Bridge and Culvert Hydraulics(HENG – 5203)

Lecture-01: Introduction

Programme: BSc in Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering

By: Mr. Mesfin Amaru (MSc.)

Mr. Bizuayehu Abera (MSc.)
Faculty of Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering
Arba Minch Water Technology Institute
 Course Objectives and Outcomes
Course Objectives
• To Select the appropriate site for bridges and culverts
• To Plan, design and constructional view of bridges and culverts
• To Model bridges and culverts on natural rivers using HEC-RAS
Course Outcomes
At the end of this course, the student will be able to:
• Have an idea of appropriate site selection for both bridges and
culverts structures.
• Have a concepts on data collection, plan and design of bridges and
culverts
• Have a knowledge of bridges and culverts model on natural rivers

2
 Course Outlines
Chapter One
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Why you study culvert and bridge hydraulics?
1.2. Hydraulic causes of culvert and bridge failure
1.3. Site selection and data required
Chapter Two
2. CULVERT HYDRAULICS
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Classification of flow types at culvert
2.3. Culvert flow controls (inlet and outlet control)
2.4. Principles and criteria of culvert design
2.5. Hydraulic design of culverts
Chapter Three
3. BRIDGE HYDRAULICS
3.1. Introduction
3.2. The effect of bridge on river flow
3.3. Hydraulic performance of bridge
3.4. Types of flow in bridge waterway
3.5. Hydraulic design of bridges

3
 Chapter One: Introduction
 Culverts and bridges are highway cross-drainage hydraulic
structures those accommodate the passage of:
– water, sediment and natural debri materials
– both the upstream and downstream movement of aquatic
organisms.
 The purpose of both bridge and culvert is providing a
transportation route over obstructions ( such as river, lake
or even another roadway or railway)
 According to P. Novak et al. (2007), culverts are submerged
structures buried under embankment usually shorter span (< 6
m), with the top not normally forming part of the road surface
like in a bridge structure.
4
 Cont’d…
 Culverts are enclosed conduits like:
– Complete pipe
– Elliptical
– Pipe arch
– Box
 According to ERA (2011), culverts constructed at a water
course (Stream Culverts) or low points of road where there is no
define stream but cross drainage is required for the flow which
cannot be accommodated by side drains (Relief Culverts).

5
Cont’d…

6
Cont’d…

7
Cont’d…

8
 Cont’d…
 Bridges are highly costing structures that support a
roadway over the water body by means of a span.
 Bridges does not have a constructed structural invert
(bottom) and does not fully enclose the channel.
 Bridges consist of a deck supported on abutments or piers,
open‐bottom box or half‐pipe, or other structural arch.
 Bridge construction was adopted in Ethiopia since 19th
century, in 1884 bridge erected over Temchi River (a
tributary of Blue Nile River) and 1886 over Awash River.

9
Cont’d…

10
Cont’d…

11
 Cont’d…
Comparisons to Culverts and Bridges
 Designer must determine:
• Which type of structure is best for a particular location
• Which one is chosen hydraulically, aesthetically and
economically
• How should the structure be analyzed (as a bridge with
free surface flow using GVF concepts or as a culvert with
head water based)

12
 Cont’d…
 In most of the sites, either a bridge or culvert will fulfill the
structural and hydraulic requirements.

 The structural requirements should be based on:

– Risk of property damage

– Construction and maintenance costs

– Traffic safety

– Environmental considerations

– Risk of failure

13
 Cont’d…
 Culverts are used where:
– bridges are not hydraulically required
– debris and ice potential are tolerable
– more economical than bridge
 Bridges are used where:
– culverts are impractical
– more economical than a culvert
– to satisfy land-use and access requirements
– mitigate environmental concerns
– accommodate ice and large debris of heavy sediment loads
or moving boulders…etc.
14
 Cont’d…
 There are differences in the hydraulic assumptions and
analyses used for culverts and bridges.
 Culvert hydraulic analysis assumes
– No velocity approaching the culvert or
– In the channel immediately downstream of the culvert,
which overestimates entrance and exit energy losses and
– Tail water condition in the channel downstream of a culvert
is typically based on normal depth analysis.
 Bridge hydraulic analysis is typically based on GVF
calculations providing a more accurate water surface profile
throughout the crossing.
15
 1.1. Why study bridge and culvert hydraulics
 Studying the bridge & culvert hydraulics is important because of
nobody can be allowed to build a new bridge/culvert in a river
cross section without first being able to prove by:

– calculation or modeling that the resulting backwater will not

cause flooding of land and upstream property.

 In addition to the nature and geometry of the river channel, the

shape, spacing, orientation of the bridge piers and abutments will
affect the flow through a bridge and causes probability of scouring
of the bed.
16
 Cont’d…
 Well designed bridges and culvert are not immune to this
problem, while bridges that are badly designed
hydraulically are even more likely to fail and collapse
– How can a good design be obtained without a
knowledge of bridge and culvert hydraulics?
 Therefore, hydraulic analysis is a prerequisite for the scour
calculations & determine how much of the flooding is caused
by the bridge/culvert.

17
 1.2. Hydraulic causes of bridge and culvert failure
 According to Smith (1976, 1977), 143 bridge failures occurred
throughout the world between 1847 and 1975. Almost half of the
failures were due to floods.

 More specifically, two factors were identified:

– one was scour and the second was debris

 Damage caused by scouring of the bottom material around the

foundation (most of the time around piers & abutments) tends to
be the most dominant.

18
 Cont’d…
 Scour include side erosion of the river banks in the vicinity of a
bridge.

 This may result in skewed angle flow approaching the bridge,

failure of the piers, abutments and highway embankments.

 Location (site selection):-Usually the alignment of a highway will

be selected to minimize the cost of the bridges/culvert and the
impact to the stream as much as possible.

 If the waterway openings is too narrow w/c causes scouring of

river bank and lost any economic advantage because expensive
river training works will be needed to compensate
19
Cont’d…

20
1.3. Site selection and Data Required

#Q 1. If you are assigned to select site for culvert and bridge

across a roadway, what will be the ideal site for these structures?
#Q 2. List some factors which govern the maximum length of side
drains those will be relieved by a turn out or cross structure?

21
 Site Selection
 Culvert and bridge site selection is important in terms of:
– Cost of construction
– Maintenance
– Service life
 The characteristics of an ideal site for a culvert and bridge
across a river are:
– straight reach of the river
– Steady river flow without cross tides
– A narrow channel with stable rock banks
– Suitable high banks above high flood level on each side
– Absence of sharp curves in the approaches
– Absence of expensive river training works
– Avoidance of excessive underwater construction
22
 Cont’d…
 Side drains will be released by cross structure after a maximum
length of 200m to:

– avoid exceeding capacity or

– causing erosion in the drain or in the outfall watercourse.

 Ideal outfall sites are at field boundaries where there is vegetation

or stable ground to minimize the risk of downstream erosion.

23
 Cont’d…
 Adjustment of the road alignment is often justified to minimize
the cost of structures and risk of damage or erosion.
 Careful site selection is essential to ensure ease of construction
and to minimize the whole life cost of the structure.
 Poor site selection can result in a longer, wider or higher structure
than is actually necessary and can also lead to excessively high
maintenance costs.

#Q 3. Explain why the crossing structure should be located away from horizontal

curves in the watercourse?

24
 Cont’d…
 According to ERA (2011), the following criteria should ideally be
met when determining a site for water crossing:

– The crossing should be located away from horizontal curves in

the watercourse,

– If there is no option is available a new channel should be made

in some cases.

– The crossing should be at an area of uniform watercourse

gradient.

– If the gradient is steepening there will be a possibility of scour,

and for reducing gradient there will be a risk of deposition.
25
 Cont’d…
– The crossing should ideally be at an area of the
channel with a non-erodible bed. These areas need
low amount of watercourse protection.
– The road should cross the watercourse at a point
with well-defined banks, where the stream will
generally be narrower.
– The watercourse should not be prone to flooding at
the crossing point
– The skew angle shall be < 15o.

26
Cont’d…

27
 Cont’d…
#Q 4. List data required to design culvert and bridge

#Q 5. Define design flood, base flood, overtopping flood,

backwater and tail water.

28
 Cont’d…
Data Required
 Topographic maps:- to identify channel width, possible
crossing sites, to obtain the channel gradient and to indicate
floodplain.
 Geological maps, Soil maps and Geological records:- provide
some details about the local geology.
 Hydrological data:-such as gauging station records, stage-
discharge relationship and flow-duration curve.
 Meteorological data:- rainfall depths and intensities,
temperature range and wind speed. These data may help in
assessing the possibility of flash flood and ice loading on the
super structure.
29
 Cont’d…
 River channel data:- Roughness of the channel and floodplains.
 It may be difficult to determine the width and depth of the river
channel from maps. This requires evaluation of the following:-
– Design flood, base flood, overtopping flood, backwater and
tail water.
– Design flood is defined as the flood associated with the
probability of exceedance (frequency) selected for the design
of a highway breach.

