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ME8501 METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS

UNIT I BASICS OF METROLOGY

Introduction to Metrology – Need – Elements – Work piece, Instruments –
Persons – Environment – their effect on Precision and Accuracy – Errors –
Errors in Measurements – Types – Control – Types of standards.

UNIT II LINEAR AND ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

Linear Measuring Instruments – Evolution – Types – Classification – Limit
gauges – gauge design – terminology – procedure – concepts of interchange
ability and selective assembly – Angular measuring instruments – Types –
Bevel protractor clinometers angle gauges, spirit levels sine bar – Angle
alignment telescope – Autocollimator – Applications.

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UNIT III ADVANCES IN METROLOGY
Basic concept of lasers Advantages of lasers – laser Interferometers – types –

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DC and AC Lasers interferometer – Applications – Straightness – Alignment.
Basic concept of CMM – Types of CMM – Constructional features – Probes –
Accessories – Software – Applications – Basic concepts of Machine Vision
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System – Element – Applications.
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UNIT IV FORM MEASUREMENT

Principles and Methods of straightness – Flatness measurement – Thread
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measurement, gear measurement, surface finish measurement, Roundness

measurement – Applications.
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UNIT V MEASUREMENT OF POWER, FLOW AND TEMPERATURE

Force, torque, power - mechanical , Pneumatic, Hydraulic and Electrical type.
Flow measurement: Venturimeter, Orifice meter, rotameter, pitot tube –
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Temperature: bimetallic strip, thermocouples, electrical resistance thermometer

– Reliability and Calibration – Readability and Reliability.
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TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
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TEXT BOOKS:
1. Gupta. I.C., “Engineering Metrology”, Dhanpatrai Publications, 2005.
2. Jain R.K. “Engineering Metrology”, Khanna Publishers, 2009.

REFERENCES:
1. Alan S. Morris, “The essence of Measurement”, Prentice Hall of India 1996.
2. Beckwith, Marangoni, Lienhard, “Mechanical Measurements”, Pearson
Education , 2014.
3. Charles Reginald Shotbolt, “Metrology for Engineers”, 5th edition, Cengage
Learning EMEA,1990.
4. Donald Peckman, “Industrial Instrumentation”, Wiley Eastern, 2004.
5. Raghavendra ,Krishnamurthy “Engineering Metrology & Measurements”,
Oxford Univ. Press, 2013.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering

SUBJECT CODE : ME8501

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SUBJECT NAME : METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS

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Regulation: 2017 Year / Semester: III/ V

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TABLE OF CONTENT
S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO.
1 Syllabus 3
2 Aim and Objective of the Subject 4
3 Detailed Lesson Plan 4
UNIT I BASICS OF METROLOGY
4 Part - A (2 Marks Q &A) 7
5 Part - B (13 Marks Q &A) 10

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6 Part –C(15MarksQ&A) 19

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UNIT II LINEAR AND ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

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7 Part - A (2 Marks Q &A) 22
8 Part - B (13 Marks Q &A) 25
9 Part –C(15MarksQ&A)
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UNIT III ADVANCES IN METROLOGY
44
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10 Part - A (2 Marks Q &A) 47
11 Part - B (13 Marks Q &A) 50
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12 Part –C(15MarksQ&A) 60
UNIT IV FORM MEASUREMENT
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13 Part - A (2 Marks Q &A) 63

14 Part - B (13 Marks Q &A) 66
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15 Part –C(15MarksQ&A) 73
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UNIT V MEASUREMENT OF POWER, FLOW AND TEMPERATURE

16 Part - A (2 Marks Q &A) 80
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17 Part - B (13 Marks Q &A) 84

18 Part –C(15MarksQ&A) 92
ANNA UNIVERSITY PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION PAPERS
19 APRIL/MAY 2017 99
20 NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2016 101
21 APRIL/MAY 2016 103
22 NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2015 105

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LESSON PLAN

Subject Name : METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS Code : ME8501

Year : III Semester : V
Degree & Branch : B.E. – MECHANICAL

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OBJECTIVE

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  To understand the basic principles of measurements.

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 To learn the various linear and angular measuring equipments, their principle of
 operation and applications
  To learn about various methods of measuring Mechanical parameters.


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 To provide knowledge on various Metrological equipments available to measure
the dimension of the components.
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 To provide knowledge on the correct procedure to be adopted to measure
the dimension of the components.
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Text Books:
1. Jain R.K. “Engineering Metrology”, Khanna Publishers, 2005.
2. Gupta. I.C., “Engineering Metrology”, Dhanpatrai Publications, 2005.
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Reference Books:
1. Charles Reginald Shotbolt, “Metrology for Engineers”, 5th edition, Cengage
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Learning EMEA,1990.
2. Backwith, Marangoni, Lienhard, “Mechanical Measurements”, Pearson Education
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, 2006.
Sl. No of Book
WEEK Topics
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No. Hours No.

UNIT-I : .BASICS OF METROLOGY

1 Introduction to Metrology – Need 1 T1,R1

2 Elements – Work piece, Instruments 1 T1,R1
3 WEEK I Persons – Environment – 1 T1,R1
their effect on Precision and Accuracy
4 Errors – Errors in Measurements , Types of Error 1 T1,R1
5 Control – Types of standards. 1 T1,R1

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UNIT – II : LINEAR AND ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

6 Linear Measuring Instruments 1 T1,R1,R3

7 Evolution – Types – Classification 1 T1,R1,R3
8 WEEK II Limit gauges – gauge design 1 T1,R1,R3
9 Terminology – procedure 1 T1,R1,R3
10 concepts of interchange ability and selective assembly 1 T1,R1,R3
11 Angular measuring instruments – Types 1 T1,R1,R3
12 Bevel protractor clinometers angle gauges, 1 T1,R1,R3
13 WEEK III spirit levels sine bar , Uses of Sine bar 1 T1,R1,R3

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14 Angle alignment telescope 1 T1,R1,R3
Autocollimator – Applications.

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15 1 T1,R1,R3

UNIT – III : ADVANCES IN METROLOGY

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16 Basic concept of lasers Advantages of lasers 1 T1,R1
17 laser Interferometers – types 1 T1,R1
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18 WEEK IV DC Lasers interferometer – Applications 1 T1,R1

AC Lasers interferometer – Applications

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19 1 T1,R1
20 Straightness – Alignment. 1 T1,R1
21 Basic concept of CMM – Types of CMM 1 T1,R1
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22 Constructional features 1 T1,R1

23 WEEK V Probes 1 T1,R1
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24 Accessories 1 T1,R1
25 Software – Applications 1 T1,R1
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26 Basic concepts of Machine Vision System 1 T1,R1

27 Element – Applications 1 T1,R1
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UNIT – IV : FORM MEASUREMENT

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28 Principles and Methods of straightness 1 T1,R1

29 WEEK VI Flatness measurement 2 T1,R1
30 Thread measurement 2 T1,R1
31 Gear measurement 2 T1,R1
32 WEEK VII surface finish measurement 2 T1,R1
33 Roundness measurement – Applications. 1 T1,R1

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Total Hours: 45

UNIT – V : MEASUREMENT OF POWER, FLOW AND TEMPERATURE

34 Force, torque, power 1 T1,R1,R2

35 Pneumatic, Hydraulic and Mechanical, Electrical type. 1 T1,R1,R2
WEEK IX
36 Flow measurement: 1 T1,R1,R2
Venturimeter, Orifice meter,
37 Rota meter, pitot tube 1 T1,R1,R2
38 Temperature: bimetallic strip, thermocouples, 1 T1,R1,R2

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39 Electrical resistance thermometer 1 T1,R1,R2

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40 WEEK X Reliability and Calibration 1 T1,R1,R2
41 Readability and Reliability. 1 T1,R1,R2

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UNIT -1 BASICS OF METROLOGY

PART-A

1. What is Range of measurement? (NOV/DEC2015)

The physical variables that are measured between two values. One is the
higher calibration value H, and the other is Lower value L, The difference
between H, and L, is called range.
2. What is Legal metrology? (MAY/JUNE2014)
Legal metrology is part of Metrology and it is directed by a national
organization which is called national service of legal Metrology.

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3. Differentiate between sensitivity and range with suitable example?

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(MAY/JUNE2014)

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Example: A Instrument have a scale reading of 0.01mm to 100mm. Here,
the sensitivity of the instrument is 0.0lmm i.e. the minimum value in the scale by
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which the instrument can read. The range is 0.01 to 100mm i.e. the minimum to
maximum value by which the instrument can read.
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4. Define system error and correction Error? (NOV/DEC2011)

The deviation between the results of measured value to the actual value.
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Correction: The numerical value which should be added to the measured value
to get the correct result.
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5. Define: Readability? (NOV/DEC2012)

It is a term frequently used for analog type instruments. This
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characteristic depends on both the instrument and observer.

6. Define Calibration? (NOV/DEC2014)
Calibration is the process of determining and adjusting an instruments
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accuracy to make sure its accuracy is within the manufacturer’s specifications

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7. What is Hysteresis? (NOV/DEC2004)

All the energy put into the stressed component when loaded is not
recovered upon unloading. So, the output of measurement partially depends on
input called hysteresis.

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8. What is measurement? Give it types? (MAY/JUNE2008)

It is the process of comparing the input signal with predefined standard
and it gives out the result. It is a word used to describe about physical quantities
such as length, weight, temperature, pressure, force etc
Types
1. Primary measurements
2. Secondary measurements.
3. Tertiary measurements
9. Define the term reliability? (NOV/DEC2008)

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Reliability is the ability of a person or system to perform and maintain its

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functions in routine circumstances.

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10. What is static response? (NOV/DEC2012)
Measured variables are many times steady, that is, they do not vary with
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time. That is they are static in nature.
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11. Differentiate between precision and accuracy? (NOV/DEC2014)

Accuracy - The maximum amount by which the result differ from true
value. Precision - Degree of repetitiveness. If an instrument is not precise it will
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give different results for the same dimension for the repeated readings.
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12. Brief on sensitivity in measurement.(NOV/DEC2016)

Sensitivity is an absolute quantity, the smallest absolute amount of change
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that can be detected by a measurement.

13. Differentiate between accuracy and precision.(NOV/DEC2016)
Accuracy can be defined as the amount of uncertainty in a measurement
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with respect to an absolute standard.

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Precision describes the reproducibility of the measurement. For example,

measure a steady state signal many times.
14. Define Traceability. (April/May 2017)
The term "measurement traceability" is used to refer to an unbroken chain
of comparisons relating an instrument's measurements to a known standard.
Calibration to a traceable standard can be used to determine an instrument's
bias, precision, and accuracy.

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15. What is difference between gauging and measurements?(April/May

2017)
Gaugingis the process of determine the exact dimensions, capacity,
quantity, or force of measure.
A measurement is a method of determining quantity, capacity, or
dimension.Several systems of measurement exist, each one comprising units
whose amounts have been arbitrarily set and agreed upon by specific groups.

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Part-B

1. Define standards. Discuss different type of standards in

detail? (APR/MAY 2017)
Standards
The term standard is used to denote universally accepted specifications
for devices. Components are processes which ensure conformity and
interchangeability throughout a particular industry. A standard provides a
reference for assigning a numerical value to a measured quantity. Each basic

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measurable quantity has associated with it an ultimate standard. Working

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standards, those used in conjunction with the various measurement making
instruments.

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The national institute of standards and technology (NIST) formerly called
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National Bureau of Standards (NBS), it was established by an act of congress in
1901, and the need for such body had been noted by the founders of the
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constitution. In order to maintain accuracy, standards in a vast industrial

complex must be trace able to a single source, which may be national standards.
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The following is the generalization of echelons of standards in the

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national measurement system.

1. Calibration standards
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2. Metrology standards
3. National standards
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Calibration standards: Working standards of industrial or government

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alllaboratories.
Metrology standards: Reference standards of industrial or Government
alllaboratories.
National standards: It includes proto type and natural phenomenon of
SI(Systems International), the world wide system of weight and measures
standards. Application of precise measurement has increased so much, that a
single national laboratory to perform directly all the calibrations and
standardization required by large country with high technical development. It
has led to the establishment of a considerable number of standardizing

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laboratories in industry and in various other areas. A standard provides a

reference or datum for assigning a numerical value to a measured quantity.
Classification of Standards

To maintain accuracy and interchangeability it is necessary that

Standards to be trace able to a single source, usually the National Standards of
the country, which are further linked to International Standards. The accuracy
of National Standards is transferred to working standards through a chain of
intermediate standards in a manner given below.

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•National Standards

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•National Reference Standards
•Working Standards
•Plant Laboratory Reference Standards

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•Plant Laboratory Working Standards
•Shop Floor Standards
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2. Describe the different types of error in measurement and their causes
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and control methods in detail? (MAY/JUNE2014) (NOV/DEC2014)

(NOV/DEC2016)(APR/MAY 2017)
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ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS
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It is never possible to measure the true value of a dimension there is

always some error. The error in measurement is the difference between the
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measured value and the true value of the measured dimension.

Error in measurement = Measured value-True value
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Absolute Error
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True absolute error:

It is the algebraic difference between the result of measurement and the
conventional true value of the quantity measured.

Apparent absolute error:

If the series of measurement are made and then the algebraic difference
between one of the results of measurement and the arithmetical mean is known
as apparent absolute error.

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Relative Error:

It is the quotient of the absolute error and the value of comparison use or
calculation of that absolute error. This value of comparison may be the true
value, the conventional true value or the arithmetic mean for series of
measurement.
Types of Errors
Systematic Error
These errors include calibration errors, error due to variation in the
atmospheric condition variation in contact pressure etc. If properly analyzed,

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these errors can be determined and reduced or even eliminated hence it also

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called controllable errors. All other systematic errors can be controlled in a

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magnitude and sense except personal error.
These errors results from irregular procedure that is consistent in
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action. These errors are repetitive in nature and are of constant and similar
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form.

Random Error
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These errors are caused due to variation in position of setting standard

and work –piece errors. Due to displacement of level joints of instruments, due
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to back lash and friction, these error are induced. Specific cause, magnitude and
sense of these errors cannot be determined from the knowledge of measuring
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system or condition of measurement. These errors are non-consistent and hence

the name random errors.
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Environmental Error
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These errors are caused due to effect of surrounding temperature,

pressure and humidity on the measuring instrument. External factors like
nuclear radiation, vibrations and magnetic field also leads to error. Temperature
plays an important role where high precision is required .e.g. while using slip
gauges, due to handling the slip gauges may acquire human body temperature,
where as the work is at 20°C. A 300mm length will go in error by 5microns which
is quite a considerable error. To avoid errors of this kind, all metrology
laboratories and standard rooms worldwide are maintained at 20°C.

