Prepared by: EFREN A.

DELA CRUZ
E-mail Address: [email protected]

Central Luzon State University

Science City of Muñoz 3120
Nueva Ecija, Philippines

Instructional Module for the Course

(MENGR 3100 – Basic Mechanical Engineering)

Module 1
Fundamental Concepts and
Definitions
Overview

Every science has its own foundation and unique

terminologies, as in the course of thermodynamics and heat
transfer. Accurate definition relating to basic concepts makes a
sound foundation for the development of a science and prevents
possible confusions. The goal of this topic is to introduce some
fundamental concepts and definitions used in the study of
engineering thermodynamics and heat transfer. In most instances
the discussions were brief, and further elaboration is provided in
the succeeding modules illustrations and sample problems were
also provided for clearer understanding of the course.

I. Objectives
 MENGR 3100 – Basic Mechanical Engineering

Upon successful completion of the module, students are expected to:

a. Explain some of the basic concepts of the course.
b. Define or recognize the terminologies used in thermodynamics and heat
transfer.
c. Solve property related problems with proper units and dimensions.

II. Learning Activities

1 Basic Principle, Concepts and Definitions

The word thermodynamics was derived from Greek words “Therme” means
heat and “Dynamis” means power.
Thermodynamics is the science that deals with various phenomena of energy and
the related properties of matter, especially of the laws of transformation of heat into other
forms of energy.
Thermodynamics Substance - a fluid that receives, transports, and transforms
energy.

1.1 Thermodynamics System

An important step in any engineering analysis is to describe precisely what is
being studied. A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for
study. It may be as simple as a closed, rigid-walled tank or as complex as an entire
Industrial refinery. The composition of the matter inside the system may be fixed or may
be changing through chemical or nuclear reactions. The shape or volume of the system
being analyzed is not necessarily constant, as when a gas in a cylinder is compressed by a
piston or an inflated balloon.
The mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings. The real or
imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings is called the boundary
(Fig. 1.1). The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable. Note that the boundary is
the contact surface shared by both the system and the surroundings. Mathematically
speaking, the boundary has zero thickness, and thus it can neither contain any mass nor
occupy any volume in space.

Fig. 1.1 System, Surroundings and Boundary

Types of Systems

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Two basic kinds of systems are studied in this material. Systems may be
considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a fixed mass or a fixed volume in
space is chosen for study. A closed system (also known as a control mass or just system
when the context makes it clear) consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can
cross its boundary. That is, no mass can enter or leave a closed system, as shown in Fig.
1.2 (a). But energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary; and the volume
of a closed system does not have to be fixed.

If, as a special case, even energy is not allowed to cross the boundary, that system
is called isolated system. Consider the piston-cylinder device shown in Fig. 1.2 (b). Let
us say that we would like to find out what happens to the enclosed gas when it is heated.
Since we are focusing our attention on the gas, it is our system. The inner surfaces of the
piston and the cylinder form the boundary, and since no mass is crossing this boundary, it
is a closed system. Notice that energy may cross the boundary, and part of the boundary
(the inner surface of the piston, in this case) may move. Everything outside the gas,
including the piston and the cylinder, is the surroundings.

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.2 Closed System

An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a properly selected

region in space. It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a
compressor, turbine, or nozzle Fig. 1.3. Flow through these devices is best studied by
selecting the region within the device as the control volume. Both mass and energy can
cross the boundary of a control volume.

min

mout

Fig. 1.3 Open System

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 MENGR 3100 – Basic Mechanical Engineering

Thermodynamics deals with the macroscopic as opposed to microscopic analysis

in describing the system behavior.

In microscopic analysis we must look and analyze the molecular action.

In macroscopic we can define the system behavior with the overall effect of the
molecular interaction.

1.2 Properties of Thermodynamics substance/ system.

Characteristic quality of the entire systems and depends not on how the system
change state but only on the final particular state of the substance/system.

Extensive Properties - those properties that vary directly with mass.

Ex. mass, volume of solids.
Intensive properties -Those properties that are independent of the mass.
Ex. Tem. , Pressure.
Extensive properties per unit mass (specific properties) are considered as
intensive properties
Ex. Specific volume.

1.3 Phase and state of Thermodynamic substance.

Phase- quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout
(solid, liquid, gas)

Change of Phase
 Solid to Liquid - Melting
 Liquid to Solid - Solidification (Freezing)
 Liquid to Gas - Evaporation
 Gas to liquid - Condensation
 Solid to Gas - Sublimation

State of Substance - condition of a substance as described by certain observable

macroscopic parameter called Properties.