30
 Cont’d…
– Once the design frequency is determined, a discharge for the
selected frequency can be determined which is also known as
the “design discharge”.
– The base flood is the flood having a 1-percent chance of
being exceeded in any given year.
– The overtopping flood is described by the probability of
exceedance and water surface elevation at which flow begins
over the culvert/bridge.
– Backwater is the increase of water surface elevation induced
upstream from a bridge, culvert, dam …etc.
– Tail water for sizing of cross drains and the determination of
headwater and backwater elevations.
31
 Cont’d…
 In addition to the data requirements explained above, the site and
detailed investigation criteria should emphasize on the:
– Road Alignment:- cross the watercourse at 90 degrees as this
minimizes the span length of the bridge or pipe and to avoid
additional scouring.
– Location:- A site with a natural narrow channel width, at a
straight stretch of watercourse, approach roads should
preferably be straight on each side to ensure sufficient sight
distances and prevent traffic hazards.
– The location also should be away from waterfalls and
confluence zones.

32
 Cont’d…
 Existing Structure Assessment:- Where existing roads are being
improved, existing drainage sites should already have been
provided with an appropriate structure.
 Site Investigation:- Is to provide a clear picture of the ground
conditions, to enable a suitable design to be carried out.
 The level of site investigation clearly depends on the type and
complexity of the proposed structure.
 A site investigation will involve taking samples of the ground
material to determine its bearing capacity.

33
 Cont’d…
 These samples can either be obtained through digging trial pits or
by using a hand auger.

 Bearing capacity:- The ground underneath a proposed structure

should have an adequate bearing capacity to support the load of
the structure itself and the vehicles which pass over it.

 The bearing capacity will depend on a range of different factors

including: the proportions of sand clay, organic and the
mineralogy of the clay materials; and the level of the water table.

34
 Chapter Two: Culvert hydraulics
2.1. Introduction
 Culvert designed hydraulically to increase hydraulic capacity and
used to convey surface runoff through embankments.
 Common culvert diameters are 600mm and 900mm.
 Cross culverts smaller than 600mm in diameter should not be
installed as they are very difficult to clean or maintenance (ERA,
2011).
 During a storm event a culvert may operate under inlet control,
outlet control or both.
36
 Cont’d…
 Numerous cross-sectional shapes are available and the most
commonly used shapes like circular, box (rectangular),
elliptical, pipe-arch and arch.

 The shape selection is based on the cost of construction, the

limitation on upstream water surface elevation, roadway
embankment height and hydraulic performance.

37
Cont’d…

38
 Cont’d…
 Based on construction materials used culverts can be concrete
(reinforced and non-reinforced), steel (smooth and corrugated),
corrugated aluminum, vitrified clay, plastic, cast iron, wood and
stainless steel.

 The discharge of a culvert is determined by the application of

the continuity and energy equation between the approached
section and the downstream section which is within the culvert
barrel.

39
 Cont’d…
 Basic concepts that are important in culvert design include:

– Critical flow: - is state of flow where the specific energy is a

minimum for a given discharge. Also the velocity head is
equal to one-half the hydraulic depth (Fr = 1).

– Critical depth: - is the depth at the critical flow. For a given

discharge and cross section geometry, there is only one
critical depth.

– Critical slope: - a slope that sustains a given discharge at a

uniform and critical depth.

– Crown (soffit):- is the inside top of the culvert. 40

 Cont’d…
 Free outlet: - has tail water equal to or lower than critical depth.
• For culverts with free outlets, a lowering of the tail water has
no effect on the discharge or the backwater profile upstream of
the tail water.
 Energy grade line: - represents the total energy at any point along
the culvert barrel.
• The total energy at any section is the sum of flow depth, velocity head
(V2/2g), and all energy losses.
• Improved inlet has an entrance geometry that decreases the flow
contraction at the inlet and thus increases the capacity of culverts.

 Invert is the flow line of the culvert (inside bottom).

41
 Cont’d…
 Normal flow occurs in a channel reach when the discharge,
velocity, and depth of flow do not change throughout the reach.
• The water surface profiles and channel bottom slope will be
parallel.
• This type of flow will exist in a culvert operating on a steep
slope if the culvert is sufficiently long enough.
 Normal depth: - is the depth of water at a steady, uniform,
constant velocity and flow at a given channel reach.

42
 Cont’d…
 Steep slope:- steep water surface slope occurs where the

critical depth is greater than the normal depth (supercritical

flow).

 Mild slope occurs where critical depth is less than normal

depth (subcritical flow).

 Submerged outlet occurs where the tail water elevation is

higher than the crown of the culvert.

 Submerged inlet occurs where the headwater is greater than

1.2D. 43
 Cont’d…
 Freeboard is a safety margin over design water level before
overflow occurs.

44
 2.2. Classification of flow types at culvert
 A culvert barrel may flow full or partly full over all of its
length.
 The hydraulic condition in a culvert flowing full is called
pressure flow
– One condition which can create pressure flow in a culvert is
the back pressure caused by a high downstream water
surface elevation.
 Partly full (free surface) flow or open channel flow may be
categorized as subcritical, critical, or supercritical.
 A determination of the appropriate flow regime is accomplished
by evaluating the dimensionless number called the Froude
number.

45
 Cont’d…
 When Fr > 1.0, the flow is supercritical and is
characterized as rapid
 When Fr < 1.0, the flow is subcritical and is characterized
as tranquil (gradual)
 If Fr = 1.0, the flow is defined as critical
V
 Fr =
gy

 For steep culvert flowing partly full, critical depth occurs

at the culvert inlet, subcritical flow exists in the upstream
channel, and supercritical flow exists in the culvert barrel.

46
 Cont’d…

47
Cont’d…

48
 2.3. Culvert flow controls (inlet and outlet control)
 Types of flow control

– Control section is the location where there is a unique

relationship between the flow rate and upstream water surface
elevation.

– The characterization of pressure, subcritical and supercritical

flow regimes played an important role in determining the
location of the control section.

49
 Cont’d…
Inlet control

 Inlet control occurs when the culvert barrel is capable of

conveying more flow than the inlet will accept.

 The inlet control section is located just inside the entrance.

 Critical depth occurs at or near this location, and the flow regime
immediately downstream is supercritical.

 Downstream of the inlet control section do not affect the culvert

capacity.

 The upstream water surface elevation and the inlet geometry are
the major flow controls.
50
 Cont’d…
.

51
 Cont’d…
Outlet control

 Occurs when the culvert barrel is not capable of conveying as

much flow as the inlet opening will accept.

 The control section for outlet control flow in a culvert is

located at the barrel exit or further downstream.

 Either subcritical or pressure flow exists in the culvert barrel

under these conditions.

 All of the geometric and hydraulic characteristics of the

culvert play a great role in determining its capacity.

52
 Cont’d…

53
 Factors influencing culvert performance

Factor Inlet control Outlet

control
Headwater elevation X X
Inlet area X X
Inlet edge configuration X X
Inlet shape X X
Barrel roughness X
Barrel area X
Barrel shape X
Barrel length X
Barrel slope *(to small extent or X
can be neglected)
Tail-water elevation X
54
 Flow types
Flow type I: characteristics of the flow type-I are:

– Un-submerged inlet & free flow outlet

– Critical depth at inlet

– Partially full flow, steep slope

– Supercritical flow at barrel

– Inlet control.

𝑌1 𝑌4
< 1.2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 <1
𝐷 𝑌𝑐

55
 Cont’d…
Flow type II: characteristics of the flow type-II are:
– Un-submerged inlet with low tail water
– Critical depth at outlet
– Partially full flow
– Mild slope
– Subcritical flow
at barrel
– Outlet control

𝑌1 𝑌4
< 1.2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 <1
𝐷 𝑌𝑐
56
 Cont’d…
Flow type III: characteristics of the flow type-III are:
– Un-submerged inlet with tail water backing up in to outlet
– Partially full flow
– Mild slope
– Subcritical flow at barrel
– Outlet control

𝑌1 𝑌4
< 1.2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 >1
𝐷 𝑌𝑐
– Existence of GVF profile is the controlling factor, critical
depth cannot occur, and the upstream water surface elevation
is the function of the tail water elevation.
57
 Cont’d…
Flow type IV: characteristics of the flow type-IV are:

– Both inlet and outlet fully submerged

– Full flow/pipe flow

– Any slope

– Outlet control

𝑌1 𝑌4
> 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 >1
𝐷 𝐷
– The flow rate can be estimated directly from the energy
equation. The tail water depth is assumed to be critical depth
near the culvert outlet or in the downstream channel.
58
 Cont’d…
Flow type V: characteristics of the flow type-V are:
– Submerged inlet with low tail water
– Partially full flow
– Any slope
– Short length of culvert
– Orifice flow control at inlet.
𝑌1 𝑌4
> 1.2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ≤1
𝐷 𝑌𝑐
– An orifice is an opening, submerged on the upstream side and
flowing freely on the downstream side.

