Unit 5

Planning for the Management of Teaching and Learning

Overview

In this final unit of the course Planning for Teaching, we consider an issue that is at
the very heart of effective teaching and learning. The topic of this unit is classroom
management and our focus is on how it relates and is integral to the whole issue of
planning for teaching. Our first concern then is to understand the nature of the
relationship between planning for teaching and classroom management. Planning for
instruction is therefore not only concerned with the delivery of a body of content to
students but is also concerned with how to prevent and/or deal with potential student
behavioural problems that might arise during the instructional period. This means that
teachers are expected to first establish an environment which will make learning the
main priority, one that is respectful, safe, academic and inviting. The climate of the
classroom or the ‘feel’ of the working environment is one variable that research
suggests is dependent on the teacher.

For the classroom environment to feel like one where learning is the number one
priority, the teacher must also establish certain expectations and guidelines that will
inform classroom behaviours, interactions and activities. Thus classroom rules and
procedures are vital to the success of the teaching/learning process which is the main
reason why teachers and students meet on a daily basis. Very often, classrooms are
not places where only learning takes place, but sites where student behaviours can
interfere with the very process for which teachers and students meet on a daily basis.
The unit therefore explores the nature of some behavioural challenges that can arise in
the classroom and how the instructional behaviour of teachers can prevent them. This
is an important focus for this unit.

However, when prevention fails, teachers must be knowledgeable of the appropriate

actions to take to prevent the unacceptable behaviour from escalating further. Some of
these measures will be addressed briefly in this unit but is explored in further details

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in the follow up course (EDTL2020). It is also likely that the issue of classroom
management will be addressed in other courses throughout your studies.

Though this course focuses mainly on prevention as a strategy for managing

classrooms, it is unlikely that prevention will succeed most of the time. Thus, in order
to establish familiarity with some of the common behavioural challenges that teachers
face in the contemporary classrooms we explore primarily through your own
investigation, the relevance of research on classroom management especially as it
relates to student behaviours which can be described as aggressive, violent and
antisocial. In focusing on these behavioural challenges we do so mainly through an
examination of the most popular of print media – the newspaper - which provides the
most current insights into contemporary issues affecting schools from a wide range of
perspectives.

The newspaper commentaries on student behavioural problems can serve as a

benchmark by which we can track the evolving nature of school and classroom
violence, the attempts made to addresses this problem and invariably the
usefulness/relevance of research findings to the long term solution of school and
classroom behavioural problems.

The unit is organized into four sessions:

Session 5.1: Exploring the relationship between planning for teaching/learning
and classroom management

Session 5.2: Establishing the learning environment, classroom rules and
procedures

Session 5.3: Managing the instructional process and student behaviours

Session 5.4: Contemporary challenges to the management of student
behaviours in schools and classrooms

Objectives of the unit

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

1. Explain the relationship between planning for teaching/learning and

classroom management

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 2. Examine the meaning of and rationale for the establishment of classroom
climate, rules and procedures and their contribution to the effective
management of classrooms
3. Explore the different behaviours exhibited by teachers and how they
influence the management of instruction and student’s behaviour
4. Assess the contemporary challenges posed by students behaviours
(aggressive/violent behaviours in particular) to the effective management
of schools and classrooms

Readings

Anderson, S. (2004). Dealing with violence and aggression in the classroom: some
suggestions. Journal of Education and Development in the Caribbean, 8(1and
2), pp.97-111.

Desforges, C. (1995). Teaching for order and control. In C. Desforges (Ed.), An

introduction to teaching. Psychological perspectives (pp.180-196).Oxford:
Blackwell.

King, R. (2002). Violence and Schools in Jamaica: Historical and Comparative

Perspectives. In H. Evans (Ed.), Institute of Education Annual (pp. 1-15).
Kingston, Jamaica: Institute of Jamaica.

Lang, H., and Evans, D. (2006). Models, strategies and methods for effective
teaching. Boston: Pearson Educational, Inc. (Chapter 6 – Classroom
management)

Manning, M.L., and Bucher, K. (2007) Classroom management: Models, applications

and cases (2nd, ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. (Chapter 6: Exploring
the theories of instructional management: Jacob Kounin).

Smith, C., and Laslett, R. (2002) Effective classroom management. A teacher’s guide
(2nd ed.). London and New York: Routledge Falmer. (Chapter 1: Four rules of
classroom management),

Newspaper Articles

Clarke, L. (2006, March 12). Violence in our school [Letter to the editor]. The Sunday
Gleaner, p. B7

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Education minister awaits copy of report on violence. (2003, August 20). The Daily
Observer, p.4.

Harsh punishment driving delinquency. (2004, June 14). The Daily Gleaner, p. A9

JTA says school violence worsening. (2003, August 20). The Daily Observer, pp.1,
4).

Tortello, R. (2002, June 1). School violence is preventable not inevitable [Letter to the
editor]. The Daily Gleaner, p.A5.

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Session 5.1

Exploring the Relationship between Planning for Teaching

and Learning and Classroom Management
Classroom management in practice cannot be isolated from all the other issues
that contribute to good teaching and good schools. The most efficiently
managed class learn little if the material presented to pupils is dated,
irrelevant or dull, and likewise, the most interesting of material, if taught in a
badly organized or lacklustre way, is of little value. The management of
classes cannot occur in a vacuum. The attitudes and values that frame the
process are as significant as the skills and expertise displayed. A school’s
ethos is of critical importance in promoting effective classroom management
and effective learning (Bourdillon and Storey, 2002, p. 161).

