ROPES AND WIRES

I. FIBRE ROPES

CONSTRUCTION OF FIBRE ROPES

Natural fibre ropes are made from fibres of various lengths depending

upon their source. The first process is to comb out these fibres into a

long ribbon. The ribbons are then twisted into yarns. The twist given,

binds the fibres firmly together so that they hold by friction, when the

yarn is subjected to strain. This process is known as Spinning. The

yarns are spun left-handed or right-handed, as may be the requirement.

Next a certain number of yarns are twisted to form strands. The number

and size of yarn to make each strand depends on the size of the rope it is

intended to make. This stage is known as Twisting the strands. This

twist is opposite to the previous twist. Three or four strands are now

made up into a left-handed or right-handed rope. This process is called

lying or Closing. Once again it is carried out in the direction opposite

to that in the previous stage.

As the rope is laid up, it’s length contracts like a coiled spring

giving it elasticity. The harder the twist, the shorter will be the resultant

rope and thus the terms Hard laid or soft laid rope. In practice, three

strands of 275m. lay up into a rope of about 220m. in length, which is

considered as the standard length of a coil of rope.

 TYPES OF ROPES

They may be constructed of natural fibres such as

MANILA, SISAL, COIR (HARD FIBRE ROPES) or

COTTON, HEMP, JUTE & FLAX (SOFTFIBRE

ROPES) or from synthetic fibres (MAN MADE) such

as POLYAMIDE (Nylon), POLYESTER ( Terelyne ),

POLYTHENE and POLYPROPYLENE or a mixture

of some of these synthetic fibres or it may also be

made from drawn strands of steel wire.

NATURAL FIBRE ROPES

A) HARD FIBRE ROPES:
i) Manila rope :
This rope is made from the leaf fibre of the abaca plant,
which grows in Philippine islands & is shipped out of
Manila port. Hence the name Manila for this type of rope.
This rope is flexible, durable & strong when compared to
other natural fibres. It is also resistant to salt water &
stands up well to wear & tear. Its main advantage over
other man-made ropes is that it stretches less, will surge
more easily around a winch & does not fuse when heated.
It’s mainly used for lifeboat falls, cargo handling & for
taking lashings.
Marked with one black yarn in each of two strands
supplied in coils of 220m.
ii) Sisal rope:
This rope is made from the Agave sisalama plants, which
is a member of the cactus family. Sisal is as strong as
Manila, but is not as flexible, durable or resistant to wear &
tear.
It is not a smooth rope & it’s hairy surface gives
considerable discomfort after prolonged use with bare
hands.
It is normally used as a lashing material.
Marked with one red yarn in one strand & supplied in
coils of 220m.
iii) Coir rope :
This rope is made from the fibres of the coconut husks.
It is very hairy & dark brown in colour.
It is the weakest of all cordages (ropes) but because it is
flexible, light & springy, it is used in the manufacture of
fenders & mats. (Used when boats & ships come a/s each
other or at berth.)

Marked with one yellow yarn in one strand.

B) SOFT FIBRE ROPES
i) Cotton

This fibre is a very soft rope and gets soiled very

easily on ships. Therefore it’s generally used as
ornamental rope particularly on gangways.

ii) Hemp

This fibre usually comes from Russia. It’s used on

Ship’s as small cordage and high grade twine.

iii) Jute

It’s weaker than hemp & mainly used for hessian

manufacture and as cores for wire ropes. Hessian
is a type of coarse cloth normally used for cleaning

iv) Flax

This is used for making sails & tarpaulin canvas.

It’s ideal for use as a sewing twine due to it’s high
resistance to abrasion.

