Gasdynamics

AE4140
Chapter 1: Introduction

Ferry Schrijer
[email protected]

Luis Laguarda Sanchez

[email protected]

Aerodynamics Section
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering
Delft University of Technology

August 21, 2020

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Introduction
Introductory comments
Notations, definitions and relations for gases
Equation of state
Conservation laws
Euler equations
Entropy
Discontinuities in compressible flow
One-dimensional unsteady jump equations
Multi-dimensional unsteady jump equations
Conservation law of entropy
Too many jump equations
Moving shocks (t, x)-plane, entropy condition II
Numerical approach

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Chapter 1: Introduction

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Introductory comments
Compressibility

I Compressibility of the fluid =⇒ density is variable

I Density = mass/unit volume
I What makes compressibility of real importance?
Incompressible flow : fluids (water)
gases (low speed M ≤ 0.3)
Compressible flow : propagation of sound
wave drag
shock waves
high temperature
combustion
re-entry aerodynamics
high speed flows (M >> 1)

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Notations, definitions and relations for gases

Quantity Symbol Comment

Density ρ mass/unit volume

1
Specific volume v= ρ volume/unit mass

Pressure p

Velocity V̄ , q̄ momentum/unit mass

|V̄ | ≡ V
|q̄| ≡ q
Specific internal energy e energy/unit mass

p
Specific enthalpy h h=e+ ρ

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Notations, definitions and relations for gases

Quantity Symbol Comment

Specific total energy E E = e + 12 q 2

p
Specific total enthalpy H H = h + 12 q 2 = E + ρ

Specific total entropy s probability of state

Temperature T

∂e ∂h



Specific heat at const v ,p cv ,cp cv = ∂T v , cp = ∂T p

cp
Ratio of specific heats γ γ= cv (= 1.4 for air)

Specific gas constant R R = 287 kgJ K (air)

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Equation of state

State principle (empirically found) "If the chemical composition

of the fluid is fixed then the local thermodynamic state is
determined completely by two independent thermodynamic
variables."
So:
p = f (ρ, e) or p = f (ρ, h). (1)
Thermally perfect gas: cv and cp only depend on T , so

cv = cv (T ) and cp = cp (T ).

EOS:
p = ρRT (2)
R is constant for a particular gas.

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Equation of state

(continued)
∂e
From cv = ∂T v :
Z
e= cv (T )dT (3)
∂h


From cp = ∂T p :
Z
h= cp (T )dT (4)

From h = e + pρ :
Z Z
cp (T )dT = cv (T )dT + RT

R = cp (T ) − cv (T ) (5)

R γ(T )R
cv (T ) = , cp (T ) = (6)
γ(T ) − 1 γ(T ) − 1
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Equation of state (continued)

Calorically perfect gas: cv and cp are constants

EOS: pρ = RT , R = cp − cv
RT p
e = cv T = γ−1 = ρ(γ−1) =⇒

p = (γ − 1)ρe (7)
γR γ p
h = cp T = γ−1 T = γ−1 ρ = γe =⇒

γ−1
p= ρh (8)
γ

Air is perfect for temperatures up to 2500 K

For T < 800 K air is calorically perfect.
For 800 K < T < 2500 K air is thermally perfect.

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Equation of state (continued)
Molecular degrees of freedom
Principle of equipartition : Internal energy of a gas is equally
distributed over the available degrees of freedom
n = number of degrees of freedom

1
e= nRT ; (9)
2
If n is constant (e.g. n is no function of T ) there follows:
 
∂e 1
cv = = nR (10a)
∂T v 2
1
cp = R + cv = ( n + 1)R (10b)
2
cp n+2
γ= = (11)
cv n

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Equation of state (continued)

Some examples:

I monatomic gas (He, dissociated gas): 3

degrees of freedom (DOF); n = 3,
γ = 5/3.
I diatomic gas (O2 , N2 , air at standard
conditions): 5 DOF (3 translational and
2 rotational); n = 5, γ = 7/5 = 1.4.
For high temperatures DOF + 2 due to
vibration within the molecule Figure: Diatomic gas

I monatomic gas in 1D (only of mathematical interest!): 1

DOF; n = 1, γ = 3.

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Equation of state (continued)

Influence of chemistry on R
R depends on the number of particles (molecules, atoms and
ions) per unit mass.

pµv = µRT or pV = <T

µ is the molecular weight, V is the volume of a mole of gas and
< is the universal gas constant (gas constant of Regnault)

< = 8314 J/(KmoleK )

Specific gas constant: R = </µ.

