnetic material becomes magnetized the domains
become partially aligned. In fully magnetized material all
 When the material is being magnetised, we are aligning domains become fully aligned.
the molecules. The number aligned increases, as we
further magnetise the specimen and when all are aligned
no further increase in magnetisation is possible and the
specimen is said to be magnetically saturated.
 In theory all substances could be magnetised, but in
practice it is impossible to align the molecules of most
substances.

Domain Theory
In domain theory it is assumed that magnetic materials are
composed of tiny individual magnets called domains, a single
domain is very small - about 1012 atoms.

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Like Poles Repel, Unlike Poles Attract
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

ACTION OF MAGNET SUSPENDED IN THE EARTH'S To test a specimen for the presence of magnetism it is
MAGNETIC FIELD necessary to observe repulsion. Attraction simply means that
The two regions near the ends of a magnet at which the the specimen is magnetic but it may not be magnetised. Thus
the test for magnetism is repulsion.

attracting forces appear to be concentrated are called the

magnetic poles.

The pole (when freely suspended) which points towards the

earth’s geographic north pole is called the North Seeking Pole
‘N’ (or north pole for short) and that which points to the south FIGURE:3.10.3
geographic pole, the South Seeking Pole ‘S’ (or south pole). Unlike poles attract. Like poles repel.

It is observed that two north poles repel each other and likewise
with two south poles; however a north pole and a south pole will

attract each other. This is summarized in the fundamental law

of magnetism:

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method used is determined by the type of magnet required.
Magnetic Field
The region around a magnet in which it exerts a force is called Stroke Method
the ‘magnetic field’. The magnetic field is three-dimensional Using the stroke method of producing a magnet, a piece of steel
and it may be shown visually by drawing imaginary lines called is stroked by a permanent magnet or magnets. Backward and
‘lines of magnetic flux’. forward movement of the steel should be avoided and magnets
should follow the assumed lines of force when stroking the
Lines Of Flux steel.
A line of flux is a line indicating the direction in which a free Magnets with same polarity at either end can be produced using
north pole would travel, if placed in the field at that point. the double stroke method. This entails stroking the steel from
Alternatively, it is the direction in which the north pole of a the centre to the end, reversing the direction of the magnet for
compass needle would point. The direction which would be each end. Such a magnet is said to have consequent poles.
taken is indicated on the lines of flux by arrow heads.

Therefore, lines of flux emanate from north poles and re-enter at Induction
south poles, see diagram below. The property of magnetism may be induced in a piece of
material that does not normally have that characteristic.
PRODUCTION OF A MAGNET (MAGNETISATION)
If a piece of soft iron is placed in the magnetic field of a
Magnets can be produced in a variety of ways, generally the
permanent magnet, the soft iron will assume the properties of a
magnet and become magnetized. This action is called magnetic
induction. It occurs because the lines of flux tend to flow through
the path of least opposition, and air offers more opposition than
soft iron.

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When the lines of flux pass through the soft iron, the molecules DEMAGNETIZATION
of soft iron line up with the lines of force, their north poles
A magnet can be demagnetized in several ways. This random
pointing in the direction in which the lines of force are travelling
orientation of the magnetic domains can be achieved most
effectively by heating the material above its curie temperature.
The curie temperature for a low carbon steel is 770oC or
1390oF. When steel is heated above its curie temperature, it will
become austenitic and loses its magnetic properties. When it is
cooled back down, it will go through a reverse transformation
and will contain no residual magnetic field. The material should
also be placed with it long axis in an east-west orientation to
avoid any influence of the Earth's magnetic field.

It is often inconvenient to heat a material above its curie

temperature to demagnetize it, so another method that returns
the material to a nearly un-magnetized state is commonly used.
Subjecting the component to a reversing and decreasing
FIGURE:3.10.5 magnetic field will return the dipoles to a nearly random

through the iron. The end at which the lines of flux enter the soft orientation throughout the material. This can be accomplished
iron becomes a south pole, the end at which they leave, a north by pulling a component out and away from a coil with AC
pole.

If the magnetic field is removed, the soft iron will loose its passing through it. The same can also be accomplished using
magnetism. an electromagnetic yoke with AC selected. Also, many
stationary magnetic particle inspection units come with a
It should be noted that a piece of soft iron sitting in the earth's demagnetization feature that slowly reduces the AC in a coil in
magnetic field will concentrate the lines of flux and become which the component is placed.
magnetized.

