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LATE CHING REFORMS – HSING CHENG/ XING ZHENG

By beginning of the 20th century, the Chinese Empire was under
severe threat of dismemberment. At this stage the Manchus
desperate to retain their authority tried to hold at bay the
imminent collapse of their dynasty by introducing reforms which
were more sweeping than those proposed by Kang Yu Wei
Difference between the last bid to stay in power and earlier
attempts:
Earlier, the Manchus had used military strength and diplomacy to
control internal and external crisis.
Now it wanted to concentrate on winning the goodwill of the
Chinese masses.

1901-1911-LAST DECADE OF THE MANCHUS

 Not period of collapse rather that of metamorphosis –
introduction of institutional and social changes, FOR THE
FIRST TIME BY THE CONSERVATIVES OF THE MANCHU
MOVEMENT.
 Attempt failed

 BACKGROUND – Taiping Movement, SSM, Reform Movement

of 1898, Boxer Movement – all emphasized upon ‘change’

Queen Tzu Hsi had all along opposed any radical reforms. But by
beginning of 20th century, no alternative left.
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 Period 1901-11 dominated by two parallel developments

 Reforms of Queen Tzu Hsi
 Republican revolutionary Movement
By 1911
- Late Ching Reforms ended in total failure resulting in collapse of
Manchu/ Ching dynasty
-Revolutioanary Movement also resulted in end of Manchu dynasty
 SO TWO PARALLEL MOVEMENTS, ONE INITIATED BY THE
MANCHUS AND THE OTHER BY ANTI MANCHU FORCES
IRONICALLY LED TO SAME RESULT – FALL OF THE
MANCHUS.

 NATURE OF LATE CHING REFORMS

 January 1901 – policy of adopting strong points of foreign

countries to make up for China’s shortcomings’’suggested.
Policy supported by Tzu Hsi and senior officials like Chang
Chih Tung and Yuan Shih Kai
 3 joint memorials drafted by Chang Chih Tung outlined the
broad programme for reforms
 Importance of these proposals –
a) this time the whole and not just a part of the Imperial
Court was involved
b) it was the first time that serious institutional reforms
were actually implemented
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 Educational reforms – initiated by Chang Chih Tung. Between

1901-1906, series of imperial edicts were passed to
restructure the system as well as change the content of
education
1. Emphasis on new schools and scholars
2. Definite hierarchy of schools laid down – elementary schools
at the district levels, secondary schools at the provincial level
and the university in the Imperial capital.
 Problems – the manchus at this time faced the
serious dilemma of appeasing both the old style
scholar officials as well as the western influenced
young aspirants for high office. Former were likely to
shun new government schools. On the other hand,
the minority of restive minded youth – the potential
leaders- had to be recruited in the new schools to
prevent them from becoming outright enemies of the
established order. Another problem – competition
from the missionary schools in urban areas.
In midst of these problems – old examination system
abolished in 1906.
1906 – formation of Ministry of Education.
 Model – Japan
 By 1909 – over 100,000 modern schools established
 Impact – the changes in the education system
weakened the gentry’s ties with the monarchical
state. Modern education in Japan had resulted in the
rise of Nationalism – same trend seen in China.
Interpretation of Nationalism at this stage of Chinese
history was essentially understood/ interpreted as
the END OF THE MANCHU RULE.
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MILITARY REFORMS – YSK’S role very significant.

Traditional military power of manchus rested primarily on
a) Imperial Army
b) Manchu Bannermen
c) Green Standard Army
d) Provincial Army
a) – already lost its credibility
b) and c) – closely linked with Manchu power – highly
inefficient and seen as drain on Imperial treasury
c) had been rising in importance since mid 19th century under
leadership of eminent provincial leaders. Composed of
professional soldiers who were closely linked and loyal to
their respective regional leaders.
Objective of Late Ching Reforms in military sphere – to
introduce fundamental changes and rebuild a strong
centralized army and navy
 1901- disbandment of the Banner army
 Abolition of traditional military examinations
 Reorganization of army along western lines with
active and reserve units
 Training of troops in the military academies
established in provinces
 Hiring of Japanese and German trainers to train
potential soldiers
1905 – YSK created the Northern Army – Peiyang Army
Impact – the reforms particularly the new military schools with
their specialized trainers and training programme produced a new
class of army men who were imbibed with strong sentiments of
patriotism
 ANTI MANCHUISM SOON BECAME A PART OF THIS
PATRIOTISM
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ADMINISTRATIVE, INSTITUTIONAL AND FINANCIAL REFORMS