µair = 29 kg/Kmole and Rair = 8314/29 = 287.04 J/(kg K ).

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Equation of state (continued)

Examples of influences of chemistry:

 
O2 → 2O µ is halved
dissociation:
N2 → 2N R doubles
 
N + O → NO 
µ rises

reaction: NO + O → NO2
R drops
N + 2O → NO2
 

µ drops
ionization: O → O + + e−
R rises

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Equation of state (continued)

Entropy
First law of Thermodynamics: de = d̄Q + d̄W

de = d̄Q − pdv .

Reversible process: d̄Q = T ds

The first law now becomes: T ds = de + pdv
Caloric perfect gas: de = cv dT

dT pdv dp dv
ds = cv + = cv +R
T T p v
 
dp dv
ds = cv +γ (12)
p v

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Equation of state (continued)

 γ 
Integrate: s − s0 = cv ln ppv
0 v0
γ

Adiabatic process: d̄Q = 0 =⇒ ds = 0 =⇒ s = constant

Reversible + adiabatic process = isentropic process

s = constant =⇒ pv γ = constant

or
Poisson’s relation:p = Cργ (13)
Irreversible process: T ds > d̄Q (second law).
So, in case of adiabatic flow where d̄Q = 0, ds > 0

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Equation of state (continued)
Sound waves:
I perturbations in density, pressure and temperature are
infinitely small
I the propagation is reversible and adiabatic ⇒ isentropic
Speed of sound:  
∂p
a2 = ; (14)
∂ρ s
Perfect gas: p = (γ − 1)ρe
Speed of sound for a perfect gas:
 
p
a2 = (γ − 1)e + ρ2
(γ − 1)ρ = (γ − 1) e + pρ
= (γ − 1)h = (γ − 1)cp T
= γRT = γp
ρ

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Conservation laws
Integral form of the conservation laws

Mass conservation

ZZZ ZZ
d
ρdV + ρV̄ · n̄dS = 0 (15)
dt V S
| {z } | {z }
time rate of change of mass inside V net mass flow out V through surface S

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Conservation laws
Integral form of the conservation laws

Momentum conservation

ZZZ ZZ
d
ρV̄ dV + ρV̄ V̄ · n̄dS +
dt V S
| {z } | {z }
time rate of change of net flow of momentum across S
momentum inside V
ZZ ZZZ
p · n̄dS = ρf̄ dV +
S | {z }
| {z }
surface force due to pressure body forces

F̄visc + F̄external
|{z} | {z }
viscous forces external forces (strut force, enclosure force)
(16)

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Conservation laws
Integral form of the conservation laws
Comments

I Example of F̄external
F̄external = −F̄ on control volume V , integral of the surface
forces (pressure + viscous).
I F̄visc : viscous forces
ZZ
F̄visc = τ̄¯ · n̄dS
∂V
 
∂u∂ui
Newtonian fluid: τij = µ + ∂xij + λδij ∂u
∂xj
k
∂xk
Both µ and λ are a function of temperature.
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Conservation laws
Integral form of the conservation laws

Energy equation
ZZZ ZZ
d
ρEdV + ρE V̄ · n̄dS +
dt V
| {z } | S {z }
ofZchange of energy inside V
time rate Z netZflow
ZZ of energy across S

pV̄ · n̄dS = ρf̄ · V̄ dV +

S | {z }
| {z }
work on fluid by pressure force work done by body forces
Q̇
|{z} + Ẇvisc + Ẇext
| {z }
heat added to the fluid; conduc- work done by viscous and external forces
tion, radiation, condensation
(17)

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Conservation laws
Integral form of the conservation laws
Comments
I control volume fixed in space → the time derivative can be
∂
brought into the integral as ∂t
I Conservative force field: f̄ = −∇Φ (x̄) then Φ (x̄) can be
included in E and H
I Q̇ has a volume and a surface component :
ZZZ ZZ
Q̇ = ρcdV − q̄ · n̄dS
V S
| {z } | {z }
volumetric heating heat flux due to conduction

Fourier: q̄ = −k ∇T , where k : heat conduction coefficient.