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3. Distinguish between precision and accuracy with

illustration?(MAY/JUNE2012) (NOV/DEC2010)
Precision

The terms precision and accuracy are used in connection with the
performance of the instrument. Precision is the repeatability of the measuring
process. It refers to the group of measurements for the same characteristics take
number identical conditions. It indicates to what extent the identically
performed measurements agree with each other. If the instrument is not precise

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it will give different (widely varying) results for the same dimension when

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measured again and again. These to observations will scatter about the mean.
The scatter of these measurements is designated as σ, the standard deviation. It

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is used as an index of precision. The less the scattering more precise is the
instrument. Thus, lower, the value of σ, the more precise is the instrument.
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Accuracy
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Accuracy is the degree to which the measured value of the quality

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characteristic agrees with the true value. The difference between the true value
and the measured value is known as error of measurement. It is practically
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difficult to measure exactly the true value and therefore a set of observations is
made whose mean value is taken as the true value of the quality measured.
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Distinction between Precision and Accuracy

Accuracy is very often confused with precision though much different. The
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distinction between the precision and accuracy will become clear by the
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following example. Several measurements are made on a component by different

types of instruments (A, B and C respectively) and the results are plotted. In any
set of measurements, the individual measurements are scattered about the
mean, and the precision signifies how well the various measurements performed
by same instrument on the same quality characteristic agree with each other.
The difference between the mean of set of readings on the same quality
characteristic and the true value is called as error. Less the error more accurate
is the instrument. Figure shows that the instrument A is precise since the results
of number of measurements are close to the average value. However, there is a
large difference (error) between the true value and the average value hence it is
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not accurate. The readings taken by the instruments are scattered much from the
average value and hence it is not precise but accurate as there is a small
difference between the average value and true value.

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4. List the various measurement methods and explain? (NOV/DEC2008)

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METHODS OFMEASUREMENTS
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These are the methods of comparison used in measurement process. In

precision measurement various methods of measurement are adopted
depending upon the accuracy required and the amount of permissible error.
The methods of measurement can be classified as:
1. Direct method
2. Indirect method
3. Absolute or Fundamental method
4. Comparative method
5. Transposition method

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6. Coincidence method
7. Deflection method
8. Complementary method
9. Contact method
10. Contactless method
Direct method of measurement:

This is a simple method of measurement, in which the value of the

quantity to be measured is obtained directly without any calculations. For

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example, measurements by using scales, vernier calipers, micrometers, bevel

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protector etc. This method is most widely used in production. This method is not
very accurate because it depends on human in sensitiveness in making judgment.

Indirect method of measurement:

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In indirect method the value of quantity to be measured is obtained by
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measuring other quantities which are functionally related to the required value.
E.g. Angle measurement by sine bar, measurement of screw pitch diameter by
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three wire method etc.

Absolute or Fundamental method:

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It is based on the measurement of the base quantities used to define the

quantity. For example, measuring a quantity directly in accordance with the
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definition of that quantity, or measuring a quantity indirectly by direct

measurement of the quantities linked with the definition of the quantity to be
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measured.
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Comparative method:

In this method the value of the quantity to be measured is compared with

known value of the same quantity or other quantity practically related to it. So, in
this method only the deviations from a master gauge are determined, e.g., dial
indicators, or other comparators.

Transposition method:

It is a method of measurement by direct comparison in which the value of

the quantity measured is first balanced by an initial known value A of the same
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quantity, and then the value of the quantity measured is put in place of this
known value and is balanced again by another known value B. If the position of
the element indicating equilibrium is the same in both cases, the value of the
quantity to be measured is AB. For example, determination of a mass by means of
a balance and known weights, using the Gauss double weighing.

Coincidence method:

It is a differential method of measurement in which a very small difference

between the value of the quantity to be measured and the reference is

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determined by the observation of the coincidence of certain lines or signals. For

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example, measurement by vernier caliper micrometer.

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Deflection method:

In this method the value of the quantity to be measured is directly

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indicated by a deflection of a pointer on a calibrated scale.
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Complementary method:
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In this method the value of the quantity to be measured is combined with

a known value of the same quantity. The combination is so adjusted that the sum
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of these two values is equal to predetermined comparison value. For example,

determination of the volume of a solid by liquid displacement.
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Method of measurement by substitution:

It is a method of direct comparison in which the value of a quantity to be

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measured is replaced by a known value of the same quantity, so selected that the
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effects produced in the indicating device by these two values are the same.

Method of null measurement:

It is a method of differential measurement. In this method the difference

between the value of the quantity to be measured and the known value of the
same quantity with which it is compared is brought to zero.

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5. Draw the block diagram of generalized measurement system

and explain different stages with examples. (NOV/DEC2015)
A measuring system exists to provide information about the physical
value of some variable being measured. In simple cases, the system can consist
of only a single unit that gives an output reading or signal according to the
magnitude of the unknown variable applied to it. However, in more complex
measurement situations, a measuring system consists of several separate
elements as shown in Figure

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The various elements of measurement system are,

a. Primary sensing Element

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b. Variable conversion element.

c. Variable manipulation element
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d. Data transmission element.

e. Data processing Element
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f. Data presentation element.

a. Primary sensing Element
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it is the first element which receives energy from the measured medium
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and it produces an output corresponding to the measurand. This output is then

converted into an analogous electrical signal by a transducer.

b. Variable conversion element.

It converts the output electrical signal of the primary sensing element into a
more suitable form signal without changing the information containing in the input
signal. In some instruments, there is no need of using a variable conversion element
while some other instruments require the variable conversion element.

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c. Variable manipulation element

This element is used to manipulate the signal presented to it and preserving

the original nature of the signal. In other words, it amplifies the input signal to the
required magnification. For example an electronic voltage amplifier receives a
small voltage as input and it produces greater magnitude of voltage as output. A
variable manipulation element does not necessarily follow a variable conversion
element and it may precede it.

d. Data transmission element.

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It transmits the data from one element to the other. It may be as shaft
and gear assembly system or as complicated as a telemetry system which is

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used to transmit the signal from one place to another.

e. Data processing Element

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It is an element which is used to modify the data before displayed or
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finally recorded. It may be used for the following purposes.

To convert the data into useful form
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To separate the signal hidden in

noise
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It may provide corrections to the measured physical variables

to compensate for zero offset, temperature error, scaling etc
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f. Data presentation element.

These are the elements that they finally communicate the information of
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measured variables to a human observer for monitoring, controlling or

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analyzing purposes. The value of measured variables may be indicated by an

analog indicator, digital indicator, or by a recorder

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Part C

1. Distinguish between and give appropriate examples in each case

i) Repeatability and Reproducibility (NOV/DEC2014)

ii) Systematic and Random errors (NOV/DEC2006)

iii) Static and Dynamic response (NOV/DEC2006)

1. Repeatability

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Repeatability may be defined as the closeness of agreement among the

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number of consecutive measurement of the output for the same value of input
under the same operating conditions. It may be specified in terms of units for

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a given period of time. ee
2) Reproducibility
Reproducibility may be defined as the closeness of agreement among the
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repeated measurements of the output for the same value of input under the same
operating conditions over a period of time. Perfect reproducibility means that
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the instrument calibration does not gradually shift over a long period of time.
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3) Systematic error:
It is the error which during several measurements, made under the same
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conditions, of the same value of a certain quantity, remains constant in

absolute value and sign or varies in a predictable way in accordance with a
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specified law when the conditions change. The causes of these errors may be
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known or unknown. The errors may be constant or variable. Systematic errors

are regularly repetitive in nature.

4) Random error:
This error varies in an unpredictable manner in absolute value & in sign
when a large number of measurements of the same value of a quantity are
made under practically
5. Static response:
The static characteristics of an instrument are considered for instruments
which are used to measure an unvarying process conditions.

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6. Dynamic response:

The behaviors of an instrument under such time varying input –

output conditions called Dynamic response of an instrument. The
instrument analysis of such dynamic response is called dynamic
analysis of the measurement system.

2. With suitable example explain the elements of generalized

measurement system

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Components of Generalized Measurement System:

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A generalized measurement system consists of the following components:
Primary Sensing Element

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Variable Conversion Element
Variable Manipulation Element
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Data Processing Element
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Data Transmission System

Data Presentation Element
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In addition to the above components, a measurement system may also

have a data storage element to store measured data for future use. As the above
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six components are the most common ones used in many measurement systems,
they are discussed in detail below:
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1. Primary Sensing Element:

The primary sensing element receives signal of the physical quantity to be
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measured as input. It converts the signal to a suitable form (electrical,

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mechanical or other form), so that it becomes easier for other elements of the
measurement system, to either convert or manipulate it.
2. Variable Conversion Element:
Variable conversion element converts the output of the primary sensing
element to a more suitable form. It is used only if necessary.
3. Variable Manipulation Element:
Variable manipulation element manipulates and amplifies the output of
the variable conversion element. It also removes noise (if present) in the signal.

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4. Data Processing Element:

Data processing element is an important element used in many
measurement systems. It processes the data signal received from the variable
manipulation element and produces suitable output.
Data processing element may also be used to compare the measured
value with a standard value to produce required output.
5. Data Transmission System:
Data Transmission System is simply used for transmitting data from one
element to another. It acts as a communication link between different elements

n
of the measurement system. Some of the data transmission elements used are

g.i
cables, wireless antennae, transducers, telemetry systems etc.

rin
6. Data Presentation Element:
It is used to present the measured physical quantity in a human readable
ee
form to the observer. It receives processed signal from data processing element
and presents the data in a human readable form. LED displays are most
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commonly used as data presentation elements in many measurement systems.

En
arn
w .Le
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UNIT-2 LINEARAND ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

Part-A

1. List any four angular measuring instruments(APRIL/MAY 2016)

 Sinebar

 Bevel protractor

 Autocollimeter

 Angle dekkor


n
2. Why are sine bars not used for measuring large angles (APR/MAY 2015)

g.i
 The sine bar is physically clumsy to hold in position.

 The body of the sine bar obstructs the gauge block stack even if relieved

rin

 Slight errors of the sine bar cause large angular errors

ee
3. State the principle of interferometry. NOV/DEC 2015
Interferometry makes the use of the principle of superposition to combine
gin

separate wave together in a way that will cause the result of the combination to
have some meaningful property that is diagnostic of the original state of the
En

waves.
arn

4. Classify the comparator according to the principles used for obtaining

magnification.
.Le

The common types are: (i) Mechanical comparators. (ii) Electrical

comparators. (iii) Optical comparators. (iv) Pneumatic comparators. 34. How
w

the mechanical comparator works? The method of magnifying small movement

ww

of the indicator in all mechanical comparators are effected by means of levers,

gear trains or a combination of these elements.

5. How the mechanical comparator is used?

State with any one example. Let us assume that the required height of the
component I s 32.5mm. Initially, this height is built up with slip gauges. The slip
gauge blocks are placed under the stem of the dial gauge. The pointer in the dial
gauge is adjusted to zero. The slip gauges are removed- Now, the component to

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be checked is introduced under the stem of the dial gauge. If there is any
deviation in the height of the component, it will be indicated by the pointer.

6. State any four advantages of mechanical comparator. MAY/JUN 2013

i. It is usually robust, compact and easy to handle.
ii. There is no external supply such as electricity are required.
iii. It has very simple mechanism and is cheaper when compared to
other types.
iv. It is suitable for ordinary workshop and also easily portable.

n
7. Mention any two disadvantages of reed type mechanical comparator.

g.i
 Accuracy of the comparator mainly depends on the accuracy of the rack

rin
and pinion arrangement. Any slackness will reduce accuracy.

 It has more moving parts and hence friction is more and accuracy is less.

ee
8. What are the advantages of electrical and electronic comparator?
gin
MAY/JUNE 2014
 It has less number of moving parts.


En

Magnification obtained is very high.


 Two or more magnifications are provided in the same instrument to use
arn

various ranges.

 The pointer is made very light so that it 'IS more sensitive to vibration.

.Le

9. What are the advantages of pneumatic comparator? (APRIL/MAY 2016)

 The wear of measuring heads is avoided due to absence of direct contact.
w


 Friction is less due to less number of moving parts.

ww

 Work piece is cleaned by supplying of all during the measurement.


 High magnification is possible.

 There is no interference of measuring head and indicating device because
the measuring head is kept away from the indicating device.

11. Why lasers are used in Metrology?(NOV/DEC 2015)

 Intensity of laser can be easily changed.

 It helps for high accurate measurement

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12. Write any two precautions to be followed when using gauge block.
(NOV/DEC 2015)
 The gauge block surface should be cleaned from dust
particles.
 Wringing and slipping process should be done before
measurement.
13. State the working principle of Electronic
comparator.MAY/JUNE2014

n
In an electronic comparator, transducer or the principle of

g.i
application of frequency modulation or radio oscillation is followed.
14. Write the constructional requirements of the sine bar for accurate

rin
measurement NOV/DEC 2014
 The rollers must have equal diameter and equal cylinders
ee
 The rollers should be placed parallel to each other and also to the
gin

upper face.
 The accurate center to center of rollers must be known.
En

Write a short notes on Bevel protractor? (Nov Dec 2016)

A bevel protractor is a graduated circular protractor with one pivoted
arn

arm used for measuring or marking off angles

16. Write short notes on Interchangeability? (Nov Dec 2016)
.Le

It refers to Interchangeable parts, the ability to select components

for assembly at random and fit them together within proper tolerances.
w

17. Why is rocking procedure followed when measuring with a dial bore
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gauge? (April May 2017)

The rocking will first align the gauge with the bore axis and the act
of moving the handle to the other side of the bore will bring it to the exact bore
diameter.
18. Name any four instruments used measuring internal diameters in
components. (April May 2017)
 Inside Micrometer
 Bore Gauge
 Caliper Type Inside Micrometer
 Vernier Caliber
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PART-B

11. Give a brief note on slip gauges and what are the safety precaution to
be followed in the use of slip gauge blocks and also explain the type
of limit gauge with neat sketches (APRIL /MAY 2015) ?(NOV/DEC
2016)

SLIPGAUGES

These may be used as reference standards for transferring the

n
dimension of the unit of length from the primary standard to gauge blocks of

g.i
lower accuracy and for the verification and graduation of measuring

rin
apparatus.
These are high carbon steel hardened, ground and lapped rectangular
ee
blocks, having cross sectional area 0f 30mm, 10mm. Their opposite faces are
flat, parallel and are accurately the stated distance apart.
gin

The opposite faces are of such a high degree of surface finish, that when
the blocks are pressed together with a slight twist by hand, they will wring
En

together. They will remain firmly attached to each other. They are supplied in
arn

sets of 112 pieces down to 32pieces.

Due to properties of slip gauges, they are built up by, wringing into
.Le

combination which gives size, varying by steps of 0.01 mm and the overall
accuracy is of the order of 0.00025mm. Slip gauges with three basic forms are
commonly found, these are rectangular, square with center hole, and square
w

without center hole.

ww

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Precautions

 The blocks should be kept in the box and it it should not dropped on
the irregular surfaces.

 Surfaces of slip gauges should be cleaned before it is used.

 The slip gauge block should be in particular temperature
condition to eliminate the thermal expansion which causes in
accuracy during measurement.

 While using slip gauses for measurement it should be kept iin a flat

n
g.i
surface to get high accurate readings.

rin
LIMITGAUGES

 A limit gauge is not a measuring gauge. Just they are used as

ee
inspecting gauges.
 The limit gauges are used in inspection by methods of attributes.
gin

 This gives the information about the products which maybe either
within the prescribed limit or not.
 By using limit gauges report, the control charts of P and C charts are
En

drawn to control invariance of the products.

 This procedure is mostly performed by the quality control department
arn

of each and every industry.

 Limit gauge are mainly used for checking for cylindrical
.Le

holes of identical components with a large numbers

in mass production.

Purpose of using limit gauges

w

 Components are manufactured as per the specified tolerance limits,

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upper limit and lower limit. The dimension of each component should
be within this upper and lower limit.

 If the dimensions are outside these limits, the components will be
rejected.

 It is just enough whether the size of the component is within the
prescribed limits or not. For this purpose, we can make use of gauges
known as limit gauges.

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The common types are as follows:

1) Plug gauges.

2) Ring gauges.

3) Snap gauges.