59
 Cont’d…
Flow type VI: characteristics of the flow type-VI are:

– Submerged inlet with low tail water

– Culvert flows full /pipe flow

– Outlet not submerged

– Any slope

– Long length of culvert

– Outlet control

𝑌1 𝑌4
> 1.2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ≤1
𝐷 𝐷

60
 Cont’d…
Flow type VII: characteristics of the flow type-VII are

– Submerged inlet with low tail water

– Partially full flow

– Outlet not submerged

– Steep slope

– Outlet control

𝑌1 𝑌4
> 1.2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ≤1
𝐷 𝐷
61
 2.4. Principles and criteria of culvert design

Culvert design principles

 All culverts shall be hydraulically designed and

survey information shall include:
– Topographic features

– Channel characteristics

– High water information

– Existing structures

– Other related site specific information.

62
 Cont’d…
 Culvert location in both plan and profile shall be:

– Investigated to avoid sediment build-up

– Designed to accommodate debris

– Minimum hazard to traffic and people

 Material selection shall include:

– consideration of materials availability

– service life (abrasion and corrosion potentials)

63
 Design criteria of culvert

 Site Criteria

– Structure type selection, length and slope should be chosen to

approximate existing topography

– The culvert invert aligned with the channel bottom and the
skew angle of the stream

– The culvert entrance shall match with geometry of the roadway

64
 Cont’d…
 Debris Control shall be needed for culverts:
– Located in mountainous or steep regions
– Those are under high fills
– Where clean out access is difficult
 Design Limitations for allowable headwater:
– Will not damage up stream property
– Not higher than 300 mm below the edge of the shoulder
– Equal to HW/D not greater than 1.5 (2 for D < 1m)
– No higher than the low point in the road grade
– Equal to the elevation where flow can be diverted around
the culvert.
65
 Cont’d…
 Tail water Relationship

– Evaluate the hydraulic conditions of the downstream channel

to determine a tail water depth for a range of discharges.

 Calculate backwater curves at sensitive locations or use a single

cross section analysis

 Use the critical depth and equivalent hydraulic grade line if the
culvert outlet is operating with a free outfall

 Use the headwater elevation of any nearby if it is greater than the

channel depth.
66
 Cont’d…
 Maximum Velocity at the culvert exit shall be consistent with the
velocity in the natural channel or shall be mitigated with:
– Channel stabilization
– Energy dissipation
 Minimum Velocity in the culvert barrel should result in a tractive
force (τ = γdS) greater than critical τ of the transported streambed
material at low flow rates
 Use 0.8 m/s when streambed material size is not known.
 Design Features:- the culvert size and shape selected is to be
based on engineering and economic criteria related to site
conditions
67
 Cont’d…
 The culvert size and shape selection process shall be based on:-
– Durability (service life)
– Cost, availability
– Construction and maintenance ease
– Structural strength
– Traffic delays
– Abrasion and corrosion resistance
– Water tightness requirements
 Culvert Skew shall not exceed 45 degrees as measured from a
line perpendicular to the roadway centerline.

68
 Cont’d…
 End Treatment (Inlet or Outlet):-the culvert inlet or outlet type shall
be selected from standard details
 Projected inlets or outlets are box or pipe culvert extensions
beyond the embankment of the roadway

69
 Cont’d…
 Improved Inlets may be considered for culverts that will operate
in inlet control to increase the hydraulic performance.

 Wing walls are used to retain the roadway embankment to avoid a

projecting culvert barrel and also used where the side slopes of
the channel are unstable.

 Provide the best hydraulic efficiency if the flare angle is between

30°and 60°

 Aprons are used to reduce scour from high headwater depths or

from approach velocity in the channel.

70
 Cont’d…
 Outlet Protection (energy dissipaters): efficient energy
dissipaters provided at culvert outlet to protect scour.

 Outlet protection for the selected culvert design flood shall be

provided where the outlet scour hole depth computations
indicate:

– The scour hole will damage the culvert outlet and the
expected scour hole may cause costly property damage.

71
 Cont’d…

The outlet velocities of this culvert are almost 4.5 m/sec.

Erosion damage is minimal. 72
 Cont’d…

Rip rap erosion protection was required below this culvert. If

Fr <3 and Q < 12m3/s, design a riprap basin for each barrel).
73
 Cont’d…

A simple energy dissipater at a culvert outlet. (If Fr > 3, design a stilling basin)
74
 2.5. Hydraulic design of culverts

Important formula

75
Cont’d…

76
Cont’d…

77
Cont’d…

78
Cont’d…

79
Cont’d…

80
Cont’d…

81
 Design using nomographs
 Using nomographs provides a convenient and organized procedure for
designing culvert. Its disadvantage is that it needs trial and error.
 Inlet control during un-submerged inlet (the entrance operates as a
weir).
𝐻𝑊𝑖 𝐻𝑐 𝐾𝑢 𝑄 𝑀 2
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 1 = +𝐾 − 0.5 ∗ 𝑆
𝐷 𝐷 𝐴𝐷 0.5
𝐻𝑊𝑖 𝐾𝑢 𝑄 𝑀
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 2 =𝐾
𝐷 𝐴𝐷0.5
 Inlet control during submerged inlet (the entrance operates as an
orifice).
𝐻𝑊𝑖 𝐾𝑢 𝑄 2 2
=𝐶 + 𝑌 − 0.5 ∗ 𝑆
𝐷 𝐴𝐷0.5
Where, HWi = Head water depth above inlet control section invert, m
D = Interior height of culvert barrel, m
Hc= Specific head at critical depth (dc + Vc2/2g), m
Q = Discharge, m3/s, A = Full cross-sectional area of culvert barrel, m2
S = Culvert barrel slope, m/m, K, M, c, Y = Constants from Table 2.1
Ku = 1.811 82
Cont’d…

83
 Cont’d…
 In the inlet control design nomographs, HW is measured to the
total upstream energy grade line including the approach velocity
head.

 Inlet control nomographs are shown below as Charts 2-1, 2-2 and
2-3, for concrete pipe culverts, corrugated metal culverts, and
box culverts respectively.

84
Cont’d…

85
 Cont’d…

(1) Headwall
(2) Mitered to conform
to slope
(3) Projecting

86
 Cont’d…

(1) 30o to 75o

(2) 90o and 15o
(3) 0o
extensions
of sides

87
 Cont’d…
Example # 2.2
 The inlet of a 1.4m diameter reinforced concrete pipe (RCP) is
submerged by a flow of 5m3/s. The inlet has a Groove end
treatment with headwall. The slope of the culvert is 0.015 m/m.
(a) What is the inlet control headwater depth above the inlet invert
(flow line)? (b) Compute by using nomograph.
Example # 2.3
 Compute the inlet control headwater depth and elevation using
the nomographs. The headwater needs to be determined for a
discharge of 2.88m3/s through a 1.2 m by 1.2m concrete box
culvert. The culvert has an entrance with wing wall 45o. The
barrel has an upstream invert elevation of 30m at the inlet.

88
 Cont’d…

Q = 5m3/s
D = 1.4m
HW/D = 1.35
HW = 1.89m

89
 Cont’d…

Q = 2.88m3/s
B = 1.2m
Q/B = 2.4m2/s
HW/D = 1.2
HW = 1.44m

(1) 30o to 75o

(2) 90o and 15o
(3) 0o
extensions
of sides

90
 Cont’d…
• Outlet Control Nomographs (full flow): the nomographs were
developed assuming that the culvert barrel is flowing full and:
– TW > D, Flow Type IV
– dc > D, Flow Type VI
• Vu is small and its velocity head can be considered as a part of the
available headwater (HW) used to convey the flow through the
culvert.
• Vd is small and its velocity head can be neglected.
Energy Equation becomes:
HW = TW + H – SoL
– HW = depth from the inlet invert to the energy grade line, m
– H = is the value read from the nomographs, m
– SoL = drop from inlet to outlet invert, m
91
 Cont’d…
• Outlet Control Nomographs (Partly full flow):- for flow type 2 &
3, approximate method. The following equation should be used:-
HW = ho+ H – SoL
– ho = the larger of TW or (dc+ D)/2, m
– HW = depth from the inlet invert to the energy grade line, m
– H = is the value read from the nomographs, m
– SoL = drop from inlet to outlet invert, m
• If the headwater depth falls below 0.75D, the approximate
method shall not be used.

92
 Cont’d…

H = 0.29m

93
Cont’d…

94
 Cont’d…

L = 93m
A = 0.36m2
Ke = 0.5

H = 2.2m
Q = 1.1m3/s

95
 Cont’d…
Example #2.4

• A 1.4m by 1.4m concrete box culvert has a length of 60m, an

entrance loss coefficient Ke of 0.2, and a roughness coefficient of
0.012. The inlet invert elevation “Eli” is 29.5m. The outlet invert
elevation “Elo” is 27.5m. The tailwater depth at the outlet is 2.5m
and submerges the outlet. Calculate the outlet control headwater
elevation “ELHwo” and depth for a flow of 7m3/s.