Wide range of applicability, only assumption is that the integrals
are integrable in V and over ∂V (integrands may be
discontinuous)
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Conservation laws
Differential form of the flow equations
RRR RR
Divergence theorem: V ∇ · ĀdV = S Ā · n̄dS
RRR RR
Gradient theorem: V ∇pdV = S pn̄dS
∂ρ
Continuity equation: + ∇ · ρV̄ = 0 (18)
∂t

∂
Momentum equation: ρV̄ + ∇ · ρV̄ V̄ + ∇p = ρf̄ (19)
∂t

∂
Energy equation: ρE + ∇ · ρV̄ E + ∇ · pV̄ = ρV̄ · f̄ (20)
∂t

With H = E + pρ , ∇ · ρV̄ E + ∇ · pV̄ = ∇ · ρH V̄ .

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Euler equations

Euler equations: mathematical model of compressible flows

without the effects of viscosity, heat conduction, external
heating and external forces.

∂ρ
+ ∇ · ρV̄ = 0 (21)
∂t
∂
ρV̄ + ∇ · ρV̄ V̄ + ∇p = 0 (22)
∂t
∂
ρE + ∇ · ρH V̄ = 0 (23)
∂t

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Euler equations
Conservative form

Euler equations can be written in compact form:

∂U
e ∂F
e ∂G
e ∂H
e
+ + + =0 (24)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z

with
       
ρ ρu ρv ρw

 ρu 


 p + ρu 2 


 ρvu 


 ρwu 

U=
e
 ρv ,F

e =
 ρuv ,G

e =
 p + ρv 2 ,H

e =
 ρwv .

 ρw   ρuw   ρvw   p + ρw 2 
ρE ρuH ρvH ρwH

U
e is the state vector and F
e, G
e and H
e are flux vectors.
Euler equations are represented in the conservative form.

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Euler equations
Non-conservative form

Non-conservative form of the Euler equations by expanding the

derivatives and introducing the substantial derivative:

D ∂
= + V̄ · ∇. (25)
Dt ∂t
This results into
Dρ
+ ρ∇ · V̄ = 0, (26)
Dt
DV̄
ρ + ∇p = 0, (27)
Dt
DE
ρ + ∇ · pV̄ = 0. (28)
Dt

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Entropy
Euler equations: entropy s is constant when moving with a
particle. First law of thermodynamics: d̄Q = T ds
 
1
T ds = de + pd .
ρ
Ds
Following a fluid particle,determines the behaviour of s,
Dt
 
Ds 1 De p Dρ
= − 2 .
Dt T Dt ρ Dt
 
Ds 1 1 DV̄ p
= − ∇ · pV̄ − V̄ · + 2 ρ∇ · V̄ .
Dt T ρ Dt ρ
 
Ds 1 p V̄ ∇p p
= − ∇ · V̄ − · ∇p + V̄ · + ∇ · V̄ .
Dt T ρ ρ ρ ρ
or
Ds
=0 (29)
Dt
Steady flow → entropy is constant along a streamline.
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Discontinuities in compressible flow
Shock wave
Steady shock (Cs = 0): Vt,1 = Vt,2 , Vn,1 > Vn,2
Steady normal shock: pre-state supersonic and post-state
subsonic

Figure: Shock wave viewed in laboratory frame

In the general case (Cs 6= 0), how to find the pre and
post-state?
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Discontinuities in compressible flow
Shock wave
Bring the shock into a frame that moves with the shock: shock
frame

Figure: U1 < 0, 1 is
Figure: U1 > 0, 1 is pre-state
post-state

Case 1: U1 > 0 then U2 > 0 and domain À is the pre-state

where U1 > a1 and: p2 > p1 , ρ2 > ρ1 , T2 > T1 , e2 > e1 and
s2 > s1 .
Case 2: U1 < 0 then domain À is the post-state of the shock
and that domain Á is now the pre-state of the shock: p2 < p1 ,
ρ2 < ρ1 , T2 < T1 , e2 < e1 and s2 < s1 .
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Discontinuities in compressible flow
Shear wave

Shear wave velocity Cs normal to its front, Vn,1 = Vn,2 = Cs

Tangential velocity jump across the wave: Vt,1 6= Vt,2 . The
thermodynamic variables p, ρ, e, T and s are continuous
across a shear wave.

Figure: Shear wave

29/60
Discontinuities in compressible flow
Contact discontinuity
Contact discontinuity: velocity Cs to its front, Vn,1 = Vn,2 = Cs .
Furthermore Vn,1 = Vn,2 and ρ, e and s may jump across the
contact discontinuity.