PLUGGAUGES

 The ends are hardened and accurately finished by grinding. One end is

n
the GO end and the other end is NOGO end.


g.i
 Usually, the GO end will be equal to the lower limit size of the hole and
the NOGO end will be equal to the upper limit size of the hole.


rin
 If the size of the hole is within the limits, the GO end should go inside the
hole and NOGO end should not go.
ee

 If the GO end and does not go, the hole is under size and also if NOGO
gin

end goes, the hole is over size. Hence, the components are rejected in
both the cases
En


1. Double ended plug gauges
arn

In this type, the GO end and NOGO end are arranged on both the ends of
the plug. This type has the advantage of easy handling.
.Le

2. Progressive type of plug gauges

In this type both the GO end and NOGO end are arranged in the same
w

side of the plug. We can use the plug gauge ends progressively one after the
ww

other while checking the hole. It saves time. Generally, the GO end is made
larger than the NOGO end in plug gauges.

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TAPER PLUG GAUGE

Taper plug gauges are used to check tapered holes. It has two check
lines. One is a GO line and another is a NOGO line. During the checking of work,
NOGO line remains outside the hole and GO line remains inside the hole.
They are various types taper plug gauges are available as shown in fig. Such as
1) Taper plug gauge— plain
2) Taper plug gauge— tanged.
3) Taper ring gauge plain

n
4) Taper ring gauge — tanged

g.i
rin
ee
gin
En

RING GAUGES

 Ring gauges are mainly used for checking the diameter of shafts having
arn

a central hole. The hole is accurately finished by grinding and lapping

after taking hardening process.
.Le

 The periphery of the ring is knurled to give more grips while handling
the gauges. We have to make two ring gauges separately to check the
w

shaft such as GO ring gauge and NOGO ring gauge.

ww

 But the hole of GO ring gauge is made to the upper limit size of the shaft
and NOGO for the lower limit.

 While checking the shaft, the GO ring gauge will pass through the shaft
and NO GO will not pass.

 To identify the NOGO ring gauges easily, are mark or a small groove cut
on its periphery.

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SNAP GAUGE

Snap gauges are used for checking external dimensions. They are

n
g.i
also called a snap gauges. The different types of snap gauges are:

rin
ee
gin

Double Ended Snap Gauge

En

This gauge is having two ends in the form of anvils. Here also, the GO
anvil is made to lower limit and NOGO anvil is made to upper limit of the shaft.
arn

It is also known as solid snap gauges

.Le

Progressive Snap Gauge

This type of snap gauge is also called caliper gauge. It is mainly used for
w

checking large diameters up to 100mm. Both GO and NOGO anvils at the same
ww

end.
The GO anvil should be at the front and NOGO anvil at the rear. So, the
diameter of the shaft is checked progressively by these two ends. This type of
gauge is made of horse shoe shaped frame with I section to reduce the weight
of the snap gauges.
Adjustable Snap Gauge

Adjustable snap gauges are used for checking large size shafts made
with horse shoe shaped frame of I section. It has one fixed anvil and two small
adjustable anvils. The distance between the two anvils is adjusted by adjusting

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the adjustable anvils by means of set screws. This adjustment can be made
with the help of slip gauges for specified limits of size.

n
g.i
Combined Limit Gauges

rin
A spherical projection is provided with GO and NOGO dimension
marked in a single gauge. While using GO gauge the handle is parallel to axes of
ee
the hole and normal to axes for NOGO gauge.
gin

Position Gauge

It is designed for checking the position of features in relation to another

En

surface. Other types of gauges are also available such as contour gauges,
receiver gauges, profile gauges etc.
arn

12. Explain the construction and working of vernier caliper. Enumerate

the different types of vernier caliper with neat sketches also explain the
.Le

construction and working of micrometers. Enumerate the micrometer

with neat sketches . (APRIL/MAY 2015)
w

VERNIERCALIPERS
ww

The vernier instruments generally used in workshop and engineering

metrology have comparatively low accuracy. The line of measurement of such
instruments does not coincide with the line of scale. The accuracy therefore
depends upon the straightness of the beam and the squareness of the sliding
jaw with respect to the beam.
To ensure the squareness, the sliding jaw must be clamped before
taking the reading. The zero error must also be taken into consideration.
Instruments are now available with a measuring range up to one meter with a
scale value of 0.1 or0.2 mm.
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Types of Vernier Calipers

According to Indian Standard IS:3651- 1974, three types of vernier
calipers have been specified to make external and internal measurements and
are shown in figures respectively. All the three types are made with one scale
on the front of the beam for direct reading.
TypeA :Vernier has jaws on both sides for external and internal
measurementsand a blade for depth measurement.

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
Type B: It is provided with jaws on one side for external and
internalmeasurements.
En
arn
w .Le

Type C: It has jaws on both sides for making the measurement and for
ww

markingoperations

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MICROMETERS

There are two types in it.

 Outside micrometer— To measure external dimensions.


 Inside micrometer—To measure internal dimensions

An outside micrometer is shown. It consists of two scales, main scale and

thimble scale. While the pitch of barrel screw is 0.5mm the thimble has
graduation of 0.01mm. The least count of this micrometer is 0.01 mm.

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
.Le

The micrometer requires the use of an accurate screw thread as a means of

obtaining a measurement. The screw is attached to a spindle and is turned by
w

movement of a thimble or ratchet at the end. The barrel, which is attached to

ww

the frame, acts as a nut to engage the screw threads, which are accurately
made with a pitch of 0.05mm. Each revolution of the thimble advances the
screw 0.05mm. On the barrel a datum line is graduated with two sets of
division marks.

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13. Explain the working principle of mechanical comparator ,optical

comparator and Pneumatic comparator with neat sketches (MAY/JUNE
2014)

COMPARATORS

Comparators are one form of linear measurement device which is quick

and more convenient for checking large number of identical dimensions.
Comparators normally will not show the actual dimensions of the work piece.
They will be shown only the deviation in size.

n
During the measurement a comparator is able to give the deviation of the

g.i
dimension from the set dimension. This cannot be used as an absolute measuring

rin
device but can only compare two dimensions. Comparators are designed in
several types to meet various conditions.ee
Comparators of every type in corporate some kind of magnifying device.
The magnifying device magnifies how much dimension deviates, plus or minus,
gin

from the standard size.

En

The comparators are classified according to the principles used

for obtaining magnification. The common types are:
arn

1) Mechanical comparators
2) Electrical comparators
.Le

3) Optical comparators
4) Pneumatic comparators
w

MECHANICAL COMPARATORS
ww

Mechanical comparator employs mechanical means for magnifying small

deviations. The method of magnifying small movement of the indicator in all
mechanical comparators are effected by means of levers, gear trains or a
combination of these elements.
Mechanical comparators are available having magnifications from 300 to
5000 to 1. These are mostly used for inspection of small parts machined to close
limits.

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Dial indicator

A dial indicator or dial gauge is used as a mechanical comparator. The

essential parts of the instrument are like a small clock with a plunger projecting
at the bottom as shown in fig.
Very slight upward movement on the plunger moves it upward and the
movement is indicated by the dial pointer. The dial is graduated into 100
divisions.
A full revolution of the pointer about this scale corresponds to1mm travel
of the plunger. Thus, a turn of the pointer b one scale division represents a

n
g.i
plunger travel of 0.01mm.

Experimental setup

rin
The whole setup consists of worktable, dial indicator and vertical post. The
ee
dial indicator is fitted to vertical post by on adjusting screw as shown in fig. The
vertical post is fitted on the worktable; the top surface of the work table is finely
gin

finished. The dial gauge can be adjusted vertically and locked in position by a
screw.
En

Procedure
arn

Let us assume that the required height of the component is 32.5mm.

Initially this height is built up with slip gauges. The slip gauge blocks are placed
.Le

under the stem of the dial gauge. The pointer in the dial gauge is adjusted to zero.
The slip gauges are removed.
w
ww

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Now the component to be checked is introduced under the stem of the

dial gauge. If there is any deviation in the height of the component, it will be
indicated by the pointer.

Mechanism

The stem has rack teeth. A set of gears engage with the rack. The pointer is
connected to a small pinion. The small pinion is independently hinged. i.e. .it is
not connected to the stern. The vertical movement of the stem is transmitted to
the pointer through a set of gears. A spring gives a constant downward pressure

n
to the stem.

g.i
READ TYPE MECHANICAL COMPARATOR

rin
ee
gin
En
arn
.Le

In this type of comparator, the linear movement of the plunger is specified

w

by means of read mechanism. The mechanism of this type is illustrated in fig. A

ww

spring- loaded pointer is pivoted. Initially, the comparator is set with the help of a
known dimension eg. Set of slip gauges as shown in fig. Then the indicator
reading is adjusted to zero. When the part to be measured is kept under the
pointer, then the comparator displays the deviation of this dimension either in ±
or — side of the set dimension.

Advantages

 It is usually robust, compact and easy to handle.


 There is no external supply such as electricity, air required.

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 It has very simple mechanism and is cheaper when compared to

other types.

 It is suitable for ordinary workshop and also easily portable.

Disadvantages

 Accuracy of the comparator mainly depends on the accuracy of the

rack and pinion arrangement. Any slackness will reduce accuracy.

 It has more moving parts and hence friction is more and accuracy is less.

 The range of the instrument is limited since pointer is moving over a

n
g.i
fixed scale.

rin
OPTICAL COMPARATOR

In this type of comparator, small plunger displacement is amplified by both

ee
mechanical and optical system. The amplification is first done by pivoted lever
gin

and then by a simple optical systems.

Construction details
En

The optical comparator consist of the following parts such as

arn

(1) Pivoted lever

(2) Objective lens
.Le

(3) Scale
(4) Plunger
w

(5) Table and base

ww

(6) Mirror

Pivoted lever

The pivoted lever amplifies the plunger movement mechanically .It is pivoted
near the plunger. One end is fitted with the plunger and other end is fitted with a
mirror.

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Objective lens

The main function of objective lens is to convert the incoming light rays from the
source into parallel beams

Screen and scale

It is final display device from which the readings can be obtained.It is semi
transparent glass

Plunger

n
g.i
It is reciprocating member. During the measurement, the plunger actuates.

Table

rin
The work is palced on the table to carry out the task.
ee
Base
gin

It is rigid support over which the table is mounted

En

Mirror
arn

It reflects the incoming light rays from the source which is hinged at the other
end of the lever.
.Le

Working Principle

During measurement, the vertical displacement of the plunger is magnified

w

by the ratio of the lever arm. The lever title the mirror about its hinged to again
ww

magnify. The light rays from the lamp are condensed by a condensing less. Then,
the condensed light falls on the objective lens. The light rays are converted into
parallel beams again the parallel beam of light ray fall on the mirror.

The mirror reflects the light rays on a screen As the screen is the semi
transparentglass ,the image of work placed on the table will be reflected. The
magnified master drawing is placed over the screen. The projected image is
compared with the master drawing .This type of comparator can also used for
inspecting small Parts such as screw, thread, saw teeth etc

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The differences amplified by a lever to give a vertical displacement and an

angular displacement .The difference x between two dimension may be used to
actuate a lever to displace by y .same displacement causes a ray of light which is
initially at zero angle to get displaced by 2 because the mirror is deflected by .The
magnified reading is a measure of displacement x. the scale is calibrated by gauge
blocks.

Advantages

 Small parts can also be inspected



n
 Different amplification can be obtained by adjuisting the projection lens

g.i
and the position of mirror.

rin
ee
gin
En

Pneumatic Comparator
arn

In this system, no physical contact is made either with the setting gauge or
the part being measured, and that internal dimensions may be readily measured,
.Le

not only with respect to tolerance boundaries, but also geometric form. Further,
the system lends itself to the inspection of a single, or a number of dimensions
w

simultaneously, either during or immediately after the operating cycle of a

ww

machine tool.Back-pressure (Pneumatic) comparator: It uses a water manometer

for the indication of back pressure.
It consists of a vertical metal cylinder filled with water upto a certain level
and a dip tube immersed into it upto a depth corresponding to the air pressure
required. A calibrated manometer tube is connected between the cylinder and
control orifice as shown in fig.. The air from its normal source of supply is filtered
and passes through a flow valve.

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Its pressure is then reduced and maintained at a constant value by a dip

tube into a water chamber, the pressure value being determined by the head of
the water displace, excess air escaping to atmosphere. The air at reduced
pressure then passes through the control orifice, and escapes from the measuring
orifice. The back pressure in the circuit is indicated by the head of water
displaced in the manometer tube.
The tube is graduated linearly to show changes of pressure resulting from
changes in dimension‘d’. Amplifications of up to 50000 are obtainable with this
system.

n
g.i
14. Explain the working principle of angle Dekkor with a neat sketch. Also

rin
write the applications of angle Dekkor. And also explain how the
measurements are made in optical bevel protractor. (NOV/DEC2014 &
ee
2015,2016)
gin
En
arn
w .Le
ww

This is also a type of auto -collimator. There is an illuminated scale in the

focal plane of the collimating lens.
This illuminated scale is projected as a parallel beam by the collimating
lens which after striking a reflector below the instrument is refocused by the lens
in the field of view of the eyepiece. In the field of view of microscope, there is
another datum scale fixed across the center of screen.
The reflected image of the illuminated scale is received at right angle to the
fixed scale as shown in fig. Thus the changes in angular position of the reflector in

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two planes are indicated by changes in the point of intersection of the two scales.
One division on the scale is calibrated to read1minute.

Uses of Angle Dekkor

Measuring angle of a component

Angle dekkor is capable of measuring small variations in angular setting i.e.

determining angular tilt. Angle dekkor is used in combination with angle gauge.
First the angle gauge combination is set up to the nearest known angle of the
component.

n
g.i
Now the angle dekkor is set to zero reading on the illuminated scale. The
angle gauge build up is then removed and replaced by the component under test.

rin
Usually a straightedge being used to ensure that there is no change in
lateral positions. The new position of the reflected scale with respect to the fixed
ee
scale gives the angular tilt of the component from the set angle.
gin

Checking the slope angle of a V-block

En
arn
w .Le
ww

Figure shows the setup for checking the sloping angle of V block. Initially, a
polished reflector or slip gauge is attached in close contact with the work surface.
By using angle gauge zero reading is obtained in the angle dekkor. Then the angle
may be calculated by comparing the reading obtained from the angle dekkor and
angle gauge.

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To measure the angle of cone or Taper gauge

Initially, the angle dekkor is set for the nominal angle of cone by using
angle gauge or sine bar. The cone is then placed in position with its base resting
on the surface plate. A slip gauge or reflector is attached on the cone since no
reflection can be obtained from the curved surface. Any deviation from the set
angle will be noted by the angle dekkor in the eye piece and indicated by the
shifting of the image of illuminated scale.

OPTICAL BENVEL PROTRACTOR

n
g.i
Working Principle

rin
The value can be measured to an accuracy of 2 min by using this type of
bevel protractor .The values are obtained against an index line or vernier by
ee
means of an optical magnifying system .The optical magnifying system is attached
gin

with the bevel protractor itself.