96
 Cont’d…

Given
Q = 7m3/s
L = 60m H = 1.15m
Ke = 0.2
D = 1400 * 1400

97
 Design procedure

• The following design procedure provides a convenient method for

designing culverts for a constant discharge, considering inlet and
outlet control.
• Step 1:-Assemble Site Data and Project File
a. Hydrographic Survey - Data include:
– Topographic and location maps,
– Embankment cross section, roadway profile
– Field visit (sediment, debris) and
– Design data of nearby structures
b. Studies by other agencies including Ministry of Water
Resources.
c. Design criteria: Standards and departures from standards for
applicable criteria

98
 Cont’d…
• Step 2:-Determine Hydrology, Minimum data required:- drainage
area maps and discharge frequency plots.

• Step 3:-Design Downstream Channel, Minimum data are cross

section of channel and the rating curve for channel.

• Step 4:-Summarize Data on Design Form, Collect all data from

the preceding steps and record on a single design form.

• Step 5:-Select Design Alternative

a. See design features.

b. Choose culvert material, shape, size, and entrance type.

99
 Cont’d…
• Step 6:- Select Design Discharge Qd, see
a. Design limitations
b. Determine flood frequency from criteria
c. Determine Q from discharge-frequency plot (Step 2)
d. Divide Q by the number of barrels
• Step 7:- Determine Inlet Control Headwater Depth (HWi)
Use the inlet control “nomograph”
a. Locate the size or height on the scale
b. Locate the discharge
• For a circular shape use discharge(Q)
• For a box shape use Q/B
c. Locate HW/D ratio using a straight edge.
d. Calculate headwater depth (HW)
100
 Cont’d…
• Step 8:-Determine Outlet Control Headwater Depth at Inlet
(HWoi)
a. Calculate “TW” depth using the design flow rate and normal
depth (single section) or using a water surface profile.
b. Calculate critical depth (dc), dc cannot exceed D
c. Determine (ho) = the larger of TW or (dc + D)/2
d. Determine entrance loss coefficient (Ke) from Table
e. Determine losses through the culvert barrel (H)
f. Calculate outlet control headwater (HW)
• Use HWoi = H + ho – SoL, (if Vu and Vd are neglected)
• Use energy equation at approach section & tailwater section to
include Vu and Vd, if these values are significant.
101
 Cont’d…
• Step 9:-Determine Controlling Headwater (HWc)
– Compare HWi and HWoi, use the higher
– HWc = HWi, if HWi > HWoi
– The culvert is in inlet control
– HWc = HWoi, if HWoi > HWi
– The culvert is in outlet control.
• Step 10:-Compute Discharge Over the Roadway (Qr)
• a. Calculate depth above the roadway (HWr)
– HWr = HWc - HWov
– HWov is height of road above inlet invert
• b. If HWr ≤ 0, Qr = 0 (no overtopping)
– If HWr > 0, determine Qr (overtopping) 102
 Cont’d…
• Step 11:- Compute Total Discharge (Qt)
– Qt = Qd + Qr
• Step 12:- Calculate Outlet Velocity (Vo)
• Step 13:- Review Results
Compare alternative design with constraints and assumptions, if any
of the following will be exceeded, repeat Steps 5 through 12.
– The barrel must have adequate cover
– The length should be close to the approximate length
– The headwalls and wing-walls must fit site conditions
– The allowable headwater should not be exceeded and
– The allowable overtopping flood frequency should not be
exceeded
103
 Cont’d…
• Step 14:- Plot Performance Curve

• A performance curve is a plot of headwater depth or elevation

versus flow rate.

a. Repeat Steps 6 through 12 with a range of discharges

b. Use the following upper limit for discharge

– Q100 if Qd ≤ Q100

– Q500 if Qd > Q100

– Qmax if no overtopping is possible

104
 Cont’d…
• Step 15:- Related Designs
• Consider the following options (design features and related
design):
– Tapered inlets if culvert is in inlet control and has limited
available headwater.
– Flow routing if a large upstream headwater pool exits.
– Energy dissipaters if Vo is larger than the normal V in the
downstream channel.
– Sediment control storage for sites with sediment concerns
such as alluvial fans.
• Step 16:- Documentation
• Prepare report and file with background information
105
 Cont’d…
Example (follow the Design Procedure Steps)
• Step 1: Assemble site data and project file
Site survey project file contains:

Figure Cross-Section
– Roadway profile and
– Embankment cross-section
• Design criteria
– 50-year frequency for design and
– 100-year frequency for check
106
 Cont’d…
• Step 2: Determine Hydrology
– Q50 = 11.33 m3/s
– Q100 = 14.16m3/s
• Step 3: Design Downstream Channel

So = 0.025
n = 0.06
Side slope 1H: 1V

Figure Cross-Section of Channel

• Points Elevation, m
1 56.86
2 54.62
3 54.62
4 56.86
107
 Cont’d…
• The rating curve for the channel calculated by normal depth
yields: (Q = (1/n)AR2/3S1/2)
Q (m3/s) TW (m) V (m/s)
2.80 0.72 1.04
5.60 0.97 1.45
8.50 1.08 1.93
11.33 1.2 2.24
14.16 1.36 2.39
Step 4: Summarize Data on Design Form
Step 5: Select Design Alternatives
• Shape: - box Size -2100 mm by 2100 mm
– Material: - concrete
– Entrance: - Wing walls, 45o bevel, rounded
108
 Cont’d…
• Step 6: Select Design Discharge
Qd = Q50 = 11.33 m3/s
• Step 7: Determine Inlet Control Headwater Depth (HWi)
Use inlet control monograph Chart 7-6
– a. D = 2.1 m
– b. Q/B = 11.33/2.1 = 5.4m2/s
– c. HW/D = 1.1 for 45o bevel (Chart 7.6 )
– d. HWi = (HW/D)*D = (1.1)*2.1m = 2.3m (Neglect the
approach velocity)
• Step 8: Determine Outlet Control Headwater Depth at
• Inlet (HWoi)
– a. TW = 1.2 m for Q50 = 11.33 m3/s
– b. dc = 1.44 m from (Yc = (q2/ g)1/3)
109
 Cont’d…
– c. (dc + D)/2 = (1.44 + 2.1)/2 = 1.77 m
– d. ho = the larger of TW or (dc + D)/2
ho = (dc + D)/2 = 1.77 m
– e. Ke = 0.2 from Table for Wing-walls, 45o bevel, rounded
– f. Determine (hL) -use Chart 7-8
KE scale = 0.2, culvert length (L) = 90 m
n = 0.012 same as on chart, area = 4.41m2
H = 0.55 m
– g. HWoi = H + ho -SoL = 0.55 + 1.77 - (0.015)*90 = 0.97m
• HWoi is less than 1.2D, but control is inlet control, outlet control
computations are for comparison only.
110
 Cont’d…
• Step 9: Determine Controlling Headwater (HWc)

– HWc = HWi = 2.3m > HWoi = 0.97 m

– The culvert is in inlet control

• Step 10: Compute Discharge over the Roadway (Qr)

– a. Calculate depth above the roadway:

HWr = HWc - HWov = 2.3m – 4m = -1.7m

– b. If HWr ≤ 0, Qr = 0

• Step 11: Compute Total Discharge (Qt)

– Qt = Qd + Qr = 11.33 m3/s + 0 = 11.33 m3/s

111
 Cont’d…
• Step 12: Calculate Outlet Velocity (Vo) and Depth (dn) Inlet
Control
a. Calculate normal depth (dn):
Q = (1/n)A R2/3S1/2 = 11.33 m3/s
= (1/0.012)*(2.1*dn)[(2.1*dn/(2.1+2dn)]2/3 *(0.015)0.5
use dn = 0.87 m,
b. A = 2.1m*0.87m = 1.827 m
c. Vo = Q/A = 11.33/1.827 = 6.2 m/s
• Step 13: Review Results
• Compare alternative design with constraints and assumptions, if
any of the following are exceeded repeat, steps 5 through 12.