SYNTHETIC FIBRE ROPES ( MAN ,MADE ROPES)

i) POLYAMIDE (NYLON)
This cordage is app. 2 ½ times as strong as a Manila rope of
equivalent size. It stretches by almost half it’s length before parting &
gives very little warning that it is about to break. It’s the most elastic
and strongest of all synthetic fibre ropes. It doesn’t float & looses app.
10% of it’s strength when wet. It’s melting point is 240˚C – 260˚C & is
unaffected by 80˚C of frost (-80˚C). It has a good weather & abrasion
(damage due to chaffing) resistance & a high resistance to alkalies but
very low resistance to acids. Strong Sulphuric acid will dissolve the
fibres.
Colour code: One green yarn in one strand.

ii) POLYESTER ( TERYLENE )

This cordage is nearly twice as strong as a Manila rope of
equivalent size. It stretches app. 36% before parting. The strength is
unchanged even when wet. It doesn’t float. It’s melting point is 240˚C -
260˚C. It has high resistance to acids but not to alkalies. It’s normally
used in yachts.
Colour code: One blue yarn in one strand.

iii) POLYTHENE
This rope is 1-½ times as strong as the Manila rope of
equivalent size. It stretches 33% before parting. It floats & even retains
it’s strength when wet & has very low water absorption. It’s melting
point is 120˚C-135˚C. It offers good resistance to sunlight and abrasion.
A 48mm. Polythene rope weighs about 250 Kgs. For a 220 m. coil. It has
a breaking stress of about 22.4 tons.
Colour code: One orange yarn in one strand or the full rope is orange in
colour.

iv) POLYPROPELENE
It’s twice as strong as Manila of equivalent size. It’s the
lightest of all man made fibres. It stretches 44% before parting. It
retains its strength even when wet & has very low water absorption. It
floats on water. It’s melting point is 160˚C- 170˚C. It is highly resistant
to acids & alkalies. Breaking stress for a 48mm. Rope is 27.5 tons. It
generally is used for mooring lines.
Colour code: One brown yarn in one strand or the whole rope is brown
in colour.

Different types of Lays

 Three stranded ropes are called Plain lay.
Four stranded ropes are called Shroud lay.
Right handed lay
It means that the final laying of the strands
is the same as a screw thread. It’s also
called as Z-Twist.
Left handed lay
It’s just the reverse of the above. It’s also
called as S-Twist.
MAIN TYPES OF LAYS
i) Standard lay: It means a rope with that angle of lay which by
experience shows strength & ability to withstand abrasion to the best
advantage for all general work. It is the normal lay at a particular
angle.

ii) Soft or Long lay : It implies a rope in which the angle of lay is
Less than normal. (Angle of lay means it’s the angle between the axis
of strands & the axis of the rope). The elasticity in this rope is
reduced, hence it’s more liable to absorb water & loose the shape.
It’s good mostly for sail making.

iii) Hard or Firm or Short lay : It implies a rope in which the angle of
lay is greater than normal. In this case, the elasticity is increased but
Pliability & breaking stress are reduced.

iv) Cable or Water lay: This is made by laying together three ropes each
of 3 strands. Cable lay ropes have a good resistance to water
penetration. If 300 metres length of rope is laid into cable lay the
resultant rope would be about 83 metres long. It’s normally used as a
towing spring attached to a length of wire rope.

v) Warp lay: It’s same as the cable lay except that the first lay & the
last lay are very hard. These warp laid ropes are often supplied 12
stranded, i.e. 4 primary ropes each having 3 strands are laid up
together.

vi) Unkinkable lay: This type of rope specially made for lifeboat falls
has the yarns spun with the same twist as the strand instead of as in
an ordinary rope. This eliminates the tendency of the rope to kink &
twist when working in multiple blocks
 PLAITED ROPES

This rope is constructed out of 8 strands

arranged in 4pairs,i.e. two pairs of left hand lay & two

pairs of right hand lay. Plaited mooring ropes of both

natural & synthetic fibres are highly flexible & almost

undamaged by kinking. They are very strong. This type of

rope is found to develop an extremely good grip on winch

drums. The life of a plaited rope is almost double to that

of a plain laid rope.

 Natural fibre ropes: ADVANTAGES
Gives audible warning if breaking point is approaching.
 Do not recoil as much as synthetic ropes if broken.
 Not susceptible to moderate heat & sunlight damages.
 Can be surged & rendered on turnabouts.
 Can be opened up for internal inspection without damaging the rope.
 Can be easily spliced.

DISADVANTAGES
 Susceptible to rot & mildew.
 Not as strong as synthetic rope of same size.
 Has less stretching ability.
 Not easy to handle. Has a tendency to swell & stiffen with age.
 If wet they freeze in cold conditions.