A separate arrangement is provided for adjusting the focus of the system

En

for the normal variation of eye sight .The vernier scale are arranged always in
focus of the optical system.
arn
w .Le
ww

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15. Explain the working principle of autocollimator and briefly explain its
application. NOV/DEC 2010,(APR/MAY 2017)

AUTO- COLLIMATOR
Auto-collimator is an optical instrument used for the measurement of small
angular differences, changes or deflection, plane surface inspection etc. For
smallangular measurements, autocollimator provides a very sensitive and
accurate approach. An auto-collimator is essentially an infinity telescope and a

n
collimator combined into one instrument.

g.i
rin
ee
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En
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Basic principle
.Le

If a light source is placed in the flows of a collimating lens, it is projected as

a parallel beam of light. If this beam is made to strike a plane reflector, kept
w

normal to the optical axis, it is reflected back along its own path and is brought to
the same focus. The reflector is tilted through a small angle ‘0’. Then the parallel
ww

beam is deflected twice the angle and is brought to focus in the same plane as the
light source.

The distance of focus from the object is given

by

WORKING OF AUTO-COLLIMATOR:

There are three main parts in auto-collimator.

1. Micro meter microscope.
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2. Lighting unit and

3. Collimating lens.
Figure shows a line diagram of a modern auto - collimator. A target
graticule is positioned perpendicular to the optical axis. When the target graticule
is illuminated by a lamp, rays of light diverging from the intersection point reach
the objective lens via beam splitter. From objective, the light rays are projected as
a parallel rays to the reflector.

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En

A flat reflector placed in front of the objective and exactly normal to the
arn

optical axis reflects the parallel rays of light back along their original paths. They
are then brought to the target graticule and exactly coincide with its intersection.
.Le

A portion of the returned light passes through the beam splitter and is visible
through the eyepiece. If the reflector is tilted through a smallangle, the reflected
w

beam will be changed its path at twice the angle. It can also be brought to target
ww

graticule but linearly displaced from the actual target by the amount 2θxf. Linear
displacement of the graticule image in the linear displacement of the graticule
image in the plane tilted angle of eye piece is directly proportional to the
reflector. This can be measured by optical micrometer. The photo electric auto-
collimator is particularly suitable for calibrating polygons, for checking angular
indexing and for checking small linear displacements.

APPLICATIONSOFAUTO-COLLIMATOR

Auto-collimators are used for

1) Measuring the difference in height of length standards.

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2) Checking the flatness and straightness of surfaces.

3) Checking squareness of two surfaces.

5) Precise angular indexing in conjunction with polygons.Checking

alignment or parallelism.

6) Comparative measurement using master angles.

7) Measurement of small linear dimensions.

8) For machine tool adjustment testing.

n
g.i
Part C
1. Explain the working principle of SINE BAR (APR/MAY 2017)

rin
Sine bars are always used along with slip gauges as a device for the
ee
measurement of angles very precisely.
gin
They are used to
 Measure angles very accurately.

En

 Locate the work piece to a given angle with very high precision.

sinebars are made from high carbon, high chromium ,and corrosion resistant
arn

steel. These materials are highly hardened, ground and stabilized. Insinebars, two
cylinders of equal diameter are attached at lie ends with its axes are mutually
.Le

parallel
toeachother.Theyarealsoatequaldistancefromtheuppersurfaceofthesinebar
w

mostly the distance between the axes of two cylinders is 100mm, 200mm or
ww

300mm.The working surfaces of the rollers are finished to 0.2μmR value. The
cylindrical lholes are provided to reduce the weight of the sinebar

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Working principle of sinebar

n
g.i
rin
The working o fsinebar is based ontrigonometryprinciple.Tomeasurethe
ee
angle of a given specimen,one roller of the sinebar is placed on the surface plate
and another one roller is placed over the surface of slip gauges. Now, ‘h’ be the
gin

height of the slip gauges and ‘L’ be the distance between roller centers,
En
arn
w .Le
ww

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n
g.i
rin
ee
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En
arn
w .Le
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UNIT 3- ADVANCES IN METROLOGY

Part-A

1. Why is laser preferred in engineering metrology? (Nov 10)

It has high precision , accuracy , rapid non contact of gauging of soft,
delicate or hot moving points.

2. Write the application of laser interferometer? (Nov 12)

Laser measurement and angular measurement.

n
3. List the various geometrical checks made on machine tools. (MAY 2014)

g.i
 Straightness of guide ways and slide ways of machine tool.

 Flatness of machine tables and slide ways.


rin
 Parallelism, equidistance and alignment of the slide ways.

 True running and alignment of shaft and spindle.
ee

 The pitch error or lead of lead screw.

gin

 Pitch errors of gears.


En

4. Define straightness of axes? (Nov 13)

It is defined as the deviation from a straight line in two orthogonal planes
arn

for each axis movement and six measurements to be considered. Straight

lines of x-axis are measured in y and z direction. Y-axis in x and z direction.
.Le

Z-axis in x and y direction.

5. What are the benefits of using CMM? ( Nov
w

14)Data communication
ww

Digital input and output comment Minimize CNC program

Interface to CAD software.
6. Write some features of CMM software. (NOV/DEC 2015)
Measurement of diameter, center distance can be measured as follows: 1.
Measurement of plane and spatial curves 2. Minimize CNC programme. 3.
Data communications. 4. Digital input and output command 5. Interface to
CAD software

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7. Define machine vision.(May’14)

Machine vision can be defined as a means of simulating the image
recognition and analysis capabilities of the human system with electronic and
electromechanical techniques.

8. What are the four basic types of machine, vision system?

(i) Image formation.

(ii) Processing of image.
( iii) Analyzing the image

n
(iv) Interpretation of image.

g.i
9. Write the advantages of CMM. (NOV/DEC 2013)

rin
(i) Quicker inspection
(ii) Accurate measurements
ee
(iii) Easier to position
gin

(iv) More accurate

10. What are advantages of laser interferometer. (NOV/DEC 2014)

En

(i) Suited for measuring linear positioning, straightness in to two

arn

planes
(ii) Long covering range and high sensitivity
.Le

(iii) Free from noise disturbance

(iv) Non-contact measurement is possible
w

11. Differentiate between straightness and flatness. (April/May2016)

ww

Straightness is defined as a line where all elements of a line are collinear but
flatness is the minimum distance between two planes within all points on a
surface.

12. What is diffraction grating. (Nov/Dec2015)

Diffraction grating is an optical component with a periodic structure, which
splits and diffracts light into several beams travelling in different directions.

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13. Differentiate between Rt and Rz. (April/May 2015)

Stylus (X, Y) Rt, the Maximum Profile Height Along (X,Y), is determined
from the difference between the highest peak and lowest valley found along
the evaluation length.

Stylus (X,Y) Rz, the Average Maximum Profile Height Along (X,Y),
isderived from the average, over all cutoff lengths (i.e. sampling lengths), of
the difference between the highest peak and lowest valley.
14. Why laser is used as light source in interferometers?(Nov Dec 2016)

n
Laser is used as light source in interferometers because Laser light has

g.i
four unique characteristics that differentiate it from ordinary light: these are
 Coherence
 Directionality
rin
ee
 Monochromatic
 High intensity
gin

15. Name the different stages involved in the machine vision based
measurement.(Nov Dec 2016)
En

 Image Acquisition
arn

 Image Processing or Image Enhancement

 Image Segmentation
.Le

 Image Analysis
 Model Matching or Pattern Recognition
w

16. What is mean by “Qualifying the Tip” in CMMs?(April May 2017)

Tip Qualification uses the tip estimate to determine whether the tip is
ww

acceptable for use. This feature can be used to check tips periodically for
signs of wear, and to exchange unacceptably worn tips. By using tip
qualification to enforce tip acceptance criteria, metrological values can be
compared from image to image, ensuring consistent, long-term
comparability of samples.

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17. Write any 4 applications of artificial vision systems in

manufacturing industries.(April May 2017)
 Automatic inspection, e.g., in manufacturing applications;
 Assisting humans in identification tasks, e.g., a species identification
system
 Controlling processes, e.g., an industrial robot;
 Navigation, e.g., by an autonomous vehicle or mobile robot; and

n
Part-B

g.i
1. Explain the construction and working of a laser telemetric system

rin
with a neat sketch. (NOV/DEC 2012)
ee
gin
En
arn
.Le

Laser telemetric system is an on-contact gauge that measures with a

w

collimated laser beam. It measures at the rate of 150 scans per second. It basically
ww

consists of three components, a transmitter, a receiver and processor electronics.

The transmitter module produces a collimated parallel scanning laser

beam moving at a high constant, linear speed. The scanning beam appears are
line. The receiver module collects and photo electrically senses the laser light
transmitted past the object being measured.

The processor electronics takes the received signals to convert them 10 a

convenient form and displays the dimension being gauged. The transmitter
contains a low power helium - neon gas laser and its power supply, a specially
designed collimating lens, a synchronous motor, a multifaceted reflector prism, a
synchronous pulse photo detector and a protective replaceable window.
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The high speed of scanning permits online gauging and thus it is possible to
detect changes in dimensions when components are moving on a continuous
product such as in rolling process moving at very high speed. There is no need of
waiting or product to cool for taking measurements. This system can also be
applied on production machines and control then with closed feedback loops.
Since the output of this system is available in digital form, it can run a process
controller limit alarms can be provided and output can be taken on digital printer.

2. Explain the working of AC laser interferometer? (NOV/DEC

n
2014,2016,2017)

g.i
It is possible to maintain the quality of interference fringes over longer
distance when lamp is replaced by a laser source. Laser interferometer uses AC

rin
laser as the light source and the measurements to be made over longer distance.
Laser is a monochromatic optical energy, which can be collimated into a
ee
directional beam AC. Laser interferometer (ACLI) has the following advantages.
gin

 High repeatability

 High accuracy

En

 Long range optical path 


 Easy installations

arn

 Wear and tear

Schematic arrangement of laser interferometer is shown in fig. Two-
.Le

frequency Zeeman laser generates light of two slightly different frequencies with
opposite circular polarization. These beams get split up by beam splitter BO ne
w

part travels towards Band from there to external cube corner here the
ww

displacement is to the measured.

Laser Interferometer

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This interferometer uses cube corner reflectors which reflect light parallel
to its angle of incidence. Beam splitter B2 optically separates the frequency J
which alone is sent to them ovable cube corner reflector. The second frequency
from B2 is sent to a fixed reflector which then rejoins f1 at the beam splitter B2 to
produce alternate light and dark interference flicker at about 2 Mega cycles per
second. Now if the movable reflector moves, then there turning beam frequency
Doppler - shifted slightly up or down by Δf. Thus the light beams moving towards
photo detector P2 have frequencies f2 and (f1 ± Δf1) and P2 changes these
frequencies into electrical signal. Photo detector P2 receive signal from beam

n
splitter B2 and changes the reference beam frequencies f1 and f2 into electrical

g.i
signal. An AC amplifier A separates frequency. Difference signal f2 – f1 and A2

rin
separates frequency difference signal. The pulse converter extract signal. One
cycle per half wave length of motion. The up - down pulses are counted
ee
electronically and displayed in analog or digital form.
gin

3. Explain the working principle of a Michelson Interferometer with a

En

neat sketch. (NOV/DEC 2015)

Michelson interferometer consists of a mono chromatic light source a

arn

beam splitter and two mirrors. The schematic arrangement of Michelson

interferometer is shown in fig. The monochromatic light falls on a beam splitter,
.Le

which splits the light into two rays of equal intensity at right angles. One ray is
transmitted to mirror M1 and other is reflected through beam splitter to mirror
w

M2. From both these mirrors, the rays are reflected back and these return at the
ww

semi reflecting surface from where they are transmitted to the eye. Mirror M2 is
fixed and mirror M1 is movable. If both the mirrors are at same distance from
beam splitter, then light will arrive in phase and observer will see bright spot due
to constructive interference. If movable mirror shifts by quarter wavelength, then
beam will return to observer 1800 out of phase and darkness will be observed
due to destructive interference.

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Michelson Interferometer

n
g.i
Each half - wavelength of mirror travel produces a change in them easured
optical path of one wave length and the reflected beam from the moving mirror

rin
shifts through 360° phase change. When the reference beam reflected from the
fixed mirror and the beam reflected from the moving mirror rejoin at the beam
ee
splitter, they alternately reinforce and cancel each other as the mirror moves.
gin

Each cycle of intensity at the eye represent sl/2 of mirror travel. When white light
source is used then a compensator plate is introduced in each of the path of
En

mirror M1 So that exactly the same amount of glass is introduced in each of the
path.
arn

To improve the Michelson interferometer

.Le

 Use of laser the measurements can be made over longer distances and
w

highly accurate measurements when compared to other mono chromatic

sources.
ww


 Mirrors are replaced by cube - corner reflector which reflects light parallel
to its angle of incidence.

 Photo cells are employed which convert light intensity variation in voltage
pulses to give the amount and direction of position change.

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4. Discuss the need, types and constructional features of

coordinate measuring machine. (NOV/DEC 2013,2016)

Measuring machines are used for measurement of length over the outer
surfaces of a length bar or any other long member. The member may be either
rounded or flat and parallel. It is more useful and advantageous than vernier
calipers, micrometer, screw gauges etc. the measuring machines are generally
universal character and can be used for works of varied nature. The co-ordinate
measuring machine is used for contact inspection of parts. When used for

n
computer-integrated manufacturing these machines are controlled by computer

g.i
numerical control. General software is provided for reverse engineering complex
shaped objects. The component is digitized using CNC, CMM and it is then

rin
converted into a computer model which gives the two surface of the component.
These advances include for automatic work part alignment on the table. Savings
ee
in inspection 5 to 10 percent of the time is required on a CMM compared to
gin

manual inspection methods.

En

Types of Measuring Machines

1. Length bar measuring machine.

arn

2. New all measuring machine.

3. Universal measuring machine.
.Le

4. Co-ordinate measuring machine.

5. Computer controlled co-ordinate measuring machine.
w

Constructions of CMM
ww

Co-ordinate measuring machines are very useful for three dimensional

measurements. These machines have movements in X-Y-Z co-ordinate, controlled
and measured easily by using touch probes. These measurements can be made by
positioning the probe by hand, or automatically in more expensive machines.
Reasonable accuracies are 5 micron. Or 1 micro meter. The method these
machines work on is measurement of the position of the probe using linear
position sensors. These are based on more fringe patterns (also used in other
systems).Transducer is provided in tilt directions for giving digital display and
senses positive and negative direction.
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Types of CMM

a. Cantilever type
The cantilever type is very easy to load and unload, but mechanical
error takes place because of sag or deflection in Y-axis.

b. Bridge type
Bridge type is more difficult to load but less sensitive to mechanical errors.

c. Horizontal boring Mill type

This is best suited for large heavy work pieces.

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
.Le

Types of CMM
w

Working Principle
ww

CMM is used for measuring the distance between two holes. The work
piece is clamped to the work table and aligned for three measuring slides x, y and
z. The measuring head provides at a per probe tip which is seated in first datum
hole and the position of probe digital read out is set to zero. The probe is then
moved to successive holes, the read out represent the co-ordinate part print hole
location with respect to the datum hole. Automatic recording and data processing

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units are provided to carry out complex geometric and statistical analysis. Special
co-ordinate measuring machines are provided both linear and rotary axes. This
can measure various features of parts like cone, cylinder and hemisphere. The
prime advantage of co-ordinate measuring machine is the quicker inspection and
accurate measurements.

n
g.i
rin
ee
5. Define machine vision. Name the four types of machine vision
system (NOV/DEC 2015)
gin

The schematic diagram of a typical vision system is shown. This system

En

involves image acquisition; image processing Acquisition requires appropriate

lighting. The camera and store digital image processing involves manipulating the
arn

digital image to simplify and reduce number of data points. Measurements can be
carried out at any angle along the three reference axes x y and z without
.Le

contacting the part. The measured values are then compared with the specified
tolerance which stores in the memory of the computer.
w
ww

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Machine Vision

The main advantage of vision system is reduction of tooling and fixture

costs, elimination of need for precise part location for handling robots and
integrated automation of dimensional verification and defect detection.