 Need for greater centralization in institutions as well as in
administrative and financial policies
 Need for dynamic central organs of government to perform
new functions suited to the demands of an industrialized
society and economy
 Need for application of new laws and fiscal policies
Late ching reforms aimed to follow the Japanese model –
 Several changes introduced to streamline, tighten and
centralize administration.
 The principle of maintaining a balance between Manchu
and Chinese officials was abandoned and there was
conscious attempt to concentrate power in the hands of
the Manchus (ironically with support of officials like YSK)
 Simultaneously, to quell discontent among Chinese
officials, policy of appeasement followed.
 In financial sphere – reforms on lines of 1898 intended.

Problems faced by the manchus :

1. The inadequacies and inefficiency of the old regime were
deeply rooted.
2. Any attempt towards greater centralization was likely to
evoke a very strong opposition from the provincial
authorities. The provincial authorities were not likely to give
away the powers they had gained over the years.
Dilemma – i.e. to have a unitary National government would
mean upsetting the age-old balance existing between Beijing
and the provinces
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3. Added to this – rising nationalist/patriotic sentiments

revolving around anti Manchuism - Manchu (foreign dynasty)
versus Chinese
4. Also in course of latter part of the 19th century the demands
for constitutionalism and political assemblies had been rising
esp from provincial powers.
Hence, the paradox before the Manchus:
a) To introduce administrative and financial modernization for
which centralization was necessary
b) Simultaneously, introduce constitutionalism in order to
appease provincial opposition.
The dual nature of the objectives resulted in a serious struggle
for power –
 Within the central government
 Between the central government and provinces
 This happened when the anti-Manchu sentiment was
also rapidly rising both within China and outside,
especially in Tokyo.

IN MIDST OF THE PROBLEMS, REFORMS WERE SUGGESTED AND

IMPLEMENTED
 Reform of the political system along parliamentary lines
And Introduction of constitutional reforms
 Simultaneously, measures towards centralization adopted-
- 1903- ministry of commerce in Peking
- 1906 – 6 Administrative Boards expanded into 11 ministeries
Foreign affairs
Civil appointments
Internal affairs
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Finance
Rites
Education
War Justice
Agriculture, Industry and Commerce
Posts and Communications
Dependencies

 August 1907 – Constitutional government Commission

appointed
 1908 – Queen Tzu Hsi’s proclamation announced a set of
constitutional principles to guide a 9 year programme to
prepare for constitutional self-government
 1908- death of Queen Tzu Hsi – end of late Ching reforms
IMPACT OF THE POLITICAL PROCESS THAT BEGAN WITH THE
REFORMS DID NOT END WITH TZU HSI’S DEATH

 Fundamental contradiction in approach to reforms continued

For Manchus the reforms did not in any way mean reduction
in Imperial authority and power.
For provincial authorities the reforms were perceived as
transfer of power in real terms to local and provincial levels.
 Post- 1908 -Demand for assemblies and parliament continued
to grow
 Under pressure the Imperial government had to promise that
a proper parliament would be convened by 1913
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 Meantime the republican revolutionary movement (anti-

Manchu) gathered momentum. Dynasty was overthrown in
1911. Many of the forces contributing to the fall of the
dynasty had been generated in course of Late Ching
Reforms

CONCLUSION
THROUGH REFORMS THE MANCHUS UNDER Queen Tzu Hsi
tried to dilute the prevailing antagonism and win mass favour.
In the process they could not avoid nurturing revolutionary
forces that eventually destroyed the dynasty itself.
- New students
- New armies
- Bourgeoisie
- Political assemblies
 ‘It were the reformers who prepared the grounds for
revolution and not the revolutionaries themselves’
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