1.4 Processes and Cycles

Process- Simply the change of state

Types of processes
 Isothermal - constant temperature.
 Isobaric - constant pressure
 Isometric - constant volume
 Adiabatic - constant entropy (PVk = C)
 Isenthalpic - constant enthalpy
 Polytropic – PVn = C

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 MENGR 3100 – Basic Mechanical Engineering

Cycle - a series of processes one after the other such that the initial and final states are the
same.
1.5 Dimensions and System of Units
When engineering calculations are performed, it is necessary to be concerned with
the units of the physical quantities involved. A unit is any specified amount of a quantity
by comparison with which any other quantity of the same kind is measured. For example,
meters, kilometers, feet, and inches are all units of length. Seconds, minutes, and hours
are alternative time units.

SI Units
SI is the abbreviation for Système International d’Unités (International System of
Units), which is the legally accepted system in most countries. The SI base units for
mass, length, and time are listed in Table 1.1. They are, respectively, the kilogram (kg),
meter (m), and second (s). The SI unit of force, called the newton, is defined in terms of
the base units for mass, length, and time. Newton’s second law of motion states that the
net force acting on a body is proportional to the product of the mass and the acceleration,
written F α ma. The newton is defined so that the proportionality constant in the
expression is equal to unity.
F = kma or k = ma/F
Where k is proportionality constant

Table 1.1 SI Units for Mass, Length, Time and Force

Quantity Unit Symbol
mass kilogram kg
length meter m
time second s
force newton N
(= 1 kg m/s2)

Other Units
Although SI units are the worldwide standard, at the present time many segments
of the engineering community regularly use some other units. A large portion of market
stock of tools and industrial machines and much valuable engineering data utilize units
other than SI units. For many years to come, engineers will have to be conversant with a
variety of units. Accordingly, in this section we consider the alternative units for mass,
length, time, and force listed in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 OtherUnits for Mass, Length, Time and Force

Quantity Unit Symbol
mass pound mass lb
slug slug
length foot ft
time second s
force pound force lbf

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 MENGR 3100 – Basic Mechanical Engineering

(= 32.174lb ft/s2
= 1 slug ft/s2)
SI is based on a decimal relationship between units. The prefixes used to express
the multiples of the various units are listed in Table 1.3. They are standard for all units,
and the student is encouraged to memorize them because of their widespread use.

Table 1.3 Standard Prefixes in SI Units

Factor Prefix Symbol
1024 yotta Y
21
10 zetta Z
1018 exa E
15
10 peta P
1012 tera T
9
10 giga G
106 mega M
3
10 kilo k
102 hecto h
1
10 deka da
10-1 deci d
10-2 centi c
-3
10 milli m
-6
10 micro μ
10-9 nano n
-12
10 pico p
10-15 femto f
-18
10 atto a
-21
10 zepto z
10-24 yocto y

System of units where k is unity but not dimensionless.

CGS System:
1-dyne force accelerates 1-gram mass at 1 cm./s2
& SI:
1 Newton force accelerates 1 kg. mass at 1 m/s2
English:
1 lb force accelerate 1 slug mass at 1 ft/s2

 For CGS
o k = 1gm.cm/dyne. s2
 For SI Or MKS:
o k = 1 kgm.m/Newton.s2
 For English:
o k = 1slug.ft/lbf. s2

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 MENGR 3100 – Basic Mechanical Engineering

System of units where k is neither unity nor dimensionless.

If the same word were used for both mass and force in a given system
CGS System:
1-gram force accelerates 1-gram mass at 980.665 cm./s2
MKS:
1-kg force accelerates 1 kg- mass at 9.80665 m/s2
English:
1-lb force accelerate 1 lb-mass at 32.174 ft/s2

 For CGS
o k = 980.665 gm.cm/gf. s2
 For SI Or MKS:
o k = 9.80665 kgm.m/kgf.s2
 For English:
o k = 32.174 lbm.ft/lbf. s2

1.6 Properties and Property Relations

Mass And Weight

The mass of a body is the absolute quantity of matter in it.

Mass equivalent based on gram:

 Gram- 1 g
 lb- 454 g
 kg- 1000 g
 slug- 14600 g

The weight of the body is the force exerted by gravity on the given mass.