Principle

Four types of machine vision system and the schematic arrangement

is shown

n
(i) Image formation.

g.i
(ii) Processing of image in a form suitable for analysis by computer.
(iii) Defining and analyzing the characteristic of image.

rin
(iv) Interpretation of image and decision-making.
For formation of image suitable light source is required. It consists of
ee
incandescent light, fluorescent tube, fiber optic bundle, and arc lamp. Laser beam
gin

is used for triangulation system for measuring distance. Ultraviolet light is used
to reduce glare or increase contrast. Proper illumination back lighting, front
En

lighting, structured light is required. Back lighting is used to obtain maximum

image contrast. The surface of the object is to be inspected by using front lighting.
arn

For inspecting three-dimensional feature structured lighting is required. An

image sensor vidicon camera, CCD camera is used to generate the electronic
.Le

signal representing the image. The image sensor collect slight from the scene
through a lens, using photo sensitive target, converts into electronic signal.
w

Vidicon camera
ww

Image is formed by focusing the incoming light through a series of lenses

on to the photo conductive face plate of the vidicon tube. The electron beam scans
the photo conductive surface and produces an analog voltage proportional to the
variation in light intensity for each scan line of the original scene.

Solid-state camera

The image sensors change coupled device (CCD) contain matrix of small
array, photo sensitive elements accurately spaced and fabricated on silicon chips
using Integrated circuit technology. Each detect or converts into analog signal
corresponding to light intensity through the camera lens.
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Image processor

A camera may form an image 30 times per sec at 33m sec intervals. A teach
time interval the entire image frozen by an image processor for processing. An
analog to digital converter is used to convert analog voltage of each detector into
digital value. If voltage level for each pixel is given by either 0 or I depending on
threshold value. It is called binary system on the other hand grey scale system
assigns up to 256 different values depending on intensity to each pixel. Grey scale
requires higher degree of image refinement, huge storage processing capability.

n
For analysis 256 x 256 pixels image array up to 256 different pixel values will

g.i
require 65000-8 bit storage locations at a speed of 30 images per second.
Techniques windowing and image restoration are involved.

rin
Windowing ee
Processing is the desired area of interest and ignores non-interested part of
gin
image.

Image restoration
En

Preparation of image during the pre-processing by removing the degrade.

Blurring of lines, poor contrast between images and presence of noise are the
arn

degrading.
.Le

The quality may be improved

1) By improving the contrast by brightness addition.
w

2) By increasing the relative contrast between high and

low intensity elements.
ww

3) By Fourier domain processing.

4) Other techniques to reduce edge detection and run
length encoding.

Image Analysis

Digital image of the object formed is analyzed in the central processing

Unit of the system. Three important tasks performed by machine vision system
are measuring the distance of an object from a vision system camera,
determining object orientation and defining object position. The distance of an
object from a vision system camera can be determined by triangulation
technique. The object orientation can he determined by the methods of
equivalent ellipse. The image can be interpreted by two-dimensional image. For
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complex three-dimensionalobjects boundary locations are determined and the

image is segmented into distinct region.
Image Interpretation

This involves identification of on object. In binary system, the image is

segmented on the basis of white and black pixels. The complex images can he
interpreted by grey scale technique and algorithms. The most common image
interpretation is template matching.

Function of Machine Vision

n
 Lighting and presentation of object to evaluated.


g.i
 It has great compact on repeatability, reliability and accuracy.


rin
 I.ighting source and projection should be chosen and give sharp contrast.

 Images sensor compressor TV camera may he vidicon or solid state.
ee

 For simple processing, analog comparator and a computer controller
gin

to convert the video information to a binary image is used.


 Data compactor employs a high speed away processor to provide
En

high speed processing of the input image data.


arn

 System control computer communicates with the operator and make

decision about the part being inspected.

.Le

 The output and peripheral devices operate the control of the system.The
output enables the vision system to either control a process or provide
w

caution and orientation information to a robot, etc.

ww

 These operate under the control of the system control of computer.

Applications

 Machine vision can he used to replace human vision fur welding.

Machining and maintained relationship between tool and work piece and
assembly of parts to analyze the parts.

 This is frequently used for printed circuit board inspection to ensure
minimum conduction width and spacing between conductors. These are
used for weld seam tracking, robot guideness and control, inspection of
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microelectronic devices and tooling, online inspection in machining

operation, assemblies monitoring high-speed packaging equipment etc.

 It gives recognition of an object from its image. These are designed to
have strong geometric feature interpretation capabilities and handling
equipment.

Part C

1.Explain the working of DC laser interferometer? (NOV/DEC 2015)

The recombined beam at beam splitter consists of two superimposed

n
g.i
beams of different polarization. one component vertically polarized having
travelled around reference arm and other component horizontally polarized

rin
having travelled around the measurement arm. These two beams being
differently polarised do not interfere. The recombined beam then passes through
ee
a quarter waveplate which causes the two beams to interfere with one another to
gin

produce a beam of plane polarised light. The angular orientation of the plane of
this polarized light depends on the phase difference between the light in the two
En

returned beams. The direction of plane of polarisation spin is dependent on the

direction of movement of the moving retroreflector. The beam after quarter
arn

waveplate is split into three polarization sensitive detectors. As the plane of

polarised light spins, each detector produces a sinusoidal output wavefrom.
w .Le
ww

The polarisation sensitivity of the detectors can be set so that their

outputs have relative phases of 0°, 90°, and 180°. The outputs of three detectors
can be used to distinguish the direction of movement and also the distance
moved by the moving retro reflector attached to the surface whose displacement
is to be measured. For linear measurements (positional accuracy or velocity), the
retro reflector is attached to the body moving along the linear axis. For angular
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measurement. For pitch and yaw), the angular beam splitter is placed in the path
between the laser head and the angular reflector.In this way it is possible to
measure flatness, straightness, rotary axis calibration. Arrange-ments also need
to be made for environmental compensation because the refractive index of the
air varies with temperature, pressure and humidity. Heterodyne interferometer,
an a.c. device avoids all the problems encountered in above d.c. device, i.e. effect
of intensity level change of source, fringe contrast changes and d.c. level shifts
which can cause fringe miscounting. Interferometry is now an established and
well developed technique for high accuracy and high resolution measurement.

n
g.i
2. Wuth neat diagram explain the working principle of tough trigger probe.

rin
ee
gin
En
arn
w .Le
ww

Tough trigger probes are widely used on most commercial coordinate

measuring machines (CMMs). However, the CMMs with these probes have a
systematic error due to the shape of the probe tip and elastic deformation of the
stylus resulting from contact pressure with the specimen. In this paper, a new
touch probe with a three degrees-of-freedom force sensor is proposed. From
relationships between an obtained contact force vector and the geometric shape
of the probe, it is possible to calculate the coordinates of the exact probe–
specimen contact points. An empirical model of the probe is applied to calculate
the coordinates of the contact points and the amount of pretravel. With the

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proposed probing system, the measuring error induced by the indeterminateness

of the probe–specimen contact point and the pretravel can be estimated and
compensated for successfully.
Strain Gauges
Strain Gauge probe technology is now appearing on the market and has
become widely accepted as a more accurate solution over the traditional
kinematic probes. On contact with the work piece, the stylus is deflected as the
force is applied to the sensor. The benefits of this system are twofold: first, much
greater form accuracy is possible, and secondly, inaccuracies due to styli length

n
are drastically reduced as precision is only minutely affected by varying styli

g.i
lengths. The bottom line is enhanced accuracy on your coordinate measuring

rin
machine. Scanning Probes
Scanning probes provide continuous deflection output that can be
ee
synchronized with the position of the DCC CMM. Data is gathered during
gin
movement when the stylus is brought into contact with the component to be
measured and then moved along the surface of the feature. By using this
En

technique, deflection of the probe is kept within tight tolerance boundaries

thereby ensuring maximum accuracy.
arn

Application and Benefits

There are, in fact, several different types of scanning probes, analogue and
.Le

optical systems prevalent in the market today. We must therefore have an

understanding of the benefits a scanning probe provides the CMM technician.
w

These probes are best used when measuring parts that consist of complex
ww

surfaces and because scanning often occurs at speeds of over 300 mm per second,
gathering data quickly is no problem. Form deviation is another target for the
scanning probe. Features such as cylinders, planes and conical shapes can be
measured with extreme precision whilst reporting accurate deviation of the
feature’s form. -

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UNIT 4
FORM MEASUREMENT
Part-A
1.Mention the purpose of Goniometric heads in tool makers
microscope? ( May 12)
Goniometric head in tool makers microscope is used to measure circular
divisions .for example, the flank angle of the gears may be measured using Tool
makers microscope with a goniometric head.
2. What is meant by ‘Best size wire’ in screw thread measurement?(May 16)

n
Best size of wire is a wire of such diameter that it makes contact with

g.i
flanks of the thread on the pitch line.

rin
3. What are the factors affecting surface roughness?(May 16,Nov 16)
(a) Vibration
ee
(b) Material of the work piece
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(c)Tool
(d)Machining type.
En

4.Define degree of fullness and degree of emptiness in form factor.(Dec 13)

Degree of fullness is the ratio of area of metal considered to the area of
arn

enveloping the rectangle.

Degree of emptiness is the ratio between the difference of the area of metal
.Le

considered to the area of enveloping the rectangle and area of enveloping the
rectangle.
w

5. Define straightness of line in two planes?(MAY/JUNE 14)

ww

A line is said to be straight over a given length of the variation of the

distance of its points from two planes perpendicular to each other and parallel to
the direction of a line remaining within the specified tolerance limits.

6. Define roundness and name the four measurements of roundness?(Dec

14)
It is a surface of the revolution where all surfaces are inserted by any plane
perpendicular to a common axis in case of cylinder and cone.

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a. Heart square circle

b. Minimum radial separation circle
c. Maximum inscribed circle
d. Minimum circumscribed circle.

7. What is gear run out?(Dec 12)

It means eccentricity in the pitch circle. It will produce periodic vibration during
each revolution of the gear. It will give the tooth failure in gears.

8.List the reasons for the occurrence of progressive pitch errors in screw

n
threads?

g.i
(Dec 12)

rin
a. In correct linear and angular velocity ratio
b. In correct gear train and lead screw
ee
c. Saddle fault
gin

9. Define Lead?(Dec 13)

It is defined as the distance at which a thread advances for one
En

rotation. Lead=No. of starts ×Pitch

arn

10. Define lead angle?(Dec 13)

It is the angle between the tangent to the helix and plane perpendicular to
.Le

the axis of cylinder.

11.What are the various methods used for measuring the gear tooth
w

thickness?(May 14)
ww

a. Gear tooth vernier

b. Constant chord method
c. Base tangent method
d. Measurement over pins.

12.Define constant chord?(May 12)

Constant chord is the chord joining points or opposite faces of the tooth.

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13. Define straightness of a line in two planes?(May 14)

A line is said to be straight over a given length of the variation of the
distance of its points from two planes perpendicular to each other and parallel to
the direction of a line remaining within the specified tolerance limits.
14. Define drunken thread
A condition in which the crest of a thread or threads wavers or is uneven
15. What are the various factors affecting surface roughness of the
machined components?
 Vibration of the machine tool

n
 In proper clamping of work piece

g.i
 Over depth of cut /feed rate

rin
16. Is assessment length greater/ lesser than traverse length in surface
finish measurement? Why?
ee
The assessment length or evaluation length is the length of data that will be
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used for analysis. Commonly one sampling length is discarded from each end of
the measurement length.
En

The measurement length is dictated by the numerical value of the cut-off,

which itself is dictated by the type of surface inspection.Typically, a measurement
arn

may consist of a traverse of 6-7 times the cut-off selected. For example, 7 cut-offs
at 0.8mm = 5.6mm. One of two cut-offs will then be removed according to the
.Le

filter type and the remaining cut-offs used for assessment. This only applies when
measuring roughness.
w
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Part-B
1. Explain in detail the various methods used for checking the profile of a
spur gear Profile checking.

The methods used for profile checking is

 Optical projection method.

 In volute measuring machine.
Optical projection method:

n
The profile of the gear projected on the screen by optical lens and then

g.i
projected value is compared with master profile.
In volute measuring machine:

rin
ee
gin
En

InvoluteMeasuringMachine
In this method the gear is held on a mandrel and circular disc of same
arn

diameter as the base circle of gear for the measurement is fixed on the mandrel.
After fixing the gear in the mandrel, the straight edge of the instrument is brought
.Le

in contact with the base circle of the disc. Now, the gear and discare rotated and
the edge moves over the disc without sleep. The stylus moves over the tooth
w

profile and the error is indicated on the dial gauge.

ww

2.Explain in detail the various methods used to measure the pitch of a spur
gear
Pitch measurement:
There are two ways for measuring the pitch.
 Point to point measurement (i.e.One tooth point to next toot point)

 Direct angular measurement

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Tooth to Tooth measurement

n
g.i
The instrument has three tips. One is fixed measuring tip and the second is

rin
sensitive tip, whose position can be adjusted by a screw and the third tip is
ee
adjustable or guide stop. The distance between the fixed and sensitive tip is
equivalent to base pitch of the gear. All the three tips are contact the tooth by
gin

setting the instrument and the reading on the dial indicator is the error in the
base pitch.
En

Direct Angular Measurement

arn

It is the simplest method for measuring the error by using set dial gauge
against a tooth. In this method the position of a suitable point on a tooth is
.Le

measured after the gear has been indexed by a suitable angle. If the gear is not
indexed through the angular pitch the reading differs from the original reading.
w

The difference between these is the cumulative pitch error.

ww

3. Explain how straightness is measured using the following instruments

The straightness of any surface could be determined by either of these

instruments by measuring the relative angular positions of number of adjacent
sections of the surface to be tested. First straight line is drawn on the surface then
it is divided into a number of sections the length of each section being equal to the

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length of sprit level base or the plane reflector’s base in case of auto collimator.
The bases of the spirit level block or reflector are fitted with two feet so that only
feet have line contact with the surface and the surface of base does not touch the
surface to be tested.

The angular division obtained is between the specified two points. Length
of each section must be equal to distance between the center lines of two feet. The
special level can be used only for the measurement of straightness of horizontal
surfaces while auto-collimator can be used on surfaces are any plane.

n
In case of spirit level, the block is moved along the line equal to the pitch

g.i
distance between the center line of the feet and the angular variation of the
direction of block. Angular variation can be determined in terms of the difference

rin
of height between two points by knowing the least count of level and length of the
ee
base.
gin
En
arn

Straightness using Auto-Collimator

In case of auto collimator the instrument is placed at a distance of 0.5 to
.Le

0.75m from the surface to be tested. The parallel beam from the instrument is
projected along the length of the surface to be tested. A block fixed on two feet
w

and fitted with a plane vertical reflector is placed on the surface and the reflector
ww

face is facing the instrument.

The image of the cross wires of the collimator appears nearer the center of
the field and for the complete movement of reflector along the surface straight
line the image of cross wires will appear in the field of eyepiece. The reflector is
then moved to the other end of the surface in steps equal to. The center distance
between the feet and the tilt of the reflector is noted down in second from the eye
piece.

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4. Explain the following direct methods of surface finish measurements.