112
 Cont’d…
– barrel has (4m – 2.1m) = 1.9m of cover

– L = 90m

– headwalls and wing-walls fit site

– allowable headwater (3.7m) > 2.3 m is ok and

– overtopping flood frequency > 50-year

• Step 14: Plot Performance Curve

Use Q100 for the upper limit, Steps 6 through 12 should be repeated
for each discharge used to plot the performance curve

113
Cont’d…

114
 Cont’d…
• Step 15: Related Designs
Consider the following options (Design Features, and Related
Designs)
a) Consider tapered inlets, culvert is in inlet control and has
limited available headwater
– No flow routing, a small upstream headwater pool exists
– Consider energy dissipaters since Vo = 6.2m/s > 2.24 m/s in
the downstream channel
– No sediment problem
• Step 16: Documentation
Report prepared and background filed
115
 Chapter Three: Bridge Hydraulics
3.1. Introduction
 Studying the bridge hydraulics is important to:
– Check the effect of constructing the bridge on the upstream
reach
– Hydraulically inefficient bridge could cause flooding
upstream and extremely damaging a large number of
properties.
– A properly designed bridge is one that balances the cost of
the bridge with concerns of safety, impacts to the
environment and regulatory requirements.
– Proper hydraulic analysis and design of bridges is as vital
as structural design.

117
 Cont’d…
Hydraulic analysis of bridge involves the following:
 Determining the backwater surface profile
 Determining the effects on flow distribution and velocities
 Estimating scour potential
The deliverables of the hydraulic analysis of bridge involves the
following:
 Location and orientation of the bridge
 Bridge span and piers spacing if any
 Type/shape of piers and abutment
 Bridge profile and lower chord invert level
 Recommended foundation levels (scour calculations)
 Protection extent (upstream and downstream).

118
 Cont’d…
Hydraulic design flow chart

119
 Cont’d…
 Design flow calculations
– Determine the design return period
– Pick out the design flow corresponding to the obtained design
return period

120
 Cont’d…
Determination of return period based on risk analysis
Risk:- is simply defined as the probability of failure
• Within n years we have two events only: occurrence of
failure or no failure
• Probability of failure + Probability of no failure at all = 1
i.e Probability of failure in n years = 1 – probability of no
failure at all.
• Probability of no failure at all in n years = (1 – 1/R.P.)n
Risk ~ 1 – (1 – 1/R.P.)n
Pick out the design flow corresponding to the obtained design
return period
Example:- Estimate the risk related to adopting a design return
period of 50 years during the first 30 year period.
Risk ~ 1 – (1 – 1/R.P.)n
~ 1 – (1 – 0.02)30
~ 0.455 or 46% 121
 Cont’d…
 If this is too large risk, then increase design level to the 100
year where p = 0.01
Risk ~ 1 – (0.99)30
~ 0.26 or 26%

122
 Bridge location
 Generally, the stream crossing location is primary selected during
the planning phase of a highway project.
 But the final location should not be confirmed unless you obtain
the detailed survey information and after completing the
preliminary hydraulic studies.
 The crossing should: minimize skew, be located at the narrowest
portion of the flood plain, be located on a stable reach of stream,
minimize impacts of meander migration. and have appropriately
located auxiliary/relief openings (if needed).
 Locate and center the bridge on the main channel portion of the
entire floodplain.

123
Cont’d…

124
 Cont’d…
 The need for auxiliary waterway openings, or relief openings,
arises on streams with wide floodplains.

 The purpose of the relief openings is to pass a portion of the

flood flow that travels in the floodplain when the stream reaches
a certain stage.

 The openings do not provide relief for the principal waterway

opening as an emergency spillway of a dam does, but it has
predictable capacity during flood events.

125
 3.2. The effect of bridge on a river flow
 When a bridge is placed in a river it forms a narrowing of
the natural channel and an obstacle to the flow.
 This results in a loss of energy as the flow contracts,
passes through the bridge and then re-expands back to the
full channel width.
 Additional head is necessary to overcome the energy loss,
the upstream water level increases above that level.
 This additional head is called the afflux, and its variation
with distance upstream is called the backwater profile.
 If the narrowing is very severe, the flow is usually
subcritical with GVF upstream and downstream of the
structure and RVF at the bridge.
126
Cont’d…

127
 Cont’d…
 When investigating, the hydraulic capacity of the main
river channel without the bridge (QR) should be
compared with the capacity of the bridge waterway
(QWB) and the design flood (QDF).
 Then as a rough guide:
• If QR < QWB the bridge is relatively blameless
• If QR < QDF flooding of the floodplains would occur without
the bridge
• If QWB < QR the bridge forms is under an obstacle to flow and
may cause flooding
• If QWB < QDF the waterway is under designed
• If QWB > QDF the waterway is over designed or has a margin of
safety
128
Cont’d…

129
 Cont’d…
 Fig.(a) longitudinal section of uniform flow at normal depth
(YN) in a river channel with (superimposed) the surface profile
arising due to provision of a bridge,
 Fig.(b) Plan view showing how the flow separates and forms a
vena contracta of width Ccb.
 Zone of drawdown approximates a semicircle of radius “b”
radiating from the Centre line of the opening at the upstream
face.
 The maximum afflux is generally assumed to occur on the
center line of the channel at one opening width (span) of the
upstream face of the constriction. (And at this point lets say
section-1).
130
 Cont’d…
 With wide flooded valleys (of water surface width B) section-1
may be better located around 0.5 (B – b) upstream of the
constriction.
 After passing through section-1 the water surface is drawn down
and passing through normal depth at section-2 at (or near) the
upstream face of the bridge.
 Section-3 (at minimum width and depth) may be located either
in the opening or some distance downstream of it.
 Section-4 is far enough downstream for normal depth conditions
to have been re-established and for the flow to be unaffected by
the bridge. 131
Cont’d…

132
 Cont’d…
 Maximum afflux (H1* = Y1 – YN) or H1* = H1 – (H4 + SoL1-4).
 Piezometer head loss is the difference in the elevation of the water
surface between two points.
• For example between sections 1 & 3:
(∆h = H1* + SoL1-3 + H3*).
• head loss across the constriction is measured between section 1
and 4, i.e.
• Head loss1-4 = H1 – H4 = H1* + SoL1-4
 Energy loss or total head loss, is the difference in the elevation of
the energy line between two points,
 Energy loss1-4 = (H1 + α1V12/2g) – (H4 + α4V42/2g)
 Where α is the dimensionless velocity head coefficient (kinetic
energy correction factor) to allow for the non-uniform velocity.
133
 Cont’d…

Slope variation of the energy line near a bridge & the definition of the
energy loss for uniform flow at normal depth. 134
 Cont’d…
 The increased depth upstream of the bridge results in lower
velocities and shallower energy or friction gradient (SF) than
downstream, where the reverse happens.
 The energy loss caused by a bridge can be assumed to rise from
three main things:
– Contraction of the flow caused by the abutments, noses of the
piers and when the opening is submerged the soffit or deck of
the bridge (15%);
– Friction between the water and the surface of the piers,
abutments and when the opening is submerged, the soffit of
the bridge (20%);
– Expansion of the live stream downstream of the bridge (65%)
135
 Definition of terms
 Normal crossings: is one with alignment at approximately 90o to the
general direction of flow during high water level.
 Eccentric crossings: is one where the main channel and the bridge are not
in the middle of the flood plain.
 Skewed crossings: is one that is other than 90o to the general direction of
flow during flood stage
 Conveyance (K): is a measure of the ability of a channel to transport
flow. Conveyance can be expressed either in terms of flow factors or
geometric factors.
 In bridge waterway computations, conveyance is used as a means of
approximating the distribution of flow in the natural river channel
upstream from a bridge.
136
 Cont’d…
 Width of Constriction, b: b is simply the horizontal distance
between abutment faces.
 In the more usual case involving spill-through abutments, where
the cross-section of the constriction is irregular, it is suggested
that the irregular cross-section be converted to a regular trapezoid
of equivalent area.

– An2 = Gross area of flow in constriction below normal water

surface at section-2.
– Y- = Mean depth of flow under bridge.
137
 Cont’d…
 Kinetic Energy (Velocity head) coefficient: as the velocity
distribution in the river varies from a maximum at the deeper
portion of the channel to essentially zero along the banks.
 The average velocity head computed as (Q/A1)2/2g for the
stream at section-1, does not give a true measure of the kinetic
energy of the flow.

138
 Cont’d…
 A weighted average value of the kinetic energy is obtained
by multiplying the average velocity head by a kinetic
energy coefficient, α1, defined as:
Where,
– Vi = Average velocity in a subsection (Qi/A)

– Qi = Discharge in same subsection

– Q = Total discharge in river

– V1 = Average velocity in river section-1 or Q/A1.

 A second coefficient, α2, is required to correct the velocity head for non-
uniform velocity distribution under the bridge.