Relation of Mass and Weight

Fg = mg/k from f = ma/k
Or
W= mg/k
Where:
W- weight
m- mass
g- Acceleration due to gravity If observe gravity (go) is not given, then, used
the standard gravity (gs)

32.174 ft/s2 9.80665 m/s2

32.2-ft/s2 9.81 m/s2

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 MENGR 3100 – Basic Mechanical Engineering

Other units related to mass and weight

For English & MKS

W= m go /gs

Only for kgf & lbf

kgm & lbm

Where;
go - observe gravity
gs - standard gravity

If go = gs (m = w) for:
1lbm= 1 lbf & 1kgm= 1kgf

Mass Fundamentals
Newton’s Physics- mass is constant anywhere in the universe.

Law of conservation of mass states that mass is indestructible, provided that there
is no nuclear process involved.

min= m change + mout

And
if Δm= O

Then
min= mout

Density, Specific Volume, and Specific Weight

Density (ρ)of any substance is its mass per unit volume.

ρ= m/V
Where:
V- Volume occupied by matter
Unit of Density
English
lbm/ft3
lbm/Gal
MKS
kgm/m3

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 MENGR 3100 – Basic Mechanical Engineering

kgm/l
SI
kgm/m3
Density of Water at Standard Condition
English
62.4 lbm/ft3
8.33 lbm/Gal
MKS
1000 kgm/m3
1 kgm/l
SI
1000 kgm/m3

Specific Volume is the volume of substance per unit mass

v = V/m = 1/(m/V) = 1/ρ

For water non at standard condition look @ steam table

Specific weight (γ) of any substance is the force of gravity (weight) per unit volume.

γ = W/V
Units of γ
English
lbf/ft3
lbf/Gal
MKS
kgf/m3
kgf/l
SI
N/m3

For water at standard condition

English
γ = 62.4 lbf/ft3
= 8.33 lbf/Gal
MKS
γ = 1000 kgf/m3
= 1 kgf/l
SI
γ = 9806.65 N/m3
= 9.80665 KN/m3

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 MENGR 3100 – Basic Mechanical Engineering

Ex.1
Two liquids of different densities (ρ 1 = 1500 kgf/m3 and ρ2 = 500 kgf/m3) are poured
together into 100 L tank, filling it. If the resulting density of the mixture is 800 kg f/m3
find the respective quantities of liquids used. Also, find the weight of the mixture.

Solution.

For the mass of mixture

mm = ρmVm = (800 kg/m3)(0.1m3) = 80 kg

mm = m1 + m2 = ρ1V1 + ρ2V2

80kg = 1500 V1 + 500 V2 (1)

Fr: V1 + V2 = 0.1

V1 = 0.1 - V2 (2)
Substituting (2) to (1)
80 kg = 1500(0.1 – V2) + 500 V2
Or
(1500 – 500)V2 = 150 – 80
V2 = 70 kg / (1000 kg/m3)
V2 = 0.07 m3
And V1 = 0.03 m3
Also
m1 = ρ1V1 = 1500 kg/m3 (0.03 m3) = 45 kg
m2 = ρ2V2 = 500 kg/m3 (0.07 m3) = 35 kg
and
Wm = mm gs = 80 kg (9.81 m/s2) = 784.80 N

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 MENGR 3100 – Basic Mechanical Engineering

For fluid passing through a given section (Applying the law of conservation of mass)

Q = AV
ṁ = Q/v = AV/v = AVρ
Where:
Q - volume flow rate
A - cross sectional area of section
V - average speed (velocity)
ṁ – mass flow rate

ṁin = ṁout
AVρin = AVρout

Problem to solve
ASSIGNMENT PROBLEM #1: Two gaseous streams enter a combining tube and leave
as a single mixture. These data apply at the entrance section:
A1 = 75 in2, V1 = 500 fps, v1 = 10 ft3/lb, A2 = 50 in2, ṁ 2 = 16.67 lb/s, ρ2 = 0.12 lb/ft3
At exit, V3 = 350 fps, and v3 = 7 ft3/lb. Find the speed at section 2, the flow rate and area
at section 3.

Sol’n.

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 MENGR 3100 – Basic Mechanical Engineering

Specific Gravity Or Relative Density

For solids and liquids
Ratio of weight to the weight of water of equal volume

SG = W/Wwater = γ V/ γwater Vwater = γ / γwater

= ρ.g/ ρwaterg = ρ / ρwater
= vwater/ v
For Gasses

SG = MW/MWa
Where
MWa = 28.97 = 29

Temperature
Measures of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.

Always use absolute temp. in the analysis of thermodynamics.

For absolute temp.