(NOV/DEC 2015)
i) Taylor Hobson Talysurf

Talyor-Hobson-Talysurf

It is working a carrier modulating principle and it is an accurate method

comparing with the other methods. The main parts of this instrument is diamond
stylus (0.002mm radius) and skid

n
Principle

g.i
The irregularities of the surface are traced by the stylus and the movement
of the stylus is converted into changes in electric current.

rin
ee
gin
En

Talyor-HonsonInstrument
arn

Working

On two legs of the E- shaped stamping there are coils for carrying an A.C.
.Le

current and these coils form an oscillator. As the armature is pivoted about the
central leg the movement of the stylus causes the air gap to vary and thus the
w

amplitude is modulated. This modulation is again demodulated for the vertical

ww

displacement of the stylus. So this demodulated output is move the pen recorder
to produce a numerical record and to make a direct numerical assessment.
Tomlinson Surface meter
This instrument uses mechanical-cum-optical means for magnification.
Construction
In this the diamond stylus on the surface finish recorder is held by spring
pressure against the surface of a lapped cylinder. The lapped cylinder is
supported one side by probe and other side by rollers. The stylus is also attached
to the body of the instrument by a leaf spring and its height is adjustable to enable
the diamond to be positioned and the light spring steel arm is attached to the

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lapped cylinder. The spring arm has a diamond scriber at the end and smoked
glass is rest on the arm.

n
g.i
Tomlinson Surface meter

rin
Working

When measuring surface finish the body of the instrument is moved across
ee
the surface by a screw rotation. The vertical movement of the probe caused by the
gin

surface irregularities makes the horizontal lapped cylinder to roll. This rolling of
lapped cylinder causes the movement of the arm. So this movement is induces the
En

diamond scriber on smoked glass. Finally the movement of scriber together with
horizontal movement produces a trace on the smoked glass plate and this trace is
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magnified by an optical projector.

.Le

5.Explain the tooth thickness measurement for the following

methods(APRIL/MAY 2016,2017)(NOV/DEC2016)
w

Tooth thickness is generally measured at pitch circle and also in most

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cases the chordal thickness measurement is carried out i.e. the chord joining the
intersection of the tooth profile with the pitch circle.
The methods which are used for measuring the gear tooth thickness is
a) Gear tooth vernier caliper method (Chordal thickness method)
b) Base tangent method.

c) Constant chord method.

Measurement over pins or balls.
d)
Gear tooth vernier method

In gear tooth vernier method the thickness is measured at the pitch line.
Gear tooth thickness varies from the tip of the base circle of the tooth, and the
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instrument is capable of measuring the thickness at a specified position on the

tooth. The tooth vernier caliper consists of vernier scale and two perpendicular
arms. In the two perpendicular arms one arm is used to measure the thickness
and other arm is used to measure the depth. Horizontal vernier scale reading
gives chordal thickness (W) and vertical vernier scale gives the chordal
addendum. Finally the two values compared.
The theoretical values of W and d can be found out by considering one
tooth in the gear and it can be verified. In fig noted that w is a chord ADB and
tooth thickness is specified by AEB. The distance d is noted and adjusted on

n
instrument and it is slightly greater than addendum CE.

g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
w .Le
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The Base Tangent Method

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n
In this method, the span of a convenient number of teeth is measured with the

g.i
help of the tangent comparator. This uses a single verniercalliper and has,

rin
therefore, the following advantages over gear tooth vernier which used two
vernierscales ee
(i) The measurements do not depend on two vernier readings, each being
functionoftheother.
gin

(ii) The measurement is not made with an edge of the measuring jaw with the
face. Consider a straight generator (edge) ABC being rolled back and forth along a
En

base circle.
arn

Thus the measurements made across these opposed involutes by span gauging
will be constant and equal to the arc length of the base circle between the origins
.Le

of involutes. The value of the distance between two opposed involutes, or the
dimension over parallel faces is equal to the distance round the base circle
between the points where the corresponding tooth flanks
w

Constant chord method

ww

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. Constant chord of a gear is measured where the tooth flanks touch the flanks of
the basic rack. The teeth of the rack are straight and inclined to their centre lines
at the pressure angle Also the pitch line of the rack is tangential to the pitch circle
of the gear, the tooth thickness of the rack along this line is equal to the arc tooth
thickness of the gear round its pitch circle. Now, since the gear tooth and rack
space are in contact in the symmetrical position at the points of contact of the
flanks, the chord is constant at this position irrespective of the gear of the system
in mesh with the rack.

n
g.i
Part C
6. Explain the following methods to measure the major, minor and

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effective diameter of a screw thread.

Measurement of various elements of Thread

ee
To find out the accuracy of a screw thread it will be necessary to
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measure the following:

1. Major diameter.
En

2. Minor diameter.
3. Effective or Pitch diameter.
arn

4. Pitch
5. Thread angle and form
.Le

Measurement of major diameter:

w

The instruments which are used to find the major diameter are by
ww

 Ordinary micrometer

 Bench micrometer.

Ordinary micrometer

The ordinary micrometer is quite suitable for measuring the external

major diameter. It is first adjusted for appropriate cylindrical size(S) having the
same diameter (approximately). This process is known as ‘gauge setting’. After
taking this reading ‘R the micrometer is set on the major diameter of the thread,
and the new reading is ‘R2.

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Bench micrometer
For getting the greater accuracy the bench micrometer is used for
measuring the major diameter. In this process the variation in measuring
Pressure, pitch errors are being neglected. The fiducial indicator is used to ensure
all the measurements are made at same pressure. The instrument has a
micrometer head with a vernier scale to read the accuracy of 0.002 mm.
Calibrated setting cylinder having the same diameter as the major diameter of the

n
thread to be measured is used as setting standard. After setting the standard, the

g.i
setting cylinder is held between the anvils and the reading is taken.

rin
ee
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BenchMicrometer
En
arn

Measurement of the major diameter of an Internal thread

.Le

The Inter thread major diameter is usually measured by thread comparator

fitted with ball – ended styli. First the Instrument is set for a cylindrical reference
w

having the same diameter of major diameter of internal thread and the reading is
ww

taken. Then the floating head is retracted to engage the tips of the styli at the root
of spring under pressure. For that the new reading is taken,

Measurement of Minor diameter

The minor diameter is measured by a comparative method by using

floating carriage diameter measuring machine and small V pieces which make
contact with the root of the thread. These V pieces are made in several sizes,
having suitable radii at the edges. V pieces are made of hardened steel. The
floating carriage diameter-measuring machine is a bench micrometer mounted
on a carriage.
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Measurement of Minor diameter

Measurement process

n
g.i
The threaded work piece is mounted between the centers of the
instrument and the V pieces are placed on each side of the work piece and then

rin
the reading is noted. After taking this reading the work piece is then replaced by a
standard reference cylindrical setting gauge.
ee
gin
En

Measurement of Minor diameter of Internal threads

arn

The Minor diameter of Internal threads are measured by

 Using taper parallels

.Le


 Using Rollers.
w

Using taper parallels

ww

For diameters less than 200 mm the use of Taper parallels and micro meter
is very common. The taper parallels are pairs of wedges having reduced and
parallel outer edges. The diameter across their outer edges can be changed by
sliding them over each other

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Using rollers

For more than 20mm diameter this method is used. Precision rollers are
inserted inside the thread and proper slip gauge is inserted between the rollers.
The minor diameter is then the length of slip gauges plus twice the diameter of
roller.
Measurement of effective diameter

Effective diameter measurement is carried out by following methods.

n
1. One wire,

g.i
2. Two wires, or
3. Three wires method.

rin
4. Micro meter method.

One wire method

ee
gin
The only one wire is used in this method. The wire is placed between two
threads at one side and on the other side the anvil of the measuring micrometer
En

contacts the crests. First the micrometer reading dl is noted on a standard gauge
whose dimension is approximately same to be obtained by this method.
arn
.Le

Two wire method

w
ww

Two-wire method of measuring the effective diameter of a screw thread is

given below. In this method wires of suitable size are placed between the
standard and the micrometer anvils. First the micro meter reading is taken and
let it be R. Then the standard is replaced by the screw thread to be measured and
the new reading

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7. Explain the various methods by which roundness is

measured.(NOV/DEC2014,2016)
Roundness is defined as a condition of a surface of revolution. Where all
points of the surface intersected by any plane perpendicular to a common axis in
case of cylinder and cone.
Devices used for measurement of roundness
1) Diametral gauge.
2) Circumferential conferring gauge

n
3) Rotating on center

g.i
4) V-Block

rin
5) Three-point probe.
6) Accurate spindle. ee
Diametral method
gin
The measuring plungers are located 180° apart and the diameter is
measured at several places. This method is suitable only when the specimen is
En

elliptical or has an even number of lobes. Diametral check does not necessarily
disclose effective size or roundness. This method is un reliable in determining
arn

roundness.

Circumferential confining gauge

.Le

Fig. shows the principle of this method. It is useful for inspection of

roundness in production. This method requires highly accurate master for each
w

size part to be measured. The clearance between part and gauge is critical to
ww

reliability. This technique does not allow for the measurement of other related
geometric characteristics, such as concentricity, flatness of shoulders etc.

Confining Gauge

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Rotating on centers

The shaft is inspected for roundness while mounted on center. In this case,
reliability is dependent on many factors like angle of centers, alignment of
centres, roundness and surface condition of the centres and centre holes and run
out of piece. Out of straightness of the part will cause a doubling run out effect
and appear to be roundness error.
V-Block
The set up employed for assessing the circularity error by using V Block is

n
shown in fig. The V block is placed on surface plate and the work to be checked is

g.i
placed up on it. A diameter indicator is fixed in a standand its feeler made to rest
against the surface of the work.

rin
ee
gin
En
arn

V-Block
.Le

The work is rotated to measure the rise on fall of the work piece. For
determining the number of lobes on the work piece, the work piece is first tested
w

in a 60°V-Block and then in a 90° V-Block. The number of lobes is then equal to
ww

the number of times the indicator pointer deflects through 360° rotation of the
work piece.
Limitations
 The circularity error is greatly by affected by the following factors.

 If the circularity error is i\e, then it is possible that the indicator shows no
variation.




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
 Position of the instrument i.e. whether measured from top or bottom.

 Number of lobes on the rotating part.

 The instrument position should be in the same vertical plane as the point of
contact of the part with the V-block.


 A leaf spring should always be kept below the indicator plunger and the
surface of the part.
Three point probe

n
The fig. shows three probes with 120° spacing is very, useful for

g.i
determining effective size they perform like a 60° V-block. 60° V-block will shown
o error for 5 a 7 lobes magnify the error for 3 -lobed parts show partial error for

rin
randomly spaced lobes. ee
gin
En
arn
w .Le
ww

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UNIT 5

MEASUREMENT OF POWER, FLOW AND TEMPERATURE

PART A

1. Why are measuring instruments calibrated? [Nov/Dec 2015]

Calibration is a comparison between a known measurement (the standard)
and the measurement using your instrument. Typically, the accuracy of the
standard should be ten times the accuracy of the measuring device being tested.
The accuracy of all measuring devices degrade over time. This is typically caused

n
by normal wear and tear. However, changes in accuracy can also be caused by

g.i
electric or mechanical shock or a hazardous manufacturing environment (e.x., oils,

rin
metal chips etc.). Depending on the type of the instrument and the environment in
which it is being used, it may degrade very quickly or over a long period of time.
ee
The bottom line is that, calibration improves the accuracy of the measuring device.
Accurate measuring devices improve product quality.
gin

2. What is the working principle behind strain gauges? [Nov/Dec 2015]

Each metal has its specific resistance. An external tensile force
En

/(compressive force) increases/decreases the resistance by

arn

elongating/contracting it. Suppose the original resistance is R and a strain initiated

change in resistance is ΔR. Then, the following relation is concluded:
.Le

where, Ks is a gauge factor, the coefficient expressing strain gauge sensitivity.

w

General purpose strain gauges use copper-nickel or nickel-chrome alloy for the
ww

resistive element, and the gauge factor provided by these alloys are approximately
2.
3. What are load cells? [May/June 2016]
A load cell is a transducer that is used to create an electrical signal whose
magnitude is directly proportional to the force being measured. The various types of
load cells include hydraulic load cells, pneumatic load cells and strain gauge load cells.
Strain gauge load cells are the most common in industry. These load cells are
particularly stiff, have very good resonance values, and tend to have long life
cycles in application. Strain gauge load cells work on the principle that the strain
gauge (a planar resistor) deforms/stretches/contracts when the material of the
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load cells deforms appropriately. These values are extremely small and are
relational to the stress and/or strain that the material load cell is undergoing at
the time. The change in resistance of the strain gauge provides an electrical value
change that is calibrated to the load placed on the load cell.
4. Mention the principle involved in bimetallic strip. [May/June 2016]
Bimetallic strip thermometers are mechanical thermometers. They are
widely used in industry for temperature control because of their robustness,
temperature range and simplicity. It consists of two strips made of dissimilar
metals and bonded together with one end fixed and the other free.

n
g.i
A bimetallic strip is used to convert a temperature change into
mechanical displacement. The strip consists of two strips of different metals

rin
which expand at different rates as they are heated, usually steel and copper, or in
some cases steel and brass. The strips are joined together throughout their length
ee
by riveting, brazing or welding. The different expansions force the flat strip to
gin

bend one way if heated, and in the opposite direction if cooled below its initial
temperature. The metal with the higher coefficient of thermal expansionis on the
En

outer side of the curve when the strip is heated and on the inner side when
cooled.
arn

5. What is the working principle of thermocouple?

The basic principle is “when two dissimilar metals are joined together an
.Le

emf will exist between the two points A and B which is primarily a function of the
junction temperature. The above said to be principle is Seeback effect.
w

6. Define the principles of electrical resistance thermistor. [Apr/ May 2013]

ww

The basic principle involved in thermistor is when it is subjected to a

temperature change, the resistance of the thermistor changes. This change in
resistance will be the increase in temperature.
7. List any two methods employed for measuring torque. [Nov/Dec 2012]
i) Torque reaction methods
ii) Proney brake
iii) Torque measurement using strain gauges
iv) Torque measurement using torsion bars

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8. Differentiate between primary and secondary transducers. [Apr/May

2012]

S.No Primary transducer Secondary transducer

1. It is a mechanical device It is an electrical device

It converts a physical signal into It converts analog output into

2.
mechanical signal electrical signal

Ex. Thermister and Ex. Accelerometer and

3.
thermocouples. Piezoelectric transducer.

n
9. Give the principle of hot wire anemometer. [Apr/ May 2014]

g.i
An anemometer is a device for measuring mean and fluctuating velocities in

rin
fluid flows. The reduction of temperature of a surface resulting from the heat
transferred owing to the fluid flow is related to flow rate.
ee
10. Give the classification of temperature measuring instruments. [Apr/
May 2012]
gin

i) Gas filled temperature measurement

ii) Electrical resistance temperature measurement
En

iii) Thermocouple temperature measurement

arn

iv) Semiconductor based temperature measurement

11. Give the principle of hot wire anemometer.(Nov Dec 2016)

.Le

Hot wire anemometers use a very fine wire electrically heated to

some temperature above the ambient. Air flowing past the wire cools the wire. As
w

the electrical resistance of most metals is dependent upon the temperature of the
ww

metal, a relationship can be obtained between the resistance of the wire and the
flow speed.
12. Name the materials used for thermocouples.(Nov Dec 2016)
 Nickel-alloy
 Platinum/rhodium-alloy
 Tungsten/rhenium-alloy
 Chromel–gold/iron-alloy

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13. What is meant by reliability of a measuring instrument?(April may 2017)

Instrument reliability is a way of ensuring that any instrument used
for measuring experimental variables gives the same results every time.
14. Write the working principle of pyrometer.(April may 2017)
A pyrometer is a type of remote-sensing thermometer used to
measure the temperature of a surface.The main working principle of this type of
instruments is that, it senses the heat radiation from a targeted hot body and reads
and records its temperature, depending upon the intensity of radiation.