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MAGNETIC SHIELDING equipment is present (such as instruments, navigational aids
and radio equipment). The magnetic field around a conductor or
There is no known INSULATOR for magnetic flux. If a
a magnetic component (such as an inductor or transformer) can
nonmagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, there is no
be contained by surrounding the component in question with a
appreciable change in flux – that is, the flux penetrates the
magnetic shield made up of a high permeability alloy (such as
nonmagnetic material. For example, a glass plate placed
mumetal). The shield not only helps to prevent the leakage of
between the poles of a horseshoe magnet will have no
flux from the component placed inside it but it can also prevent
appreciable effect on the field although glass itself is a good
the penetration of stray external fields. In effect, the shield acts
insulator in an electric circuit. If a magnetic material (for
as a “magnetic bypass” which offers a much lower reluctance
example, soft iron) is placed in a magnetic field, the flux may be
path than the air or free space surrounding it.
redirected to take advantage of the greater permeability of the
magnetic material, as shown. Permeability, as discussed
earlier, is the quality of a substance which determines the ease
with which it can be magnetized.

The sensitive mechanisms of electric instruments and meters

can be influenced by stray magnetic fields which will cause
errors in their readings.

Because instrument mechanisms cannot be insulated against

magnetic flux, it is necessary to employ some means of
directing the flux around the instrument. This is accomplished
by placing a soft-iron case, called a MAGNETIC
SCREENorSHIELD, about the instrument. Because the flux is
established more readily through the iron (even though the path
is longer) than through the air inside the case, the instrument is
effectively shielded, as shown by the watch and soft-iron shield .
FIGURE:3.10.6
As we have seen, magnetic fields permeate the space
surrounding all current-carrying conductors. The leakage of
magnetic flux from one circuit into another can sometimes
cause problems, particularly where sensitive electronic
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Artificial Magnets
Permanent Magnets
The use of an irregular shaped piece of natural magnetic
material is not very satisfactory in practice. However, some A common form of permanent magnet is a bar magnet. We
other material such as iron or steel, made to the shape required, have already seen that any magnet attracts pieces of iron and
can be made into a magnet. If a piece of iron is placed near to when it is in the shape of a bar the force of attraction is usually
a natural magnet (or any other magnet) it will exhibit magnetic greatest in the regions of the ends, which are called POLES and
properties and it is said to be magnetized by induction. A piece negligible in the middle of its length. We also saw that if the bar
of un-magnetized iron can also be made into a magnet by is freely suspended it will take up a fixed position with one end
stroking it with one end of a natural magnet. We shall also see pointing to the north, called the north seeking pole (or more
commonly just NORTHPOLE) and the other end pointing to the
later that a piece of iron can be magnetized using an electric south called the SOUTHPOLE.
current.
Materials which exhibit magnetic effects are called
Any magnet formed by one of the above methods is called an FERROMAGNETIC materials, e.g. iron, cobalt, nickel.
artificial magnet. Some materials are easily made magnetic, The two poles of any single magnet are always of equal
such as soft iron, but others, such as hard iron (and steel) are strength and are complementary and cannot exist in isolation.
much more difficult to magnetize.
The region around a magnet in which its forces can be detected
In general, materials that are easily magnetized also readily is called its MAGNETICFIELD and this can conveniently be
lose their magnetism and make TEMPORARY magnets.
Conversely, materials which are difficult to magnetize do not imagined as consisting of LINESOFFORCE or
lose their magnetism easily and make PERMANENT magnets. LINESOFMAGNETICFLUX.
Examples – Wood / Glass /Air / Water / Aluminum

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Diamagnetic Materials
TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
This is a small group of materials that actually oppose a
magnetizing force. If placed in a magnetic field they will Ferromagnetic Materials
decreases its strength. If suspended in a magnetic field, they
will swing to adopt a position at 90 degrees to the lines of flux. Ferromagnetic materials can be easily magnetized and exhibit
strong magnetic properties. This group can be further
Examples – Copper / Brass / Bronze / Mercury / Bismuth subdivided into hard and soft magnetic materials.

Above certain temperatures ferromagnetic materials behave as

paramagnetic materials.