139
Cont’d…

140
 3.3. Hydraulic performance of a bridge
Factors that affect the hydraulic performance of a bridge
Bridge opening ratio (M): expressed as the ratio of the flow which
can pass unobstructed through the bridge constriction to the total
flow of the river.
 Since conveyance is proportional to discharge, assuming all
subsections to have the same slope, M can be expressed also as:
 Cont’d…
 If at section-1, it is assumed that both the normal depth (YN) and the
associated mean velocity (VN) are constant across the full width of the
channel,
– Qb = Flow in portion of channel within projected length of bridge opening at
section-1
– Qa, Qc = Flow over that portion of the natural flood plain obstructed by the
roadway embankments
– Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = Total discharge
– Kb = Conveyance of portion of channel within projected length of bridge at
section-1
– Ka, Kc = Conveyance of that portion of the natural flood plain obstructed by
the roadway embankments.
– K1 = Total conveyance at section-1

– B = Width of the channel, b = Width of constriction

142
 Cont’d…
Ratio of waterway length to span, L/b
 In general, long waterways are more efficient than short ones, so
the length of the openings is another factor that affects the hydraulic
performance of a bridge.
 This is assessed in terms of the length ratio (L/b), which is the ratio
of the water way length between the upstream and downstream
faces of the constriction, L, to the width or span of the openings, b

143
 Cont’d…
Eccentricity, (e)
 If a bridge openings is eccentricity located in the river channel, as shown in
figure below this can affect the flow through the constriction.

144
 Cont’d…

Skew, (ɸ):- A simple definition of skew is shown in figure below, in

this example the longitudinal centerline of the bridge and its
approach embankments is at an angle ɸ to the banks of the channel
and the direction of flow, although the waterway opening itself is
parallel to the flow.
 For a normal or perpendicular crossing ɸ = 0o.

145
 Cont’d…
 There are two possible types of skew in addition to a normal
crossing
• Normal crossing:- embankments perpendicular to the flow,
waterway parallel to the flow
• Skew-1:- embankments skewed to the flow, water parallel to the
flow
• Skew-2:- embankments skewed to the flow, waterway skewed to
the flow

146
 Cont’d…
Depth of flow, Y:- For a given discharge, flow can occur over a wide
range of depths depending upon the slope and geometry of the channel
and the flow is uniform or non-uniform.
 The values of many variables, such as the Froude number (Fr),
conveyance (K) and opening ratio (M) are functions of the depth.
 Additionally, the depth of flow relative to the height of bridge
opening can influence both the type of flow that occurs at a bridge
site and the hydraulic performance of the structure.

147
 Cont’d…
Shape of the waterway opening:- may affect the hydraulic
performance of a bridge.
 For instance, a rectangular opening with a width twice its height (b
= 2Z) has a 27% larger cross-sectional area than the equivalent
semicircular arch.
 This means that at any given stage a rectangular opening will
probably have a larger discharge and a smaller afflux than an arch
of the same span.

148
 Cont’d…
Froude number (Fr), subcritical and supercritical flow:
 In open channel flow Fr also affects the discharge through the
bridge opening.
 Flow at the critical depth (Fr = 1.0) can be used to optimize the
performance of a waterway, so a knowledge of the critical
contraction that will cause this condition is important.
 A waterway narrower than the critical contraction may result in an
unexpectedly large afflux due to the phenomenon known as
choking.
 Yarnell (1934) and Chow (1981) (F3=1.0)

149
 Cont’d…
Where,

– ML - Limiting opening ratio (if a wide waterway opening is

made progressively narrower, there will be a limiting width at
which the flow in the opening will no longer be subcritical but
critical, which is called the limiting or critical contraction).

– ε – is equated to the energy at section-3 between the piers to

that at section-4, to represent the proportion of energy
recovered.

150
 Cont’d…
 The Froude number is important to indicate where a backwater
analysis should begin.
 If (gY)1/2 > V (subcritical flow through a bridge) the upstream
reach is in hydraulic communication with the downstream reach
and the control is downstream of the constriction and this would
be the starting point for a backwater analysis.
 If V > (gY)1/2 (supercritical flow through a bridge) the upstream
reach is not in hydraulic communication with the downstream
reach and the control is upstream so the calculations for the
backwater analysis proceed in a downstream direction.
Entrance Rounding: entrance rounding reduces the contraction of
the live stream and increases the width of the vena-contracta and
hence increases the coefficient of discharge, such as Cd. 151
 Cont’d…
Example 3.1 (L Hamill on page111): Abridge has a single rectangular
opening 10m wide, which is the same width as the main river channel
at low stages (Fig. below). However during flood the bridge obstructs
the flow over the floodplains. The dimensions and Manning
roughness coefficients are shown in the diagram. Assuming uniform
flow, that the longitudinal slope of the channel and floodplains is 1 in
1000, and a depth of 4m in the main channel, estimate the following:
(a) the conveyance of the upstream cross-section, K; (b) the velocity
distribution coefficient, α; (c) the bridge opening ratio, M.

152
 3.4.Types of flow under bridge waterway
A. Low flow case (waterway opening is not submerged) (Type I, II
or III)

B. High flow case (waterway opening is submerged) Orifice flow

153
Cont’d…

154
 Types of flow in bridge waterway in low flow case

There are three types of flow in bridge waterway at flow low case.
Type I Flow (sub-critical flow)
• Normal water surface is everywhere above critical depth
• Actual water surface is everywhere above critical depth
• This type usually encountered in practice
Backwater expression for type-I flow is obtained by applying the
conservation of energy principle between sections-1 and 4.

155
 Cont’d…

Where, hT is the total energy loss between sections-1 and 4.

 This method was developed on the basis that the:
• Channel in the vicinity of the bridge is essentially straight.
• Cross-sectional area of the stream is reasonably uniform
and the same at sections-1 and 4.
• Gradient of the bottom is constant between sections-1 & 4.
• Applies only to steady subcritical flow
• There is no appreciable scour of the bed in the constriction
• The flow is free to contract and expand.
• Energy loss caused by constriction (hb = hT – SoL1-4)
156
 Cont’d…

Expression equation #1 can be written as:

157
 Cont’d…
 Energy loss caused by constriction (hb) also can be expressed as
the product of a loss coefficient, K*, and a velocity head.

Where: Vn2 - is average velocity in the contracted section based on

the flow area below NWS.
 Replacing (y1 – y4) with h1* and hb with K*α2V2n2/2g, equation #2
becomes:

 Since the analysis is based on the assumption that the cross

sectional areas at sections-1 and 4 are essentially the same, α4 can
be replaced by α1.
 Also from the equation of continuity A1V1 = A4V4 = An2Vn2,
velocities can be expressed as areas. So the expression for
backwater becomes: 158
 Cont’d…

Where,
• h1* = H1* = total backwater (m)
• K* = total backwater head loss coefficient
• α1= velocity head correction coefficient at sections-1 and 4
• α2= velocity head correction coefficient at constriction
• An2 = gross water area in constriction measured below normal
stage (m2)
• Vn2 = average velocity in constriction for flow at normal stage
or Q/An2 (m/s)
• A4 = water area at section-4
• A1 = total water area at section 1, including backwater (m2)
 If piers are present in the constriction, these are ignored in the
determination of An2. (including the area occupied by any piers). 159
 Cont’d…
 The expression represents the difference in kinetic energy
between sections-4 and 1.

 The backwater coefficient, K* can be:

Type-II flow (water surface passes through critical depth)

 There are at least two variations of type II flow which will be
described here under types IIA and IIB.

160
 Cont’d…

Type-IIA Flow:

• Normal water surface is everywhere above critical depth.

• Actual water surface passes through critical depth in the
constriction.
161
 Cont’d…
Type-IIB Flow

• Normal water surface is above critical depth at the upstream and

at the downstream (section-4).
• Both actual water surface and normal water surface are below
critical depth at the constriction and passes through critical depth
in the constriction. 162
 Cont’d…
• There is poor hydraulic jump before it returns to normal
depth.

• Once critical depth is reached, the water surface upstream

from the constriction is no longer influenced by conditions
downstream.
• This is true even though the water surface may dip below
critical depth, Y2c, in the constriction and then return to
subcritical flow as in Type-IIA.

163
 Cont’d…
• Type-IIB flow is similar except the water surface not only dips
below Y2c but also Y4c downstream from the constriction.

• Both types of flow are subject to the same analysis since the
criterion here is that the flow passes through critical depth.

• A backwater expression applicable to both types-IIA and IIB flow

has been developed by equating the total energy surface between
section-1 and the point at which the water surface passes through
critical stage in the constriction.

164
 Cont’d…

• Energy loss caused by constriction (hc) can be expressed as

hc = hT – SoL1-c = cbα2(V22c)/(2g)

165
 Cont’d…
 Solving for backwater:

Where,
– h1*= total bridge backwater (m)
– Yn = normal flow depth (m) (model)
– Y = normal flow depth or [An2/b] (m) (prototype)
– Y2c = critical depth in constriction or [(Q2/(b2g))1/3] (m)
– V2c = critical velocity in constriction or [Q/(Y2c*b)] (m/s)
– V1 = velocity at section 1 or [Q/A1] (m/s)
– α1, α2 = velocity head correction coefficients at section-1
and in the constriction respectively
– Cb = backwater coefficient for type-II flow (constriction
loss only) should the backwater coefficient be desired
166
Cont’d…

167
 Cont’d…
Type-III Flow

• In the type-III flow, figure above the normal water surface is

everywhere below critical depth and flow throughout is
supercritical.
• This is an rare case requiring a steep gradient but such
conditions do exist, particularly in mountainous regions.
• Theoretically backwater should not occur for this type, since the
flow throughout is supercritical. 168
 3.5. Hydraulic design of bridge
Computation of Backwater
 An expression for backwater has been formulated by applying the
principle of conservation of energy between the point of maximum
backwater in upstream (section-1) and a point downstream from the
bridge at which normal stage has been re-established (section-4).
 The backwater at upstream from a bridge constricting the flow is:

 To compute backwater, it is necessary to obtain the approximate

value of h1* by using the first part of the expression (eqn. #11).