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
w .Le
ww

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PART B

1. With a neat diagram explain the working of bimetallic strip. [Nov/Dec

2015]

A bimetallic strip is used to convert a temperature change into mechanical

displacement. The strip consists of two strips of different metals which expand at
different rates as they are heated, usually steel and copper, or in some cases steel
and brass.

The strips are joined together throughout their length by riveting, brazing

n
or welding. The different expansions force the flat strip to bend one way if heated,

g.i
and in the opposite direction if cooled below its initial temperature. The metal

rin
with the higher coefficient of thermal expansion is on the outer side of the curve
when the strip is heated and on the inner side when cooled
ee
The sideways displacement of the strip is much larger than the small
gin

lengthways expansion in either of the two metals. This effect is used in a range of
mechanical and electrical devices. In some applications the bimetal strip is used
En

in the flat form. In others, it is wrapped into a coil for compactness. The greater
length of the coiled version gives improved sensitivity.
arn
w .Le
ww

Bimetal strips are used in miniature circuit breakers to protect circuits

from excess current. A coil of wire is used to heat a bimetal strip, which bends
and operates a linkage that unlatches a spring-operated contact. This interrupts
the circuit and can be reset when the bimetal strip has cooled down.

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Working:
Two pieces of metal with different co efficient of thermal expansion are
bonded together to form the bimetallic strip. It is in the form of cantilever beam.
When the strip is subjected to a temperature higher than the bonding
temperature, it will be bent in one direction. Suppose, if it is subjected to a
temperature lower than the bonding temperature, it will be bent in the other
direction.

Bimetal strips are also used in time-delay relays, lamp flashers, and
fluorescent lamp starters. In some devices the current running directly through

n
the bimetal strip is sufficient to heat it and operate contacts directly.

g.i
2. With a neat diagram explain the working of rotometer. [Nov/Dec

rin
2015,2016]
ee
A rotameter is a device that measures the flow rate of fluid in a closed tube.
It belongs to a class of meters called variable area meters, which measure flow
gin

rate by allowing the cross-sectional area the fluid travels through, to vary,
causing a measurable effect.
En
arn
w .Le
ww

A rotameter consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass with a 'float',

made either of anodized aluminum or a ceramic, actually a shaped weight, inside
that is pushed up by the drag force of the flow and pulled down by gravity. The
drag force for a given fluid and float cross section is a function of flow speed
squared only, see drag equation.

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A higher volumetric flow rate through a given area increases flow speed
and drag force, so the float will be pushed upwards. However, as the inside of the
rotameter is cone shaped, the area around the float through which the medium
flows increases, the flow speed and drag force decrease until there is
mechanicalequilibrium with the float's weight.

Floats are made in many different shapes, with spheres and ellipsoids
being the most common. The float may be diagonally grooved and partially
colored so that it rotates axially as the fluid passes. This shows if the float is stuck

n
since it will only rotate if it is free. Readings are usually taken at the top of the

g.i
widest part of the float; the center for an ellipsoid, or the top for a cylinder. Some
manufacturers use a different standard.

rin
The "float" must not float in the fluid: it has to have a higher density than
ee
the fluid, otherwise it will float to the top even if there is no flow.

The mechanical nature of the measuring principle provides a flow

gin

measurement device that does not require any electrical power. If the tube is
made of metal, the float position is transferred to an external indicator via a
En

magnetic coupling. This capability has considerably expanded the range of

arn

applications for the variable area flowmeter, since the measurement can
observed remotely from the process or used for automatic control.
.Le

Advantages:

1. A rotameter requires no external power or fuel, it uses only the inherent

w

properties of the fluid, along with gravity, to measure flow rate.

ww

2. A rotameter is also a relatively simple device that can be mass manufactured

out of cheap materials, allowing for its widespread use.
3. Since the area of the flow passage increases as the float moves up the tube, the
scale is approximately linear.
4. Clear glass is used which is highly resistant to thermal shock and chemical
action.

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3. Explain the working of orificemeter with neat sketch. [May/june 2016]

An orifice plate is a device used for measuring flow rate, for reducing
pressure or for restricting flow. Either a volumetric or mass flow rate may be
determined, depending on the calculation associated with the orifice plate. It uses
the same principle as a Venturinozzle, namely Bernoulli's principle which states
that there is a relationship between the pressure of the fluid and the velocity of
the fluid. When the velocity increases, the pressure decreases and vice versa.

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin

Orifice plates are most commonly used to measure flow rates in pipes,
En

when the fluid is single-phase and well-mixed, the flow is continuous rather than
arn

pulsating, the fluid occupies the entire pipe, the flow profile is even and well-
developed and the fluid and flow rate meet certain other conditions. Under these
.Le

circumstances and when the orifice plate is constructed and installed according
to appropriate standards, the flow rate can easily be determined using published
formulae based on substantial research and published in industry, national and
w

international standards.
ww

Plates are commonly made with sharp-edged circular orifices and installed
concentric with the pipe and with pressure tappings at one of three standard
pairs of distances upstream and downstream of the plate; these types are covered
by ISO 5167 and other major standards. There are many other possibilities. The
edges may be rounded or conical; the plate may have an orifice the same size as
the pipe except for a segment at top or bottom which is obstructed, the orifice
may be installed eccentric to the pipe, and the pressure tappings may be at other
positions. Variations on these possibilities are covered in various standards and
handbooks. Each combination gives rise to different coefficients of discharge
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which can be predicted so long as various conditions are met, conditions which
differ from one type to another.

Once the orifice plate is designed and installed, the flow rate can often be
indicated with an acceptably low uncertainty simply by taking the square root of
the differential pressure across the orifice's pressure tappings and applying an
appropriate constant.

Even compressible flows of gases that vary in pressure and temperature

may be measured with acceptable uncertainty by merely taking the square roots

n
of the absolute pressure and/or temperature, depending on the purpose of the

g.i
measurement and the costs of ancillary instrumentation. Orifice plates are also
used to reduce pressure or restrict flow, in which case they are often called

rin
restriction plates ee
4. Explain the working of venturimeter with neat sketch. [May/june2016]
gin
A venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of a flow of a
fluid flowing through a pipe.
En

It consists of three parts.

1. A short converging part
arn

2. Throat

3. Diverging part
.Le

It is based on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation. Inside of the

venturimeter pressure difference is created by reducing the cross-sectional area
w

of the flow passage. The pressure difference is measured by using a differential

ww

U-tube manometer. This pressure difference helps in the determination of rate

of flow of fluid or discharge through the pipe line. As the inlet area of the venturi
is large than at the throat, the velocity at the throat increases resulting in
decrease of pressure. By this, a pressure difference is created between the inlet
and the throat of the venturi.

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Let
D1 and D2 — Diameter at inlet and throat respectively

n
P1and P2 — Pressure at inlet and throat

g.i
V1 and V2 — Velocity at inlet ad throat

rin
The inlet cone or convergent cone tapers towards right from pipe area
to throat. So the diameter at inlet is bigger when compared to outlet diameter of
ee
the convergent cone. Therefore, the flow rate increases slowly from inlet to exit.
gin

But the flow is constant throughout the throat section due to uniform diameter of
throat. In the divergent cone, the diameter increases from entry to exit. So the
En

flow decreases at the end.

It is similar to an orifice meter. It has thre4e distinct parts namely

arn

convergent cone, throat and divergent cone. A manometer measures the pressure
difference between two sections.
.Le

Advantages:
w

1. Loss of head is small and hence, high Cd value and it may approach
ww

unity under favorable condition.

2. It has no wear and tear
3. It is less likelihood of becoming clogged with sediment
4. It is more suitable for large flow of water, process fluids, waste gases
and suspended solids.

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5. Explain the working of Electrical resistance thermometer

(NOV/DEC2016)

Resistance thermometers, also called resistive temperature devices

(RTDs), are sensors used to measure temperature by correlating the resistance of
the RTD element with temperature. Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine
coiled wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The element is usually quite
fragile, so it is often placed inside a sheathed probe to protect it. The RTD element
is made from a pure material, typically platinum, nickel or copper. The material
has a predictable change in resistance as the temperature changes and it is this

n
g.i
predictable change that is used to determine temperature.

They are slowly replacing the use of thermocouples in many

rin
industrial applications below 600 °C, due to higher accuracy and repeatability
ee
There are five main categories of RTD sensors: thin film, wire-wound,
and coiled elements. While these types are the ones most widely used in industry
gin

there are some places where other more exotic shapes are used, for example
carbon resistors are used at ultra low temperatures (-173 °C to -273 °C).
En
arn
w .Le
ww

 Carbon resistor elements are widely available and are very inexpensive.
They have very reproducible results at low temperatures. They are the
most reliable form at extremely low temperatures. They generally do not
suffer from significant hysteresis or strain gauge effects.
 Strain free elements use a wire coil minimally supported within a sealed
housing filled with an inert gas. These sensors are used up to 961.78 °C
and are used in the SPRT’s that define ITS-90. They consist of platinum
wire loosely coiled over a support structure so the element is free to
expand and contract with temperature. They are very susceptible to shock

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and vibration as the loops of platinum can sway back and forth causing
deformation.
Thin film PRT

Thin film elements have a sensing element that is formed by

depositing a very thin layer of resistive material, normally platinum, on a
ceramic substrate. This film is then coated with an epoxy or glass that helps
protect the deposited film and also acts as a strain relief for the external lead-
wires. Disadvantages of this type are that they are not as stable as their wire

n
wound or coiled counterparts. They also can only be used over a limited

g.i
temperature range due to the different expansion rates of the substrate and
resistive deposited giving a "strain gauge" effect that can be seen in the resistive

rin
temperature coefficient. These elements work with temperatures to 300 °C (572
°F) without further packaging but can operate up to 600 °C (1,112 °F) when
ee
suitably encapsulated in glass or ceramic. Nowadays there are special high
gin

temperature RTD elements which can be used up to 900 °C (1,652 °F) with the
right encapsulation.
En

Wire Wound PRT

Wire-wound elements can have greater accuracy, especially for wide
arn

temperature ranges. The coil diameter provides a compromise between

mechanical stability and allowing expansion of the wire to minimize strain and
.Le

consequential drift. The sensing wire is wrapped around an insulating mandrel

or core. The winding core can be round or flat, but must be an electrical insulator.
w

The coefficient of thermal expansion of the winding core material is matched to

ww

the sensing wire to minimize any mechanical strain. This strain on the element
wire will result in a thermal measurement error. The sensing wire is connected
to a larger wire, usually referred to as the element lead or wire. This wire is
selected to be compatible with the sensing wire so that the combination does not
generate an emf that would distort the thermal measurement. These elements
work with temperatures to 660 °C.

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Coil Element PRT

Coiled elements have largely replaced wire-wound elements in

industry. This design has a wire coil which can expand freely over temperature,
held in place by some mechanical support which lets the coil keep its shape. This
“strain free” design allows the sensing wire to expand and contract free of
influence from other materials; in this respect it is similar to the SPRT, the
primary standard upon which ITS-90 is based, while providing the durability
necessary for industrial use. The basis of the sensing element is a small coil of

n
platinum sensing wire. This coil resembles a filament in an incandescent light

g.i
bulb. The housing or mandrel is a hard fired ceramic oxide tube with equally

rin
spaced bores that run transverse to the axes. The coil is inserted in the bores of
the mandrel and then packed with a very finely ground ceramic powder. This
ee
permits the sensing wire to move while still remaining in good thermal contact
with the process. These elements work with temperatures to 850 °C.
gin

Part C
En

1. With a neat diagram explain the working of Thermocouple. [Nov/Dec

arn

2015]

Thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two different conductors

.Le

forming electricaljunctions at differing temperatures.Athermocouple produces a

temperature-dependent voltage as a result of the thermoelectric effect, and this
w

voltage can be interpreted to measure temperature. Thermocouples are a widely

ww

used type of temperature sensor.

Commercial thermocouples are inexpensive, interchangeable, are supplied

with standard connectors, and can measure a wide range of temperatures. In
contrast to most other methods of temperature measurement, thermocouples are
self powered and require no external form of excitation. The main limitation with
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thermocouples is accuracy; system errors of less than one degree Celsius (°C) can
be difficult to achieve.Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry;
applications include temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust,
diesel engines, and other industrial processes. Thermocouples are also used in
homes, offices and businesses as the temperature sensors in thermostats, and
also as flame sensors in safety devices for gas-powered major appliances.

Thermocouple Insulation:

The wires that make up the thermocouple must be insulated from each

n
other everywhere, except at the sensing junction. Any additional electrical

g.i
contact between the wires, or contact of a wire to other conductive objects, can
modify the voltage and give a false reading of temperature.

rin
Plastics are suitable insulators for low temperatures parts of a
ee
thermocouple, whereas ceramic insulation can be used up to around 1000 °C.
Other concerns (abrasion and chemical resistance) also affect the suitability of
gin

materials.
En

When wire insulation disintegrates, it can result in an unintended

electrical contact at a different location from the desired sensing point. If such a
arn

damaged thermocouple is used in the closed loop control of a thermostat or other

temperature controller, this can lead to a runaway overheating event and
.Le

possibly severe damage, as the false temperature reading will typically be lower
than the sensing junction temperature. Failed insulation will also typically outgas,
w

which can lead to process contamination. For parts of thermocouples used at very
ww

high temperatures or in contamination-sensitive applications, the only suitable

insulation may be vacuum or inert gas; the mechanical rigidity of the
thermocouple wires is used to keep them separated.

Thermocouples are suitable for measuring over a large temperature

range, from −270 up to 3000 °C. Applications include temperature measurement
for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, other industrial processes and
fogmachines. They are less suitable for applications where smaller temperature
differences need to be measured with high accuracy, for example the range 0–100
°C with 0.1 °C accuracy. For such applications thermistor, silicon
bandgaptemperature sensors and resistance thermometers are more suitable.
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2. With a neat diagram explain the working of Optical pyrometer. [Nov/Dec

2015]

Principle:
This method refers the identification of the temperature of a surface with
the colour of the radiation emitted. The optical pyrometer compares the
brightness of the image produced by the temperature source with the reference
temperature lamp.

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En

Construction:
The optical pyrometer has an eyepiece at one end and an objective lens on
arn

the other end. In between objective lens and standard lamp, an absorbtion filter
is placed and it is used to increase the range of temperature.
.Le

A red filter is placed between eyepiece and standard lamp which allows
only a narrow band of wavelength. A battery, ammeter and rheostata are
w

connected to a standard lamp.

ww

Working:
A source temperature to be measured is focused onto the standard lamp
using objective lens. An absorption filter at the front of the device reduces the
intensity of the incoming radiation so that the standard lamp may be operated at
low level.
Now, the colour of the filament is matched with the colour of the incoming
radiation by an adjustment of the lamp current. It means, the standard lamp is
placed in the optical path of the incoming radiation.
The appearance of the lamp filament is shown. There are three conditions.
First, the filament is cooled below the source temperature. The filament is hotter

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than temperature source in the second condition. Third condition is filament

equal brightness with the source temperature.
The red filter is fixed in the eyepiece to ensure that comparisons are made
with monochromatic radiation. Finally, the current flowing through the lamp is
measured by using the ammeter and it is the temperature of the source when it is
calibrated with temperature equivalent.