Hard Iron
Hard magnetic materials are more difficult to magnetize but
retain most of their magnetism when the magnetizing force is
removed.
Examples - steel and nickel alloys such as:

Ticonal- Iron Cobalt / Nickel / Aluminum / Titanium and

Copper
FIGURE:3.10.8
Alnico - Iron Nickel / Cobalt And Aluminum
Lines of Force Around A Bar Magnet
These materials are used for permanent magnets

Soft Iron
Soft magnetic materials become magnetized very easily, but
they loose most of the magnetism when the magnetizing force
is removed.
Examples - alloys such as stalloy and mumetal These materials
are used for temporary magnets
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to circle C. As the original line (circle) of force expands from
ELECTROMAGNETISM circle A to B, a new line of force will appear at circle A. As the
current flow increases, the number of circles of force increases,
Introduction expanding the outer circles farther from the surface of the
With permanent magnets it is difficult to obtain very large current carrying conductor. If the current flow is a steady non-
strength magnetic fields because the material becomes varying direct current, the magnetic field remains stationary.
magnetically saturated. This means that whatever is used to When the current stops, the magnetic field collapses and the
magnetize the material, eventually a strength of magnetic field magnetism around the conductor disappears.
is reached which cannot be exceeded, even if the magnetizing
agent goes on increasing. To obtain strong magnetic fields we
normally use an electromagnet. The simple principle of electromagnetism is that a magnetic field
is created by passing a DC electric current through a wire. The
PRINCIPLE OF ELECTROMAGNETISM shape of the magnetic field produced by a current flowing in a
Oersted discovered that the magnetic field had no connection straight conductor is circular and concentric to the conductor.
with the conductor in which the electrons were flowing, because The diagram below shows a straight wire conductor passing
the conductor was made of nonmagnetic copper. The electrons through a piece of cardboard on which iron filings have been
moving through the wire created the magnetic field around the sprinkled. Naturally in the absence of a current in the straight
conductor. Since a magnetic field accompanies a charged conductor is circular and concentric to the conductor.
particle, the greater the current flow, and the greater the
magnetic field. Figure 3.10-4 illustrates the magnetic field The diagram below shows a straight wire conductor passing
around a current carrying wire. A series of concentric circles through a piece of cardboard on which iron filings have been
around the conductor represent the field, which if all the lines sprinkled. Naturally in the absence of a current in the
were shown would appear more as a continuous cylinder of conductor, the iron filings do not take up any particular form. As
such circles around the conductor. soon as the current passes through the conductor, the filings
As long as current flows in the conductor, the lines of force take up the shape as shown in the diagram.
remain around it. [Figure 3.10-5] If a small current flow through
the conductor, there will be a line of force extending out to circle
A. If the current flow is increased, the line of force will increase
in size to circle B, and a further increase in current will expand it

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We want to know things about the field created by the electric
current apart from its shape and these are the strength of the
field and its direction. The first of these can be seen by the
concentration of the lines of flux, the tighter they are together
the stronger the field. It can be seen that this occurs near to the
conductor and the strength decreases as the lines spread out
further away from the conductor.

FIGURE:3.10.9

FIGURE:3.10.10

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Current Flow
The direction of the field is related to the direction the current is
flowing in the conductor and to determine it we use the
CORKSCREWRULE, which states: -

Knowing the direction of the current, it is possible to determine

the direction of the magnetic field using Maxwell’s Corkscrew
rule, usually abbreviated to the Corkscrew Rule (or sometimes
the right-hand screw rule).

The Corkscrew Rule states; if a corkscrew is turned so that it

moves in the direction of conventional current flow, then the
direction of rotation of the corkscrew corresponds to the
direction of the magnetic field, see diagram below.

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Magnetic Effects Of Parallel Conductors

FIGURE:3.10.11

FIGURE:3.10.12

The Solenoid
This is a current-carrying conductor wound in the shape of a
Instead of considering one conductor let us now consider two coil. In each part of the coil, the corkscrew rule indicates the
straight conductors placed parallel to each other and look at the direction of the magnetic field being produced. However,
resultant magnetic fields produced when the conductors are remembering that lines of flux cannot cross over, the lines of
viewed end on. The currents flowing in the conductors can flux from neighboring conductors combine together and produce
either be flowing in the same direction or opposite directions. a magnetic field very similar to that of a bar magnet. The
The resultant fields are shown. diagram below shows the resultant field pattern of a coil of wire
wound round a hollow cardboard former.
It should be noted that when the currents are in the same
direction, the conductors would move towards one another if It will be noted that the lines of flux are spread out external to
they are free to move. Of course, as you would expect, when the former, i.e. the flux density is not large. The field inside the
the currents are in opposite directions they will repel one former is however very concentrated providing a high flux
another. density.
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Direction Of A Field Inside A Solenoid
The direction of the magnetic field inside a solenoid, and hence
its polarity, may be determined by:

RIGHT HAND GRASP RULE

This is defined as: ‘if it is imagined that the right hand is laid on
the outside of the coil so that the fingers line up with the
direction of the current flow in the turns of the wire, the
extended thumb points in the direction of the NORTH pole.
Whenever an electric current flow in a conductor a magnetic
field is set up around the conductor in the form of concentric
circles. The field is present along the whole length of the
conductor and is strongest nearest to the conductor. Now like
permanent magnets, this field also has direction. The direction
of the magnetic field is dependent on the direction of the current
passing through the conductor and may be established using
the right-hand grip rule, as shown in Figure 3.10-6If the right-
hand thumb is pointing in the direction of current flow in the
conductor, then when gripping the conductor in the right hand,
the fingers indicate the direction of the magnetic field. In a
cross-sectional view of the conductor a point or dot (•) indicates
that the current is flowing towards you (i.e. out of the page!) and
across (×) shows that the current is flowing away from you (i.e.
into the page!). This convention mirrors arrow flight, where the
dot is the tip of the arrow and the cross is the feathers at the tail
of the arrow. FIGURE:3.10.13

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MAGNETIC TERMS mmf
H and since mmf = IN we get

We have already come across two magnetic terms, which are NI
magnetic flux, given the symbol  and measured in Webers H

(Wb) and flux density, given the symbol B and measured in This shows that the unit of H is Ampere-turns per metre, ie.
Tesla (T). In order to understand the relationship between
At / m .
magnetism and electricity we need to know a few more. They
path of an electric current in a circuit and the path taken by lines
are:
of magnetic flux. There are other similarities which are best
illustrated by the diagrams shown.
MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE (MMF)
This is the force that establishes the flux and is measured in
Ampere-Turns (At) Therefore:
mmf    N At

MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
In order to explain what is meant by length in the expression for
H above, we must understand what is meant by a magnetic
circuit. We have seen in electrical circuits that the current
cannot flow unless there is a closed circuit in which it can do so.
We have also seen that lines of magnetic flux are closed.
Therefore we can conclude that there is a similarity between the FIGURE:3.10.14
Where,  is the current in Amperes and N is the number of The magnetic diagram represents a magnetic circuit in which
turns of wire through which current is flowing. the flux being produced by the coil N is mainly contained in the

MAGNETIZING FORCE (H)

This is the mmf per meter length (  ) of the magnetic circuit.

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PERMEABILITY
ferrite core and the air gap. The ferrite core will allow magnetic The flux produced by a given mmf depends on the nature of the
flux to be established in it more readily than the air gap. medium through which the force is acting. An air-cored
solenoid will produce a specific magnetic field strength with a
RELUCTANCE given current flowing in it. If now an iron core is placed inside
This ability to oppose flux to be built up in a medium is called its the solenoid, the magnetic field strength will greatly increase.
RELUCTANCE(AMPERES/WEBER) and in this case the ferrite
core will have a smaller reluctance than the air gap. Clearly
reluctance is linked to resistance in an electrical circuit, indeed, Although the magnetizing force has not altered, the flux density
where there is more than one reluctance in a magnetic circuit, has increased. The ratio of the flux density (B) to the
their total reluctance is the sum of the individual reluctances as magnetizing force (H) which produces it is known as the
for resistances in series. PERMEABILITY of the medium through which the magnetizing
The comparison of the other quantities are tabulated below: force is acting. It is given the symbol  and it has no units.
The relationship is therefore:
ELECTRICITY MAGNETISM
B
  orB   H
Quantity Unit Quantity Unit H
emf volt mmf ampere turn
current ampere magnetic flux Weber For air and other nonmagnetic materials µ is approximately
resistance ohm reluctance ampere equal to 1 whereas iron can have a permeability of 2,000 to
turn/Weber 3,000 and nickel-iron alloys may be as high as 100,000.

Two similar relationships are:

HYSTERESIS LOOP
 emf  mmf
A ferromagnetic material retains some magnetism after the
Resistance reluctance
magnetizing force is removed. The BH curve (O to Q) will
therefore only be followed once, on initial magnetization.

When a material is subjected to a changing magnetizing force,

the flux density is affected by its previous magnetic history.