169
 Cont’d…

 The value of A1 is the second part of expression (eqn. #11), which

depends on h1*, can then be determined and the second term of the
expression evaluated:

Backwater Coefficient (K* and Kb)

 Kb - is the backwater coefficient for a bridge in which only the
bridge opening ratio, M, is considered.
 This is known as a base coefficient as shown in the Figure below
from base curves.
170
 Cont’d…

Figure Backwater coefficient base curves (subcritical flow)

• Top curve:- 90o wing-wall abutments, b < 60m (high energy loss)
• Middle curve:- 30o wing-wall abutments with b < 60m
• Lower curve:- all 45o and 60o wing-wall abutments (low energy
loss). 171
 Cont’d…
 The value of the overall backwater coefficient, K*, is similarly
dependent on the value of M but also affected by:
a) Number, size, shape and orientation of piers in the constriction
b) Eccentricity or asymmetric position of bridge with respect to
the valley cross section
c) Skew (bridge crosses stream at other than 90o angle).
 K* consists of a base curves coefficient, Kb, coefficients to account
for the effect of piers, eccentricity and skew.

172
 Cont’d…
Effect of Piers (Normal Crossings), ∆Kp
 Backwater caused by introduction of piers in a bridge constriction
has been treated as an incremental backwater coefficient (∆Kp),
which is added to the base curve coefficient Kb when piers are
present in the waterway.
 ∆Kp is depends on:
• The ratio that the area of the piers bears to the gross area of the
bridge opening (J = Ap/An2)
• The type of piers
• The value of the bridge opening ratio (M)
• The angularity of the piers with the direction of flood flow. 173
 Cont’d…
• Ap, An2 both based on the normal water surface.

i.e. An2 = b*Yn2,

• Ap = total projected area of piers normal to flow, hn2 = height

pier exposed to flow, bp = width of pier normal to flow.

174
 Cont’d…

• For a normal crossing with piers, the total backwater coefficient

becomes:
K* = Kb + ∆Kp 175
 Effects of piers (skewed crossings)

 In the case of skewed crossings, the effect of piers is treated as

explained for normal crossings except for the computation of J, An2
and M.
 The pier area for a skewed crossing, Ap, is the sum of the individual
pier areas normal to the general direction of flow.
 The area of the constriction, An2, for skewed crossings is based on
the projected length of bridge, bscosɸ.
 An2 is a gross value and includes the area occupied by piers.
 The computation of M for skewed crossings is also based on the
projected length of bridge.
176
 Cont’d…

Figure illustration of a skewed bridge crossing 177

 Effect of eccentricity (∆Ke)
 For an extremely eccentric crossing with wing-wall or spill-
through abutments and piers will be:
K* = Kb + ∆Kp + ∆Ke

178
Effect of eccentricity (∆Ke)

179
 Effects of skew (∆Ks)
 The opening width is projected upstream on section-1, which is
perpendicular to the general direction of flow.
 Note that the incremental backwater coefficient, ∆Ks, can be
negative or positive.
 The negative values result from the method of computation and do
not necessarily indicate that the backwater will be reduced
(increasing hydraulic efficiency) by employing a skewed crossing.
 These incremental values are to be added to Kb.

180
 Cont’d…

Figure Incremental backwater coefficient for skew 181

 Cont’d…
 Total backwater coefficient (K*) = Kb + ∆Kp + ∆Ke + ∆Ks
 It is possible to determine from M and the angle of skew (ø), the
width of skewed opening (bs) needed to give the same backwater
as a normal opening of width b.

Figure: skewed span (bs) required to give the same backwater as an opening of
width b perpendicular to the direction of the approaching flow. 182
 Cont’d…
Bridge backwater computation procedure
The following steps are used to determine the backwater produced by a
bridge constriction:
1. Determine the magnitude and frequency of the discharge for which the
bridge is to be designed.
2. Determine the stage of the stream at the bridge site for the design
discharge.
3. Plot a representative cross section of stream for design discharge at
section-1.
4. Subdivide the cross section plotted in step-3 according to marked
changes in depth of flow and changes in roughness. Assign values of
Manning roughness coefficient, n, to each sub-section (Table).
5. Compute conveyance and then discharge in each subsection
6. Using cumulative conveyance and discharge at section-1, compute
slope of stream, So.
7. Determine value of kinetic energy coefficient, α1
8. Plot natural cross section under proposed bridge based on normal
water surface for design discharge and compute gross water area
(including area occupied by piers).
183
 Cont’d…
9. Compute bridge opening ratio, M
10. Obtain value of Kb* from base curve for symmetrical normal crossings.
11. If piers are involved, compute value of J and obtain incremental
coefficient, ∆Kp, from curve.
12. If eccentricity is severe, compute value of e and obtain incremental
coefficient, ∆Ke, from curve.
13. If a skewed crossing is involved, observe proper procedure in previous
steps, then obtain incremental coefficient, ∆Ks, from curve.
14. Determine total backwater coefficient, K*, by adding incremental
coefficients to base curve coefficient, Kb.
15. Estimate α2 from curve, then make allowable for any unusual
topographic, vegetative or approach condition which may lead to further
asymmetrical velocity distribution in the bridge constriction.
16. Compute backwater h*
17. Convert backwater to water surface elevation at section-1 if
computations are based on normal stage at bridge.

184
 Cont’d…
Example 3.2
A bridge is being designed to cross the channel described in example
3.1. The crossing will have a skew (ø) of 30o with vertical wing wall
abutments parallel to the flow, as shown in figure below. As in the
previous example, assume that the design flood is 98.030m3/s, YN =
4m and the height of the opening is 5m above bed level. Two
alternate designs are being considered:
• (a) a single span with a skewed width of 11.547m, which leaves
the main channel free of obstruction, and
• (b) a two -span structure with a skewed width of 11.547m between
the abutments including a round-nosed pier with a skewed width
of 1.000m in the Centre of the main channel. Calculate the afflux
h1*.

• ***(b)***individual assignment-II
185
Cont’d…

186
 Cont’d…
Group assignment-(III)
The channel crossing shown in figure below is with the following
information: Cross section of river at bridge site showing areas,
wetted perimeters and values of Manning n; normal water surface
for design = Elv. 9m at bridge; average slope of river in vicinity of
bridge So =0.0005 m/m; cross section under bridge showing area
below normal water surface and width of roadway = 12m. The
stream is essentially straight, the cross section is relatively constant
in the vicinity of the bridge and the crossing is normal to the general
direction of flow.

187
 Cont’d…

Find:
a) Conveyance at upstream cross section (K)
b) Discharge of stream at Elv. 9m
c) Velocity head correction coefficient, α1
d) Bridge opening ratio, M
e) Backwater produced by the bridge
188
 B) High flow case (waterway opening is submerged)
Orifice flow (sluice gate pressure flow)

189
 Cont’d…

Where,
• Cd-orifice = is the coefficient of discharge, it ranges from
0.35 – 0.5
• Ao = is the net area of the bridge opening, Ao = Z*bnet
• Z = is the bridge low chord height
• bnet = clear span width of bridge opening.

190
 Cont’d…
Pressurized Flow

 Typical values for the discharge coefficient Cd range from 0.7 to

0.9.

 A value of 0.8 is used for most bridges.

191
 Cont’d…
Weir flow

192
 Bridge scour
 Scour is the removal of material from the bed and banks of streams
as a result of the erosive power of flowing water.
 The most common cause of bridge failures is from floods eroding
bed material around bridge foundations.
 Such failure is primarily due to:
– Inadequate knowledge about scour phenomenon when the
bridge was constructed
– Inadequate data and knowledge about design flood
 Scour rate depends mainly on:
– Flow power, material resistance, sediment in/out balance
(equilibrium scour).
193
 Cont’d…
(a) Pier piles and pile cap exposed (b) Pier and abutment riprap moved d/s

(c) D/s scour hole and bank erosion (d) D/s scour hole arising from submergence
(pressure flow) 194
 Cont’d…

e. Slumped material at the toe arising from failure of the riprap or bank.
f. Erosion and failure of the highway embankment with flow on both sides
of the abutment.