Application:

1. It is used to measure the furnace temperature.

n
2. It is widely used in two radiation temperature methods for high

g.i
temperatures.

rin
Advantages:
1. It is relatively expensive ee
2. It does not depend on the surface properties of the material
gin
3. It is a quite accurate method for the measurement of radiant energy
from the surface.
En

Disadvantages:
arn

1. It is not suitable for less temperature measurement

2. Adjustment of standard lamp temperature is done by manually. So it
.Le

will make some error in the measurement.

3.Discuss the working principle of bourdon tube pressure gauge
w

Bourdon tube pressure gauges are used for the measurement of relative
ww

pressures from 0.6 ... 7,000 bar. They are classified as mechanical pressure
measuring instruments, and thus operate without any electrical power.
Bourdon tubes are racially formed tubes with an oval cross-section. The
pressure of the measuring medium acts on the inside of the tube and produces a
motion in the non-clamped end of the tube. This motion is the measure of the
pressure and is indicated via the movement.
The C-shaped Bourdon tubes, formed into an angle of approx. 250°, can be
used for pressures up to 60 bar. For higher pressures, Bourdon tubes with
several superimposed windings of the same angular diameter (helical tubes) or
with a spiral coil in the one plane (spiral tubes) are used.
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n
g.i
rin
ee
gin

As the fluid pressure enters the bourdon tube, it tries to be reformed

and because of a free tip available, this action causes the tip to travel in free space
En

and the tube unwinds. The simultaneous actions of bending and tension due to
the internal pressure make a non-linear movement of the free tip. This travel is
arn

suitable guided and amplified for the measurement of the internal pressure. But
the main requirement of the device is that whenever the same pressure is
.Le

applied, the movement of the tip should be the same and on withdrawal of the
pressure the tip should return to the initial point.
w

A lot of compound stresses originate in the tube as soon as the

ww

pressure is applied. This makes the travel of the tip to be non-linear in nature. If
the tip travel is considerably small, the stresses can be considered to produce a
linear motion that is parallel to the axis of the link. The small linear tip movement
is matched with a rotational pointer movement. This is known as multiplication,
which can be adjusted by adjusting the length of the lever. For the same amount
of tip travel, a shorter lever gives larger rotation. The approximately linear
motion of the tip when converted to a circular motion with the link-lever and
pinion attachment, a one-to-one correspondence between them may not occur
and distortion results. This is known as angularity which can be minimized by
adjusting the length of the link.
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4. With neat diagram discuss the working of liquid in glass thermometer

Liquid-in-glass thermometers, in particular mercury thermometers, have
been around for almost 300 years. Thermometer relies on the expansion of a
liquid with temperature. Liquid is contained in a sealed glass bulb and it expands
into the fine bore in the thermometer stem.
With a liquid-in-glass thermometer the liquid inside expands when it is
heated. Its volume increases and rises up the tube. The liquid expands much more
than the glass itself.

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En

ADVANTAGES
arn

 They are comparatively cheaper than other temperature measurement

devices.
.Le

 They are handy and convenient to use.

 Unlike electrical thermometers, they do not necessitate power supply or
w

batteries for charging.

ww

 They can be frequently applied in areas where there is problem of

electricity.
 They provide very good repeatability and their calibration remains
unaffected.
 They are considered inapt for applications involving extremely high or low
temperatures.
 They cannot be applied in regions where highly accurate results are
desirable.

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5. With neat diagram explain the construction and working principle of

pitot tube.
Basically, a pitot tube is used in wind tunnel experiments and on airplanes
to measure flow speed. It's a slender tube that has two holes on it. The front hole
is placed in the airstream to measure what's called the stagnation pressure. The
side hole measures the static pressure.
The basic pitot tube consists of a tube pointing directly into the fluid flow.
As this tube contains fluid, a pressure can be measured; the moving fluid is

n
g.i
brought to rest (stagnates) as there is no outlet to allow flow to continue. This
pressure is the stagnation pressure of the fluid, also known as the total pressure

rin
or (particularly in aviation) the pitot pressure.
The measured stagnation pressure cannot itself be used to determine the
ee
fluid flow velocity (airspeed in aviation). However, Bernoulli's equation states:
gin
Stagnation pressure = static pressure + dynamic pressure
En
arn
w .Le
ww

In industry, the flow velocities being measured are often those flowing in
ducts and tubing where measurements by an anemometer would be difficult to
obtain. In these kinds of measurements, the most practical instrument to use is the
pitot tube. The pitot tube can be inserted through a small hole in the duct with the
pitot connected to a U-tube water gauge or some other differential pressure gauge
for determining the flow velocity inside the ducted wind tunnel.

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Reg No.

B.E. / B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION,APRIL/MAY 2017

Fifth Semester
ME6504 –ENGINEERING METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENT
(Regulation 2013)
Time: 3 Hours Maximum marks: 100
Answer ALL questions

PART - A (10x2=20 marks)

n
1. Define traceability(Ref P.NO 2)

g.i
2. What is difference between gauging and measurement. (Ref P.NO 3)

rin
3. Why is rocking procedure followed when measuring with a dial bore gauge.
(Ref P.NO18)

ee
4. Name any four instrument used measuring internal diameter in
gin
components(Ref P.NO18)
5. What is meant by “Qualifying the tip” in CMM(Ref P.NO45)
En

6. Write any four application of artificial vision system in manufacturing

industries(Ref P.NO45)
arn

7. Calculate the “ best size wire” for checking the effective diameter of a M10 X
2.5 thread.
Le

8. Is assessment length greater /lesser than traverse length in surface finish

measurement? why? (Ref P.NO 62)
w.

9. What is meant by reliability of a measuring instruments (Ref P.NO 79)

ww

10.Write the working principle of pyrometer. (Ref P.NO 79)

PART - B (10x2=20 marks)

11. (a) Explain the various error in measurement(Ref P.NO 5)
Or
(b) What is the need of calibration? Explain the classification of various
standards(Ref P.NO 4)

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12. (a) Explain the construction and working principle of autocollimator

with a neat diagram(Ref P.NO37)
Or
(b) Explain the construction, working principle and application of sine
bar(Ref P.NO40)
13. (a) Explain the working principle of AC laser laser interferometer and
how the straightness is measured(Ref P.NO47)
Or

n
(b) With neat diagram explain the working principle of tough trigger

g.i
probes(Ref P.NO58)
14. (a) With neat diagram explain how gear tooth thickness is measured

rin
using a gear tooth Vernier caliper (Ref P.NO67)
Or

ee
(b) Derive the expression for tooth thickness of the gear in the constant
chord method (Ref P.NO 67)
gin
15. (a) With neat sketch explain construction and working principle of
following (i) Rotameter (Ref P.NO 81) (ii) Resistance thermometer (Ref P.NO 86)
Or
En

(b) With neat sketch explain construction and working principle of

following (i) Pitot tube (Ref P.NO 95) (ii) Bimetallic strip (Ref P.NO 80)
arn

PART - C (10x2=20 marks)

Le

16. (a) Calculate the tolerance ,fundamental deviation and limits of sizes for
w.

the shaft designated as 40 H8/f7. Standard tolerance for IT 7 is 16i and IT 8 is 25i.
Where ‘i’ is the standard tolerance unit.Upper deviation for ‘f’ shaft is -
ww

5.5D0.41,40mm lies in the diameter range 30 – 50 mm. (Ref P.NO42)

Or
(b) Design general type GO and NOGO gauge for a 40H7/d8 fit. 40mm lies
in the diameter range 30 – 50 mm.Show graphically the disposition of gauge
tolerance zones relative to the work tolerance zones. Standard tolerance for IT 7 is
16i and IT 8 is 25i. Where ‘I’ is the standard tolerance unit. The upper deviation for
‘d’ shaft is -16D0.44. (Ref P.NO42)

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Reg No.
B.E. / B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION,NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2016
Fifth Semester
ME6504 –ENGINEERING METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENT
(Regulation 2013)
Time: 3 Hours Maximum marks: 100
Answer ALL questions

PART - A (10x2=20 marks)

1. Brief on sensitivity in measurement. (Ref P.NO 2)

n
g.i
2. Differentiate between accuracy and precision. (Ref P.NO 2)
3. Write short notes on Bevel protractor. (Ref P.NO18)

rin
4. Write short notes on interchangeability. (Ref P.NO 18)
5. Why laser is used as light source in interferometers? (Ref P.NO45)
ee
6. Name the different stages involved in the machine vision based measurement.
gin
(Ref P.NO45)
7. Define drunken thread. (Ref P.NO62)
En

8. What are the various factors affecting surface roughness of a machined

component? (Ref P.NO62)
arn

9. Give the principle of hot wire anemometer. (Ref P.NO 79)

10.Name the materials used for thermocouples. (Ref P.NO 79)
Le

PART - A (10x2=20 marks)

w.

11. (a) With a suitable example explain the various elements of generalized
ww

measurement systems. (Ref P.NO 11)

Or
(b) Describe the different types of error and its causes. (Ref P.NO 5)
12. (a) Discuss in detail about the various types of limit gauges with neat
sketch (Ref P.NO 11)
Or
(b) (i) Explain the working principle of Angle Dekkor with neat sketch.

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(ii) Write its advantages(Ref P.NO 34)

13. (a) (i) With neat diagram explain the working of AC laser interferometer
(ii) List the advantages of AC laser interferometer(Ref P.NO 47)
Or
(b) (i) With neat sketch briefly explain the different types of CMM based
on its contraction
(ii) List out the advantages of CMM(Ref P.NO 51)
14. (a) Describe the construction of gear tooth Vernier caliper. Explain how

n
g.i
it can be used for measuring tooth thickness (Ref P.NO 67)
Or

rin
(b) Enlist and explain the different methods used for measuring the
roundness(Ref P.NO 74)
15. (a) ee
(i) Explain the working of rotameter in flow measurement
gin
(Ref P.NO 81)
(ii) Discuss the working principle of bourdan tube pressure
En

gauge(Ref P.NO 92)

Or
arn

(b) (i) Draw the construction of electrical resistance thermometer.

Explain how it can be used for temperature measurement (Ref P.NO 86)
Le

(ii) With the neat diagram discuss the working of liquid in glass
thermometer(Ref P.NO 93)
w.
ww

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Reg No.

B.E. / B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION,APRIL/MAY 2016

Fifth Semester
ME6504 –ENGINEERING METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENT
(Regulation 2013)
Time: 3 Hours Maximum marks: 100
Answer ALL questions

PART - A (10x2=20 marks)

1. What are the factors affecting the inherent characteristics of

n
measuring instruments?

g.i
2. Explain line and end standards.

rin
3. List out any four angular measuring instruments used in metrology (Ref P.NO 14)
4. What are the advantages of pneumatic comparator? (Ref P.NO 14)

ee
5. What are the different types of geometrical tests conducted on machine tools
(Ref P.NO 37)
gin
6. Write the advantages of machine vision system.
7. What is best size of wire? (Ref P.NO 51)
En

8. What are factors affecting surface roughness? (Ref P.NO 51)

9. What are load cells? (Ref P.NO 67)
arn

10. Mention the principle involved in bimetallic strip (Ref P.NO 68)
Le

PART - B (16x5=80 marks)

11(a) Explain various causes of errors (Ref P.NO 4) (16)
w.

(OR)
ww

(b) Elaborate on different methods of measurements (Ref P.NO 7)

12a) Explain Johansson microkator and sigma comparator with neat scotches (16)
(OR)
(b) Discuss about various types of limit gauges(Ref P.NO 15) (16)
13a) Explain working of laser interferometer(Ref P.NO 40) (16)
(OR)
(b) Explain different types of CMM and their constructional features (16)
(Ref P.NO 43)

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14(a) Define various terminologies of screw thread with suitable diagrams (16)

(OR)
(b) Derive the expression for finding the effective diameter by two and (16)
three wire method Ref P.NO 63)
15(a) Discuss bout any two types of measurement of temperature (Ref P.NO (16)
70)
(OR)
(b) Explain the working of rotometer and orificemeter with neat sketches (16)
(Ref P.NO 71)

n
g.i
rin
ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
ww

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Reg No.

B.E. / B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION,NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2015

Fifth Semester
ME6504 –ENGINEERING METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENT
(Regulation 2013)
Time: 3 Hours Maximum marks: 100
Answer ALL questions

PART - A (10x2=20 marks)

n
1. What is the difference between repeatability and reproducibility? (Ref

g.i
p.no11)
2. What is the difference between allowance and tolerance?

rin
3. Write any two precautions to be followed when using gauge blocks.
(Ref P.NO 15)

ee
4. Why are lasers used in metrology? (Ref P.NO 14)
5. What are touch trigger probes?
gin
6. What are diffraction gratings? (Ref P.NO 38)
7. Define “material ratio” with reference to surface finish measurement.
8. How is roundness measured in the Least squares circle method?
En

9. Why are measuring instruments calibrated? (Ref P.NO 67)

10.What is the working principle behind strain gauges? (Ref P.NO 67)
arn

PART - B (16x5=80 marks)

11(a) What are the various elements of metrology? With examples, (16)
explain how these elements influence the accuracy of
Le

measurements?
(OR)
w.

(b) Explain with neat diagrams the method for measurement of (16)
straightness of a machine tool guide way using an Autocollimator.
ww

Show the tabulation to determine the error in straightness by

choosing a reference line passing through the first and last points
of the guide way.
12a) (i)with a neat diagram explain the working of angle dekkor (12)
(Ref P.NO 30) (4)
(ii) why are sine bars not used for measuring large angles
(Ref P.NO 13)
(OR)

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(b) Calculate the limits for a hole shaft pair designated 25 H8/d9. (16)
Show graphically the disposition of tolerance zones with reference
to the zero line. The lower deviation for a H type hole is zero. 25
mm lies in the diameter range 18 mm to 30 mm. standard
tolerance for IT 8 is 25 i and IT 9 is 40 i, where “i” is the standard
tolerance unit in microns and is given as i(μm)=0.45 + 0.001D,
(D is in mm). the upper deviation for ‘d’ shaft – 16D0.44
13a) (i) What is a co ordinate Measuring Machine? What are its basic (6)
elements? (Ref P.NO 43)

n
(ii) Explain the working principle of a DC laser interferometer with (10)

g.i
a neat diagram? (Ref P.NO 50)
(OR)

rin
(b) Write briefly about the various stages involved in machine vision? (16)
(Ref P.NO 45)

ee
14(a) (i)What is meant by functional inspection of gears? How it is done?
(ii) How is the tooth thickness of a gear measured in the base
(2)
(10)
gin
tangent method? Derive the expression for tooth thickness of a
gear in this method?
(OR)
En

(b) (i)With a neat diagram explain the working principle of any one (10)
stylus type surface finish measuring instrument? (Ref P.NO 56)
arn

(ii) How is surface finish indicated in an engineering drawing? (6)

What are the various elements indicated in the symbol?
(Ref P.NO 57)
Le

15(a) With a neat diagram explain the working principle of rotameter (16)
and pitot tube? (Ref P.NO 71)
w.

(OR)
(b) With a neat diagram explain the working of bimetallic strip and (16)
ww

thermocouple? (Ref P.NO 70 & 78)

106

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