Figure: Contact discontinuity

Often a contact discontinuity and shear wave are

superimposed.
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Discontinuities in compressible flow
Examples
Flow over a ramp in a channel

Flow in a channel with two unequal ramps

This steady 2D flow has a strong analogy to unsteady 1D flow

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Discontinuities in compressible flow
Examples

Flow over two successive ramps

32/60
Discontinuities in compressible flow
Summary of various discontinuities

vn vt c p ρ e s

Shock wave J C cs J J J J

Shear wave C J vn C C C C

Contact discontinuity C C vn C J J J

Shear + contact C J vn C J J J

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One-dimensional unsteady jump equations
1D unsteady flow, shock discontinuity D in the (t, x)-plane

Discontinuity is governed by the Euler equations:

   
ρ ρu
∂U ∂F
+ = 0, with U =  ρu  , F =  p + ρu 2  .
∂t ∂x
ρE ρuH

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One-dimensional unsteady jump equations
Which jump fits to the continuous solutions in À and Á?
Consider a small shock element δl with contour c and area A
Divergence theorem:
I x
Ā · n̄ dl = ∇ · ĀdA
c A

with     ∂
U nt
Ā = , n̄ = , and ∇ = ∂t
∂ .
F nx ∂x
This can now be written as:
I  
U x  ∂U ∂F

· n̄dl = + dA = 0.
c F A
∂t ∂x

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One-dimensional unsteady jump equations

Take the contour c around the element δl:

   
U U
· n̄2 δl + · n̄1 δl = 0.
F F

Since n̄1 = −n̄2 :

 
U2 − U1
· n̄2 = 0 , or (U2 − U1 )n2t + (F2 − F1 )n2x = 0.
F2 − F1

t is the temporal component and x is the spatial component.

This can now be written as:
n2t
(U2 − U1 ) + (F2 − F1 ) = 0
n2x

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One-dimensional unsteady jump equations

n̄2 is normal to D:
 
n2t dt
· = −1
n2x dx D

dt


Shock velocity VD = dx D :

−VD (U2 − U1 ) + (F2 − F1 ) = 0, or

VD [U] = [F], (30)

where [·] = (·)2 − (·)1 expresses the difference between state 2
and state 1.

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One-dimensional unsteady jump equations
Special case: steady discontinuity → VD = 0

[F ] = 0, or F2 = F1

re-substitute F → Rankine-Hugoniot
relations:

ρ2 u2 = ρ1 u1 (31a)
p2 + ρ2 u22 = p1 + ρ1 u12 (31b)
ρ2 u2 H2 = ρ1 u1 H1 (31c)

Figure: Steady shock in the

(t, x)-plane

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Multi-dimensional unsteady jump equations
Discontinuity D with velocity V̄D and unit vector n̄D

Figure: Discontinuity in 3D space

Governing equations:
∂ Ũ ∂ F̃ ∂ G̃ ∂ H̃
+ + + = 0.
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
Multi-dimensional jump relation
h i h i h i h i
(V̄D · n̄D ) Ũ = F̃ nDx + G̃ nDy + H̃ nDz (32)
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Multi-dimensional unsteady jump equations
Using the definitions of Ũ, F̃ , G̃ and H̃:
 
ρ(V̄ − V̄D ) · n̄D =0
 
ρV̄ (V̄ − V̄D ) · n̄D + pn̄D =0
 
ρE(V̄ − V̄D ) · n̄D + pV̄ · n̄D = 0.
   
Discrete algebra: ā · b̄ = [ā] hb̄i + b̄ hāi
The multi-dimensional jump relations can be brought in the
form of the Rankine-Hugoniot relations:
 
ρ(V̄ − V̄D ) · n̄D =0 (33a)
 
ρ(V̄ − V̄D )(V̄ − V̄D ) · n̄D + pn̄D =0 (33b)
h   i
2
ρ h + 12 V̄ − V̄D 
 

V̄ − V̄D · n̄D = 0 (33c)

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Multi-dimensional unsteady jump equations

I The jump relations are invariant under exchange of states

À and Á → shocks
I Shock wave: adiabatic + irreversible process → ds > 0
I Entropy keeps time direction of the process: entropy
condition
Unambiguous description of the flow:
I PDE for the flow field away from discontinuities
I Jump equations across the discontinuities
I Entropy condition
Entropy condition I
A fluid particle passing through a shock increases its
entropy.

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Conservation law of entropy

Adiabatic reversible flow: Ds

Dt = 0
1D unsteady flow:
∂s ∂s
+u =0 (34a)
∂t ∂x
Conservation of mass:
∂ρ ∂ρu
+ = 0. (34b)
∂t ∂x
Combine (34a) ×ρ and (34b) ×s:

∂(ρs) ∂
+ (ρus) = 0 (35)
∂t ∂x
Conservation of entropy density ρs →
not valid for irreversible processes!