195
Cont’d…

196
 Types of Scour
 Based on bridge crossings scour as clear water scour and live bed
scour.
 If mean velocity (V) of the flow at upstream is less than the scour
critical velocity (Vs) then the bed material upstream of the bridge is
at rest:
– this is referred to as the clear water condition because the
approach flow is clear and does not contain sediment.
 In this case any bed material that is removed from a local scour
hole is not replaced by sediment being transported by the approach
flow.
 Live-bed scour occurs where V > Vs and the bed material upstream
of the crossing is moving.
 This means that the approach flow continuously transports
sediment into a local scour hole.
197
 Cont’d…
 The equilibrium scour depth is achieved when material is
transported into the scour hole & at the same rate at which it is
transported out.
 To determine whether the flow condition is clear-water or live-bed,
Neill (1968) equation given below, applied to the unobstructed
flow. If the average velocity (V = Q/A m/s) in the scour will be live
bed.

Where, Ss=2.65 (specific gravity of the sediment), g=9.81 m/s2; D50 is

the median diameter (m) at which 50% of the bed material by weight
is smaller than the size denoted and Y is the average depth (m) in the
upstream channel. So that the equation becomes
Vs = 6.36 Y1/6D501/3
198
 Cont’d…

 Figure diagrammatic illustration of the increase in local scour depth (dsL)

with time for clear water and live bed conditions.
 The oscillations for the live bed condition (dotted) are due to transient bed
features such as ripples and dune.
 The final clear water scour depth exceeds the equivalent equilibrium live
bed depth by about 10%. At any particular location both clear water and live
bed scour may be experienced.
 During a single flood the mean velocity will increase and decrease as the
discharge rises and falls, so it is possible to have clear water conditions
initially, then a live bed, then finally clear water again (Fig. below). The
maximum scour depth may occur under clear water conditions, not at the
flood peak when live bed scour is experienced. 199
 Cont’d…

Figure above shows the variation of local scour depth (dSL) with approach velocity

 The main components of scour include:- long term or natural scour (degradation
or aggradations), contraction scour (bridge opening) and local scour (piers and
abutments)
 Degradation or Aggradations:- can only occur with a live bed (V > Vs), and it is
not the result of bridge or embankment construction.
 Degradation is the scouring of bed material due to increased stream sediment
transport capacity that results from an increase in the energy gradient or a
decrease in the sediment load.
 Aggradation is the deposition of bed load due to a decrease in stream sediment
transport capacity that results from a reduction in the energy gradient or an
increase in the sediment load.
200
 Cont’d…

 Degradation can be expressed qualitatively by Lane’s balance

analogy (Lane, 1955; Bryan et al. 1995) equation:

Where, Q is the water discharge, So is the channel bed slope, Qs is the bed material
discharge, and D50 is the median grain size of the bed material.

201
 Cont’d…
– The significance of degradation scour to bridge design is that
the engineer has to decide whether the existing channel
elevation is likely to be constant over the 100 year life of the
bridge or whether it will change.
– If change is probable then it must be allowed for when
designing the waterway and foundations.
 Contraction Scour:- occurs over a whole cross section as a result of
the increased velocities arising from a narrowing of the channel by
a constriction.

202
 Cont’d…
– The approach flow depth h1 and average approach flow velocity
V1 result in the sediment transport rate qs1.
– The total transport rate to the contraction is W1qs1, in which W1
is the width of the approach.
– If the water flow rate Q1 = W1q1 in the upstream channel is
equal to the flow rate at the contracted section then by
continuity:

Where, q1 = h1V1, q2 = h2V2

– The sediment transport rate at the contracted section after
equilibrium is established must be:

203
 Cont’d…
– The depth of scour ∆z that is due to the contraction is then,
∆z = h2 – h1. The contracted scour depth represents an average
the channel width, and symmetry is assumed in the calculation.
– Local scour (Piers, abutments):- arises from the increased
velocities and associated vortices as water accelerates around
the corners of abutments, piers and spur dykes.
– Local pier scour:- The velocity upstream of the pier accelerate
around the pier and flow is directed downward along the front
face of pier.
– A “horseshoe” vortex forms where the downward flow reaches
the bed and the size of the vortex increases as the scour hole
enlarges.
– Sediment deposition occurs in the wake area downstream of the
pier.
204
 Cont’d…

Pier scour 205

 Cont’d…

Figure above shows the flow pattern and scour hole at a cylindrical
pier. The down flow, horseshoe vortex and wake vortex are the
principal cause of local bed erosion
206
 Cont’d…
There are many factors that influence the magnitude of pier scour:
 Hydraulic factors: (velocity (V), depth (y) and angle of attack (θ)
of the flow approaching the pier, the water’s density and viscosity,
Froude number)
 Pier factors: (width, length, shape); Scour depth increases with
increasing pier width (bp).
 Square shape piers increasing scour depths by 10 – 30% than round
nosed piers.
 Sediment factors: (grain size distribution, size (D50), density,
cohesive properties).
 Bed configuration: those with D < 0.7mm can have various bed
configurations: ripples, dunes, plane bed or antidunes…etc.
 For both clear water and live bed conditions Richardson et al.
(1993) recommended the Colorado State University (CSU)
equation for the estimation of equilibrium pier scour depth (dspm)
207
 Cont’d…

Where, Y2 is the flow depth (m) at the bridge section directly upstream
of the pier (m), K1P is an adjustment factor for pier nose shape
obtained from Table below for ø < 5o, K2P is an adjustment factor for
the angle of attack (ø > 5o) obtained from curve, K3P is an adjustment
factor for bed configuration obtained from Table, bp is the pier width
(m) V2 is the mean velocity of flow (m/s) at the bridge directly
upstream of the pier and F2 is the Froude number = V2/(gy2)1/2.
• Note that if ø > 5o the factor K2P dominates, so K1P can be taken as
1.0.
208
Cont’d…

209
Cont’d…

210
Cont’d…

211
 Cont’d…

a) Approximate pier scour depth, dSP, for various pier shapes aligned to the
approach flow, where bp is the pier width perpendicular to the flow. If the
depth of flow exceeds 5bp then dSP should be increased by 50%.
b) If the approach flow is at an angle to the pier then multiply dSP from part
(a) by the factor shown in the table. After (Neill, 1973).
212
 Cont’d…

Local scour depth at abutments (dSA):- Abutments, as well as spur

dykes, can have different shapes and they can be set at various angles
to the flow. The scour mechanism at a bridge abutment is similar to
that at a pier.
213
 Cont’d…

 Some of the factors that influence abutment scour include the

topography of the site (amount of flow intercepted by the bridge
abutments), the abutment shape, and the hydraulic characteristics
of sediments.
214
 Cont’d…

 For both clear water and live bed conditions Richardson et al. (1993)
recommended for the calculation of abutment scour depths, dSA.

215
 Cont’d…
Where: YM1 is the mean depth of flow (m) on the upstream
floodplain, K1A is the coefficient for abutment shape from Table, K2A
= (ɸ/90)0.13 is the coefficient for the angle of the embankment
abutment relative to the approach flow, LA is the length (m) of the
embankment/abutment projected normal to the flow and FM1 is the
Froude number of the approach flow upstream of the abutment.

 In this case FM1 = VM1/(gYM1)1/2

Where, VM1 is the mean velocity (m/s) on the floodplain, which is
calculated as VM1 = QA/AA
Where, QA is the approach flow (m3/s) obstructed by the embankment
abutment and (AA = LAYM1) is the flow area (m2) of the approach
cross section obstructed by the embankment abutment.

216
 Cont’d…

 Note that with respect to the angle of the approach flow, ɸ < 90o if
the embankment abutment points downstream and ɸ > 90o if the
embankment abutment points upstream.

217
 Cont’d…
Total scour depth (ds)
 Degradation, contraction and local scour are additive, but
only where the scour holes overlap.
 For instance, contraction scour may have to be added to
pier or abutment scour to get the total scour depth.
However, pier scour and abutment scour would not be
added unless the two scour holes overlap.

218
 Cont’d…
Example 3.3
Just upstream of a 0.9m wide round nosed pier the depth of flow
is 1.3m with a velocity of 1.6m/s. The pier is skewed to the
approach flow with ø = 15o. The length of the waterway in the
direction of flow (L) is 14.4m. Assume that the channel bed is
plane. Calculate the local pier scour depth.
Example 3.4
The longitudinal Centre line of an embankment leading to a
bridge abutment is skewed at an angle of 30o compared with a
perpendicular crossing. The length of the embankment/abutment
is 33m measured along the Centre line. The abutments are of the
vertical wall type. It is estimated that the mean depth on the
upstream floodplain is 1.2m with a mean velocity of 0.7m/s.
Calculate the maximum abutment scour depth.

219
 References
1. L Hamill-Bridge hydraulics-E. & F.N. Spon.1999.
2. Larry W Mays Hydraulic design handbook.1999.
3. Hydraulic Structures, P. Novak. 2004.

220