Synthetic fibre ropes: ADVANTAGES

 High tensile strength.
 Good durability as it is less prone to gradual loss of strength.
 Resistant to rot & mildew.
 Stretches more than natural fibres.
 Do not kink easily & if constructed with plaited lay it will not readily
open up.
 Smaller than natural fibre ropes for the same strength.
 Easy to handle.
 Does not become less pliable with age unless overworked.

DISADVANTAGES
 Due to the ability to stretch considerably, there is a whiplash effect if
the rope breaks.
 No audible warning before breaking.
 Low melting point & therefore has a tendency to melt or fuse on
warping drums.
 Susceptible to heat & sunlight.
 Can be contaminated by chemicals & thus becomes weak with little
visible evidence of such weakness.
 Plaited ropes require special splicing instructions.
CARE, HANDLING & MAINTENANCE OF FIBRE ROPES
 A) Natural fibre ropes:
The common causes of rope failure are excessive stress, abrasions, cutting on
sharp edges, exposure to acids & alkalies, bad storage with adequate ventilation
particularly for ropes stored in wet condition. These ropes when they have to be stored
should be made dry as far as possible & stored on gratings. On decks, ropes should
again be stored on gratings & protected from sunlight, rain or frost. After immersion in
salt water they should be hosed down with fresh water.
B) Synthetic fibre ropes:
 As all synthetic ropes have varying qualities of resistance to chemicals,
acids & alkalies. They should be stored in well-ventilated dry
compartments away from such materials.
 Do not stow the hawsers on deck even for short sea passages between
ports.
 In ports, cover coiled mooring ropes to avoid exposure to strong
sunlight.
 Stow on gratings to avoid contamination.
 Do not stow near heat (Engine room bulkheads).
 Inspect regularly for internal & external wear & tear. In case of
excessive wear, powdering will be visible between the strands.
Remember that synthetic ropes often become dosed (damaged)
internally when looking good externally. Overworked ropes may
become hard, stiff, & hairy.
 Eye splices should not have less than four tucks.
 Avoid overloading a rope around sharp angles.
 Never put strain on a kink as it can cause permanent damage.
 Wash the rope with fresh water in the event of it being splashed by
corrosives.
 Where wire is joined to a rope, ensure that a thimble is used & that the
wire & rope are laid the same way.
 Keep ropes & wires in different leads.
 Sections of ropes, which are vulnerable to abrasions, e.g. the eyes of
hawsers, should be protected with canvas or leather sheath.
 Do not cross cut ropes on drums.
 Synthetic ropes have low melting point, therefore do not use more than
three turns on the drum.
 Always use stopper with the same type of rope.
 New coil should be unwrapped in an anti-clockwise direction from the
coil center (< 48 mm. Rope) or the coil should be suspended from a
swivel & the rope unwrapped from outside (> 48 mm.).
Seamen should be warned that there would be no audible warning before the
synthetic rope parts. Very often seamen have been decapitated by the
whiplash action of such ropes.
SMALL CORDAGE

At sea, they are called small stuff.

Some of the small cordages are:
 Marline: It’s made from Indian hemp & it has got two plies.
They are normally used for serving & whipping ropes.
 Spun yarn: It’s tarred, soft hemp comprising of two or three
threads twisted together. It’s used mainly for serving
covering wire ropes & standing rigging.
 Oakum: It is a mass of oily fibre made from old ropes, which
has been picked, to pieces. It’s usually bought in small bales
(bundles) or ordered by weight. They are chiefly used for
caulking deck seams.
 Tarred hemp: It’s made from soft hemp & used for general
deck purposes. Nine-thread line is popular as a heaving line.
 Dressed hemp line: It’s used for boat lacings. It has a fine
finish, is strong & light. It normally comes in 55m or 110m
coils. 8 or 10 mm. Sizes are generally used for signal
halyards.
 Twine: Three ply for seaming & five ply for roping. Is made
of flax & hemp.
 Lead lines: They are made from high-grade cable laid hemp.
The final lay is usually left-handed. Hand lead lines are 8 to
10 mm. In diameter & supplied in 55m. Coils.
 Patent log lines: These are made up of polythene (low
absorption) or untarred hemp in coils varying from 73 to 220
metres. This line is usually plaited & may have a copper wire
core. The size is 10 to 12 mm.
 Signal halyards: Polythene is ideal owing to its low water
absorption & this comes in 73m. Coils
 STEEL WIRE ROPES
A modern wire rope consists of a number of strands laid around a
central heart, which may itself be a steel strand, steel wire rope or be a strand
of rope of vegetable or synthetic fibres. Each strand in turn is composed of a
given number of individual wires again laid around a central wire or fibre
core.
Before the wires are laid into strands & then the rope, certain process
is undertaken to minimize corrosion. Most engineering ropes are black, i.e.
they are ungalvanised. In shipping for use of cargo runners etc. galvanized
ropes are only used. Galvanising of the wire is always done before the strand
is built. In the present day, electrolytic galvanizing entails no loss of strength
or ductility in the wires.
When a wire rope or strand has a fibre heart, it should be adequately
protected against penetration by moisture. In the case of synthetic fibre
hearts, no lubrication is necessary to prevent water penetration, as nylon,
terylene, polythene etc. are all completely immune to micro biological attack.