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Conservation law of entropy

Irreversible flow:
(ρs)t + (ρus)x ≥ 0
Jump inequality:
−VD [ρs] + [ρus] ≥ 0 (36)
Discrete algebra + density jump equation:
 
hρui
− VD [s] ≥ 0. (37)
hρi

For example, steady flow VD = 0:

I Forward flow; hρui > 0 → [s] > 0 or s2 > s1
I Backward flow; hρui < 0 → [s] < 0 or s2 < s1

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Too many jump equations
Rankine-Hugoniot relations:
ρ1 u1 = ρ2 u2
p1 + ρ1 u12 = p2 + ρ2 u22
ρ1 u1 H1 = ρ2 u2 H2
With these, the well know shock wave relations can be derived:
p2 2γ
=1+ (M 2 − 1)
p1 γ+1 1
ρ2 (γ + 1)M12
=
ρ1 2 + (γ − 1)M12
T2

2γ  2  2 + (γ − 1)M 2
1
= 1+ M1 − 1
T1 γ+1 (γ + 1)M12
u2 2 (M12 − 1)
=1−
u1 γ + 1 M12
These equations are inconvenient for use with unsteady flows
(one has to go to shock frame) 44/60
Too many jump equations
Therefore it is more useful to have jump relations for the
thermodynamic variables. Start with: VD [U] = [F ]
By eliminating VD , the Hugoniot relation results:
1
hpi∆( ) + ∆e = 0. (38)
ρ
For perfect gas with e = cv T and p = (γ − 1)ρe:
p2
ρ2 1 + γ+1
γ−1 p
= γ+1 p 1 . (39)
ρ1 + 2γ−1 p1
p2
When p1 → ∞ then:
 
ρ2 γ+1
= .
ρ1 max γ−1
 
5 ρ2
He → γ = 3 : ρ1 =4
max
7 ρ2
N2 , O2 → γ = 5 : ρ1 =6
max
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Moving shocks (t, x)-plane, entropy condition II
(t, x)-plane

Case A: Case B: Case C:

shock created by shock created in
steady shock
gas hitting wall piston driven gas

picture in labora- picture in labora-

picture in labora-
tory frame, cs < 0, tory frame, cs < 0,
tory frame, cs = 0
u2 = 0 u1 = 0, u2 < 0

picture in shock frame picture in shock frame picture in shock frame

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Moving shocks (t, x)-plane, entropy condition II
Case A: Steady shock

I lab frame and the shock frame are

identical
I (t, x)-plane: shock path is a line for
which x = constant
I u1 > u2 , so dx along the particle


dt
path
is larger in À and the slope
dt
dx of the path is lower.

I a slower particle has a steeper particle path in the (t, x)-plane

I conservation of mass:
ρ1 u1 ∆t = ρ2 u2 ∆t ,
| {z } | {z }
∆x1 ∆x2

therefore
∆x1 > ∆x2 ⇒ ρ2 > ρ1
Particle paths get closer! 47/60
Moving shocks (t, x)-plane, entropy condition II
Case B: Shock created by gas hitting wall

I lab frame and the shock frame are

different: v1 = u1 + |cs |, v2 = |cs |
I u1 > 0, particle paths in À have a
positive slope;
u2 = 0, particle paths
dt
in Á have dx 2
= ∞ and they are
given by x = constant.

I conservation of mass:
particle paths get closer
I analogue in steady 2D flow,
shock reflection at a wall

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Moving shocks (t, x)-plane, entropy condition II
Case C: Shock created in piston driven gas

I lab frame and the shock frame are

different: v1 = |cs |, v2 = |cs | − u2
I u1 = 0, therefore dt


dx 1 = ∞ particle
paths are given by x = constant
I u2 = up , particle path is parallel to
piston path

I conservation of mass:
particle paths get closer
I analogue in steady 2D
supersonic flow, shock
induced by a ramp

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Moving shocks (t, x)-plane, entropy condition II
Shock speed
Take case C: piston running into a gas and generating a shock

Convenient to write shock speed in terms of the shock strength:

∆p = p2 − p1 .
Recall:
p2 2γ
=1+ (M 2 − 1)
p1 γ+1 1
and view the problem in shock frame so that:
v1 |cs |
M1 = =
a1 a1
Resulting in: !
p2 2γ cs2
=1+ −1
p1 γ+1 a12 50/60
Moving shocks (t, x)-plane, entropy condition II
Shock speed
Solve for cs :
s
γ + 1 p2 − p1
|cs | = a1 1+ (40)
2γ p1

Note the following:

I |cs | > a1 : the shock travels faster than the speed of sound!
I Weak shock limit: ∆p  1
p1
 
γ + 1 ∆p
|cs | = a1 1 + + O(∆p2 )
4γ p1
→ sound wave is an infinitesimal small shock.
I Strong shock limit: ∆p
p1  1
s
γ + 1 p2
|cs | ≈ a1 ,
2γ p1

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Moving shocks (t, x)-plane, entropy condition II
Shock speed: strong shock limit

p2 2γ cs2
≈ . (41)
p1 γ + 1 a12
The density ratio remains finite:

ρ2 γ+1
= ,
ρ1 γ−1

temperature and internal energy behave as:

T2 e2 2γ(γ − 1) cs2
= ≈ .
T1 e1 (γ + 1)2 a12

Velocity ratio:
v2 ρ1 γ−1
= →
v1 ρ2 γ+1

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Moving shocks (t, x)-plane, entropy condition II
Shock speed: strong shock limit

53/60
Moving shocks (t, x)-plane, entropy condition II
Entropy condition II
Elementary gasdynamics, flow enters the shock being
supersonic and exits subsonic.
In case of a steady shock: u1 > a1 and u2 < a2 or:
(u1 − a1 ) > 0 > (u2 − a2 )
How does this look like in the unsteady case?

(u1 − cs − a1 ) > 0 > (u2 − cs − a2 )

or
(u1 − a1 ) > cs > (u2 − a2 ) (42)
A shock violating this inequality is not possible; may be
regarded as a form of the entropy condition without using the
entropy explicitly
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Numerical approach

Euler equations for 1D unsteady compressible flow:

∂U ∂F
+ =0
∂t ∂x

I Numerical simulation of inviscid compressible flow:

dissipative finite volume methods
I Consistent with the integral conservation laws: the jump
equations are automatically satisfied
I Derivation and origin of these methods, consider a small
domain in 1D space-time

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Numerical approach

Integrate the conservation law: Ut + Fx = 0

Z x2 Z t2 Z t2 Z x2
Ut dt dx + Fx dx dt = 0
x1 t1 t1 x1

and get
Z x2
t2 Z t2
x2
 
U dx  + F dt  = 0 (43)
x1 t1 t1 x1

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Numerical approach
Spatial mean: spatial integration over the domain:
Z x2
1
U= U dx,
∆x x1
Temporal mean: temporal integration over the domain:
Z t2
1
hF i = F dt.
∆t t1
Inserting this into equation (43):
U(t2 ) − U(t1 ) hF (x2 )i − hF (x1 )i
+ =0 (44)
∆t ∆x

I Looks like the finite-difference approximation of Ut + Fx = 0

I Equation is still exact: no numerical errors have been
introduced
I Errors are caused by the integral computation from the
fluxes
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Numerical approach
I Update scheme: solution on t1 is known and equation (44)
gives solution at t2
I Fluxes or flux differences needed that are consistent with
the equations up to order O(∆t, ∆x) or higher
I Update from t to t + ∆t must be stable in the continuous
part of the solution but also in the presence of strong shock
waves

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Numerical approach
Flux formulae are set-up so that the dominant numerical error
produced by the scheme (‘truncation’ error) has the
appearance of dissipation term: artificial dissipation.
The update is of the type:

Ut + Fx = (D2 Ux )x with D2 = O(∆t, ∆x) (45)

or

Ut + Fx = (D4 Uxxx )x with D4 = O(∆t 2 , ∆t 2 ∆x, ∆t∆x 2 , ∆x 3 )

Adding dissipation terms ensures time irreversibility, and

production of entropy no matter how small ∆x and ∆t are
taken.
For ∆x → 0, ∆t → 0 the numerical solution approaches the
solution of the inviscid equation Ut + Fx = 0 including all
physically admissable shocks.

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Numerical approach
I Dropping viscosity: simpler equations but loss of physics
I To retain flow phenomena related to viscous dissipation
(e.g. shocks): artificial dissipation
Entropy condition III
Only those inviscid solutions are physically acceptable
that can also be obtained from the full viscous and
heat conducting equations in the limit of vanishing
viscosity and heat conduction.

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