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There is tendency for the magnetic conditions to lag behind the 0 to U called ‘retentivity’. If the material had not been
magnetizing force that is producing them. This is known as taken to saturation then OR or OU would
‘hysteresis’ and comes from the Greek meaning late or lagging. represent the remanent flux density.
If a piece of material is taken through a complete cycle of
magnetizing and demagnetizing the graph of B against H is as R to S - The magnetizing force is reversed.
shown, this diagram is called a hysteresis loop.
O to S - Represents the magnetizing force required to
reduce the flux density or to zero. This is called the
coercivity of the material. If the material

O to V had not reached saturation it is termed the ‘coercive

force’.

S to T - Further increase in the reverse magnetizing force.

This causes the material to reach saturation in the
opposite direction.

T to Q - Reversal of magnetizing force again eventually

makes the material saturate in original direction.

The term residual magnetism is used to describe the useful

FIGURE:3.10.15 flux remaining after the magnetizing force has been removed for
a considerable time. It is proportional to the coercivity of the
material and is also called coercivity. This term should not be
confused with remanence or remanent flux density.
O to Q - Initial magnetization to saturation at point A

Q to R - Magnetizing force is reduced to zero.

O to R - Represents remanence. Remanence is the flux

density remaining in or the material after
the magnetizing force is removed. It is
sometimes

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FLUX DENSITY
The area of the loop represents the energy loss during each
magnetic cycle, or the power dissipated. It’s size is dependent We have seen that the magnetic strength at any position
upon the type of material and frequency at which the surrounding a magnet is dependent upon the concentration of
magnetizing force is switched. the lines of flux at that position. This concentration or density is
called flux density and is defined as:
The following should be noted:
The amount of flux per unit cross sectional area, anywhere in
 Soft iron saturates with much less magnetizing force than the magnetic field, at right angles to the lines of force.
steel.
It is the given symbol B and is measured in TESLA (T). It is
 The remanence of soft iron is greater than that of steel.
related to Flux by the expression:
 The area of the loop and coercivity for steel is much
greater than for soft iron. This indicates greater hysteresis
loss and residual magnetism. 
 Materials with large loops are used for permanent
B
magnets – ticonal. A
Materials with small loops are used for temporary magnets – stalloy,
Mumetal. Where A is the area in square meters

EDDY CURRENT LOSS EXAMPLE

An Eddy Current is a circulating current flowing in a magnetic A flux density of 2.5mT is developed in free space over an area
core material as a result of a voltage induced in it by a moving of 20 cm2. Determine the total flux.
or varying magnetic field. Such currents generate heat in the
conductor, this representing wasted energy known as Eddy Solution
Current loss.
Re-arranging the formula

B=ᶲ/A

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 PIA Training Centre (PTC) Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Category – B Sub Module 3.10 – Magnetism
the horseshoe magnet of a meter, the meter would no longer be
subject gives: operable or would give inaccurate readings. Therefore, care
ᶲ = BA must be exercised when handling instruments containing
thus: magnets. Severe jarring or subjecting the instrument to high
ᶲ = 2.5 × 10−3 × 20 × 10−4 temperature will damage the device.
= 50 × 10−7 Wb or 5μWb.
A magnet may also become weakened from loss of flux. Thus,
VARIATION OF PERMEABILITY WITH FLUX DENSITY when storing magnets, one should always try to avoid excess
leakage of magnetic flux. A horseshoe magnet should always
An iron core can be considered to consist of many small be stored with a keeper, a soft iron bar used to join the
magnets which are randomly oriented when the core is not magnetic poles. By using the keeper while the magnet is being
magnetized. These are usually referred to as ‘Domains’ A stored, the magnetic flux will continuously circulate through the
magnetizing force applied to the core will tend to line up the magnet and not leak off into space.
domains in the direction of the force so that their fields start to
combine. When bar magnets are stored, the same principle must be
remembered. Therefore, bar magnets should always be stored
How easily this is done will determine the permeability of the in pairs with a north pole and a south pole placed together. this
iron. If the magnetizing force is continually increased more and provides a complete path for the magnetic flux without any flux
more of the domains will become lined up in the core and leakage.
eventually a condition will be reached when all of the domains
are perfectly lined up with the direction of the force. The core is
then said to be SATURATED and no further increase of flux
density can be obtained with increasing magnetizing force.

CARE OF MAGNETS
A piece of steel that has been magnetized can lose much of its
magnetism by improper handling. If it is jarred or heated, there

will be a misalignment of its domains resulting in the loss of

some of its effective magnetism. Had this piece of steel formed

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