CONSTRUCTION
The number of wires in a strand is determined by by the fact that six wires
Of equal size will sit comfortably around a single wire core of the same size &
a further layer of wires (gallery) of the same size laid on a seven wire strand
will hold 12 wires. Such a strand therefore would have either seven or 19
wires. A further gallery, which consists of 18 wires, brings the total to 37 wires
& addition of another gallery brings the total to 61 wires. (1- 6- 12- 18- 24).
When a fiber strand core is used, the total number of wires does not
follow the pattern given above. It usually totals to a single layer of 12 wires
around the core or a total of 24 wires, with the inner gallery having 9 wires &
the outer gallery having 15 wires. Its possible to lay another gallery of 18
wires over the single layer of 12 wires to achieve a strand of 30 wires laid
around a fibre core.
The degree of flexibility of a steel wire rope is governed by the
number of wires in the strand. Generally the greater the number of wires,
greater is the flexibility. Also flexibility is increased by the introduction of a
fibre strand core at the expense of strength. On the other hand full strength &
flexibility are gained if the wire is built up from a very large number of small
(thinner) gauge wires.
A wire rope is referred to by the use of two numbers. The first
indicates the number of strands & the second number indicates the number
of wires in each strand. For e.g. 6 x 12, 6 x 24, and 6 x 37: denotes that the
rope has 6 strands of 12,24,37 wires each respectively.
Flexibility in a wire rope in short, is obtained by increasing the
number of wires in each strand but reducing their size.
EXTRA SPECIAL FLEXIBLE STEEL WIRE ROPES ( ESFSWR )

It has a large number of wires (more than 20 very thin wires in each strand).
Flexible steel wire rope (Fswr) has a lesser number of medium sized wires &
steel wire ropes (SWR) has a smaller number of wires, less than 12 thick wires
in each strand. A SWR is stiff & can be used only for standing rigging, e.g.
Mast stays, Funnel stays, etc.

PLASTIC COVERED WIRE ROPES

An ordinary wire rope coated over with black PVC, which gives complete
protection to the rope against weather & U/V rays. It requires no
maintenance.
Disadvantages of plastic covered wire ropes:
 The rope is not flexible.
 If any moisture gets inside it, it is unable to get out & thus rust the
wires.
 The plastic cover hides any damage to the wire.

Other types of wire ropes include Flexible Copper Wire Ropes for use in
the vicinity of magnetic compass.

LAY OF THE WIRE ROPES

Right hand ordinary lay: Here the wires are twisted together left-handed &
the strands are laid right-handed.
Left-handed ordinary lay: Here the wires are twisted together right handed &
the strands are laid left handed.
Right handed Lang’s lay: Here both the wires & strands are laid up right
handed.
Left-handed Lang’s lay: Here both the wires & strands are laid up left-
handed.
Cable laid wire rope: This is very large & highly flexible & is made exactly the
same way as a cable laid fibre rope. A 36-strand wire rope composed of 6
stranded ropes could be described as 6 x 6/19 or 6 x 6/24. The six ropes are
invariably laid around a fibre heart.
Fig.