T = 460 + oF in oR
= 273 + oC in oK

Conversion of oF & oC
o
F = 1.8 oC + 32
o
C = (oF- 32)/1.8

Problem to solve
AP#3. Determine the temperature for which a thermometer with degrees Fahrenheit is
numerically twice the reading of the temperature in degrees Celsius.

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 MENGR 3100 – Basic Mechanical Engineering

Pressure
For solids
P = F/A (Stress)
For liquids and gasses
Measuring pressure
1) Using manometers open to atmosphere
a) Absolute press. is greater than atmospheric press.
P= Patm + γ h

b) Absolute press. is less than atmospheric press.

P = Patm - γ h

Where
P- Absolute press.
Patm- atmospheric press.
γ - specific weight of fluid in the manometer
h- height of fluid

2) Using pressure gages

a) absolute press. is greater than atmospheric
P = Patm + Pg
b) Absolute press. is less than atmospheric
P= Patm - Pg
Where
Pg- gage press.
Patm or 1atm =101.325 kPa
=14.7 Psi
= 760 mm Hg
= 29.92 in Hg
Problem to solve
AP#4. A vertical column of water will be supported to what height by standard
atmospheric pressure? (Using English Unit)

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 MENGR 3100 – Basic Mechanical Engineering

1.7 Laws of Thermodynamics

 First Law – also known as the Conservation of Energy principle, states that
energy can neither be created not destroyed, it can only change forms.
 
 Second Law - deals with the quality of energy (energy degradation). There
are two classical statements of this law:

 Kelvin-Planck statement: It is impossible to construct a device that will

operate in a cycle and produce no effect other than the raising of a weight
and the exchange of heat with a single reservoir.

 Clausius statement: It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a

cycle and produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from a cooler-
body to a hotter body.
 
 Third law – states that the entropy of a perfect crystal is zero at the absolute
zero of temperature.

 Zeroth law - when two bodies have equality of temperature with a third
body, they in turn have equality of temperature with each other.

III.  Assessment

I.                Identification: Read the following statements carefully and try to identify the answer for
each item. Write your answer on the space provided before each number.

_________________________ 1. Fluid that receives, transports, and transforms energy.

_________________________ 2. Quantity of matter with fixed mass and identity in

which attention is focused for study.

_________________________ 3. Also known as control volume.

_________________________ 4. Change on a system state, if a system undergoes from

one equilibrium state to another.

_________________________ 5. Characteristic quality of the entire systems/substance.

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 MENGR 3100 – Basic Mechanical Engineering

II.              Problem Solving – Clearly and neatly solve each problem in a separate sheet/s of short
bond paper. No solutions and/or units will be considered incorrect.

1. A pump discharges into a 3-m-per-side cubical tank. The flow rate is 300
liters/min, and the fluid has a density 1.2 times that of water. Determine (a) the
flow rate in kg/s; (b) the time it takes to fill the tank.

2. A new temperature scale is desired with freezing of water at 100 X and boiling
0

occurring at 1000 X in atmospheric pressure. Derive a conversion between

0

degrees Celsius and degrees X. What is absolute zero in degrees X?

3. A 3 ft high 4.653 ft diameter cylindrical tank contains 3 lbs. of gas at 80 F and o

gage pressure of 47 in Hg. (a) What is the temperature in C, R, and K? (b) What
o o o

is the gas specific volume and density? (c) What is the absolute pressure in Psi
and in kPa.?  

4. A pressure cooker operates by cooking food at a higher pressure and temperature

than is possible at atmospheric conditions. Steam is contained in the sealed pot,
with a small vent hole in the middle of the cover; allowing steam to escape. The
pressure is regulated by covering the vent hole with a small weight, which is
displaced slightly by the escaping steam. Atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa, the
vent hole area is 7 mm , and the Pressure inside should be 250 kPa. What is the
2

mass of the weight?

5. A cylindrical tank is 50 in. long, has a diameter of 16 in., and contains 1.65 lb of m

water. Calculate the specific volume and density of the water.

III. References

Moran, M. J. and Shapiro, H. N. 2006. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics

5th edition. SI version. John Willey & Sons. England.

Cengel, Yunus A. 2008. Introduction to Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer. McGraw-

Hill Inc. New York.

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Moran et al. 2003. Introduction to Thermal Systems Engineering: Thermodynamics,

Fluid Mechanics, and Heat Transfer. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York

Burghardt, M. D. and Harvbach, J. A. 1993. Engineering Thermodynamics 4 rth edition.

Harper Collins. New York.

Thermodynamics Online references and lectures (Yale Open courseware etc..)

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