CARE & MAINTENANCE OF WIRE ROPES

  A wire rope resists bending & doesn’t absorb turns so easily as fibre
rope & hence easily kinks. When this happens, a kink, which is about to
develop, should never be pulled out otherwise the wire rope will get
permanently damaged.
 A wire rope should never be subjected to sharp nips such as altering the
direction of the lead by passing it through shackles, eyes or over plate
edges. This will permanently damage the wire & this effect is known as
crippling.
 When securing a wire to the drum or bollard, the diameter of the drum
& the bollard should be at least 12 times the rope’s diameter. The
diameter of a roller around which the rope is to be passed should be at
least 10 times the rope’s diameter.
 The wire rope should be lubricated with grease & coiled down when not
in use.
 The wire ropes in store should be placed on gratings & turned every
often so as to alter the weight & contact point of the coil & also to stop
drainage of the lubricant.
 The rope should be constantly checked for internal corrosion, fractures,
excessive wear & rotting of cores.
 Several broken wires close together in one strand constitute for a great
danger, than the same number of broken wires distributed through the
length of the rope.
 The wire rope is about 5 times as strong as a high-grade manila rope
depending upon the steel used.
 It stretches very little, may be considered non- elastic; so it parts very
easily when subjected to a shock load.

Inspection of the ropes

Distortion of rope by kinking, crushing, crippling, etc. is likely to

reduce the strength of the rope by as much as 30%. A rope in which the heart
is protruding is to be discarded. Broken wire should be examined to ascertain
whether wear or corrosion has caused the breakdown.
A wire rope should be frequently opened up with a marline spike. Dry
powdery hearts indicates dry rot & the rope should be discarded or if
considered all right, lubricate the same.
At sub-zero temperature, the steel wires will become brittle & rope
may part without warning. Also the flexibility of the rope reduces. However
the wire will regain it’s normal characteristics under normal temperature.
TESTS & EXAMINATIONS

Wire rope is tested by breaking a sample. It must be examined at least

once in three months but every month if any wire is broken.
A Wire rope is declared unfit if in any length of eight diameters, the total
number of visible broken wires exceeds 10% of the number of wires in the
rope.

Problem 1:
State whether you would discard the following wire, 6 x 24 wire 22mm. in
diameter has 15 broken wires in a length of 176mm.

Solution:
Size of wire rope = 22mm.
8 times the diameter = 22 x 8 = 176mm.
Total no. of wires in 6 x 24 wire rope = 6 x 24 = 144
10% of total no. of wires = 10/100 x 144 = 14.4 = 14 wires.
So, for a rope of length 176mm., the permissible no. of broken wires are 14. As
in the above case, the no. of broken wires are 15, the wire rope has to be
discarded.

Problem 2:
A 6 x 37 wire rope of 18mm. Diameter has 30 broken wires in a length of
216mm. State whether the wire is fit for use.

Solution:
Size of wire rope = 18mm.
8 times the diameter = 18 x 8 = 144mm.
Total no. of wires in 6 x 37 wire rope = 6 x 37 = 222 wires.
10% of the total no. of wires = 10/100 x 222 = 22.2 = 22 wires
For a rope of length 144mm., permissible no. of broken wires = 22
For a rope of length 216mm., permissible no. of broken wires
= 22/144 x 216 = 33 wires.
As in the above case, the no. of broken wires is 30, the wire is fit for use.
MEASURING SIZE OF ROPES, WIRES, & CHAINS
 Ropes & wires are measured by their diameter. The diameter is always

given in mm. The size of the chain is the diameter of the bar forming the link
( not the stud ).

6 x 24 wire (15, 9 with a fibre core.)

6 x 37 wire (18, 12, 6, 1 with a steel core in each strand)

6 x 12 wire (12 with a fibre core).

FACTOR OF SAFETY

 Safe working load ( SWL ) : This means the maximum weight which

can be lifted safely without any risk of accident.

 Breaking strength ( BS ) : It’s the minimum weight or stress required to

break a rope, wire or a chain.

 Factor of safety: This is just the breaking stress divided by the SWL.

The ratio of ultimate stress to SWL is called the factor of safety & it’s

normally between 4 & 8. In the case of wire ropes & chains, it’s 5. In fibre

ropes it is 6.

This factor of safety can be expressed in a different way as follows:

SWL = 1/5 or 1/6 of BS.

For derrick work, a safety factor of 1/12 is desirable.

STRENGTH OF THE ROPE

No rule can be laid down to arrive at the BS of different sizes of ropes &
wires. But an estimate of BS in tones is given for different ropes, wires &
chain, by the following formulae.
i)Fibre ropes
Name Breaking stress
a) Manila 2D² / 300
b) Polypropylene or Polythene 3D² / 300
c) Terylene 4D² / 300
d) Nylon 5D² / 300

ii)Wire ropes
Name Breaking stress
a) 6 x 12 15 D² / 500
b) 6 x 24 20 D² / 500
c) 6 x 37 21 D² / 500

iii)Chains
Name Breaking stress
a) Grade 1 20 D² /600
b) Grade 2 30 D² /600
c) Grade 3 43 D² /600

Problem 1
Find the BS & SWL of a 6 x 24 wire, 24mm. In diameter.

BS = 20 x ( 24)² / 500 = 23.04

SWL = 1/6 X 23.04 = 3.84 t.

Problem 2
Find the size of the smallest manila rope suitable for a load
of 2tonnes.
SWL = 2 Tonnes : Therefore BS = 6 x 2 = 12 Tonnes

BS = 2 D² / 300 = 12
 D = √ 12 x 300 / 2 = √ 1800 = 42.42mm.
 COILING OF ROPES

There are three basic methods of coiling a rope.

a) Coiling down: Coiling down a line is laying it in a circle on deck, roughly
one on top of the other. Right-handed line is coiled down in clockwise
direction & left handed lay in anti-clockwise direction. When a line is coiled
down, one end is ready for running, which is the end on top. If for some
reason, the bottom end must go first, the entire coil should be overturned to
free it for running.
b) Faking down: Faking down a line is to lay it out in long, flat rows on the
deck, one alongside the other, instead of in round coils. The advantage of
faking down, is that the line runs off with less likelihood of fouling &
kinking. This method is used almost exclusively, when arranging mooring
lines.
c) FLEMISHING: this is normally used for handling short lengths of line
neatly, such as the bitter ends of boat painters, topping lifts, guys etc. To
Flemish down a line is to lay it down in a completely flat coil on the deck,
somewhat resembling a wound clock spring, with the bitter end in the centre.
Once again, right hand line is flemished clockwise & left handed line anti-
clockwise.

OPENING A NEW COIL OF ROPE

A length of rope is supplied to the ship in a compact, machine wound
coil. To open up a new coil of rope of less than 48mm. Dia., the coil should be
stood on the end, with the outside rope on top. This allows the rope to be taken
off left handed (for a right handed rope) i.e. anti-clockwise starting from the
inside. For ropes of 48mm. Or more diameter, the coil must be placed on a
turntable or slung so that it can be revolved. In this case, cut the lashings & haul
the rope from the outside.

OPENING OF A NEW COIL OF STEEL WIRE ROPE

A small coil can be rolled along the deck, but if the steel wire rope is
heavy, place the coil on a turntable & lash down two strong battens crosswise
on top of the coil. This will prevent the rope springing up over the top of the
coil & kinking. Then cut the stops & haul the rope off the coil as it rotates on
the turntable.

CUTTING A LENGTH OF ROPE FROM A NEW COIL

 The required amount of rope is hauled off the coil. The rope is whipped
or taped at each side of the position at which it is to be cut. Whenever a length
of rope is cut off the coil, it should be clearly indicated on the label attached to
the coil, as to the length of rope cut off or the length of rope remaining in the
coil.

CUTTING OFF A LENGTH OF WIRE ROPE

The wire rope should be very firmly whipped about 25mm. On each side
of the position at which it is to be cut. Place the point that is to be cut on top of
a bollard or other similar surface & hammer once or twice to flatten the upper
wires. This gives a good keying surface for the cold chisel that is used to sever
the strands. Whenever a length of wire rope is cut off a coil, it should be clearly
marked on the label, indicating the length cut off or the length remaining.
Care must be taken while whipping that it is important to work away
from the cutting point, so that the latter is not loosened when the rope is cut &
the strands spring out.