What inferences can you draw about the relationship between planning for teaching
and the management of teaching and learning from the extract above? To reiterate
Bourdillon and Storey’s statement, “Classroom management in practice cannot be
isolated from all other issues that contribute to good teaching and good schools”. By
this stage of the course, you would be attuned to the generally accepted view as
captured in the observation that “…there is a definite correlation between the quality
of the planning for the lesson and what will happen in it in terms of the pupils’
attitude and behaviour” (Haydn, 2007, p. 47).

In other words, what happens in the classroom is definitely related to the amount of
planning and preparation that goes on prior to instruction. The statement assumes
however that planning for teaching is synonymous with planning for the management
of instruction. This includes attention to issues such as timing and pacing of the
lesson, the matter of momentum, and effective transitions among other lesson
management techniques. The statement assumes in essence that these lesson
management issues are conscious and explicit aspects of preactive lesson preparation.
Managing the flow of the lesson itself is not the only issue to be considered where
planning for teaching and learning is concerned however. There is the real issue of the
receptiveness of students to the lesson, how the teacher will ensure that they are
motivated to learn, will be engaged in the learning process and will not display
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behaviours that will disrupt, impede or ruin the lesson in terms of the achievement of
the instructional intents. In planning for teaching therefore, teachers must be acutely
aware of the possibility for interruptions and have consciously worked out plans or
strategies, or at the very least have some knowledge of the steps to take to save a
lesson that is likely to be in jeopardy for one reason or another.

In view of the above it should be clear that planning for instruction requires more than
the drawing up of lesson plans which outlines the content to be taught, methods to be
used and activities to be done by students during an instructional session. Though the
issue of how to manage the class will not be written in a plan, the way in which the
teacher moves from one segment of the lesson to another, and the way in which
students’ learning activities are designed and how the classroom is arranged/organized
is an implicit reflection of how the teacher plans to manage the instructional period.
For effective use to be made of the instructional period, teachers must be able to move
from one activity to the next with the minimum of disruption. This implies being able
to monitor students behaviour, to prevent disruption or to effectively minimize its
effects if it occurs.

Kyriacou (1998) makes clear the relationship between classroom instruction and
classroom management in the use of the term lesson management which he states is
essentially “concerned with those skills involved in managing and organizing the
learning activities such that you maximize pupils’ productive involvement in the
lesson” (p.49). He noted in addition, that “Research based on classroom observation
and interviews with beginning and experienced teachers have identified how a
successful lesson hinges on certain key lesson management skills” (Kyriacou, 1998,
p.49).

To manage the lesson well means the teacher should be alert to potential problems
that can arise and be ready to prevent them from escalating out of control. Being able
to achieve instructional intent with the barest of interruption is an ideal which most if
not all teachers strive for. It is the case however that this ideal is not realized due to
the variety of unplanned for events and issues which can arise during a lesson and
because the teacher might not necessarily be fully equipped to deal with these
challenges for one reason or another.
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It is the very uncertainty of classroom life that makes it necessary for teachers to be
flexible in their approach to planning so as to make minor adjustments during their
lesson, but to also make deliberate plans for the management of teaching and learning.
What then is classroom management and how does knowledge of the theories of
management of classrooms help teachers to become better instructional leaders and
managers? We will examine a few definitions of classroom management which will
hopefully provide a useful context for our discussion of this aspect of a teacher’s
planning and teaching function.

Some ways in which classroom management has been defined and discussed
 Classroom management has been broadly defined as actions taken to create
and maintain a learning environment that supports instructional goals (Brophy,
1988). For teachers to be prepared to create and maintain an effective learning
environment, they must have a variety of knowledge and skills that allow them
to effectively structure the physical classroom environment, establish rules and
procedures, develop relationships with children, and maintain attention and
engagement in academic activities (LePage; Darling-Hammond; Akar, et al,
2005, p.330).
 Classroom management consists of strategies for assuring physical and
psychological safety in the classroom; techniques for changing student
misbehaviours and for teaching self-discipline; methods of assuring an orderly
progression of events during the school day; and instructional techniques that
contribute to students’ positive behaviours (Manning and Bucher, 2007, p.4).
 Jacobsen, Eggen and Kauchak (2006) differentiate between classroom
management and classroom discipline. Classroom management refers to
teachers’ strategies that create and maintain an orderly learning environment,
whereas discipline involves teacher response to student misbehaviour, such as
talking inappropriately, leaving desks without permission, making hostile or
sarcastic remarks, or more seriously, fighting and assaults (p.290).
 Good classroom management implies not only that the teacher has elicited the
cooperation of the students in minimizing misconduct and can intervene
effectively when misconduct occurs, but also that worthwhile academic
activities are occurring more or less continuously and that the classroom
management system as a whole (which includes, but is not limited to, the
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 teacher’s disciplinary interventions) is designed to maximize student
engagement in those activities, not merely to minimize misconduct (Brophy,
1988, p.3 cited in Jones and Jones, 204, p.23).

What do the above definitions and discussions of classroom management have in

common? The most obvious is that they all demonstrate the close relationship that
exists between classroom instruction and classroom management. This relationship
establishes without a doubt that the planning function is at the very heart of successful
teaching and learning since it determines what is taught, how it is taught and whether
or not the instructional process is effectively managed to achieve the goals of
instruction.

Successful teaching and learning requires that planning for several aspects of the
teaching/learning encounter must take place. Teachers have to establish a learning
environment that is conducive to teaching and learning. This can mean ensuring that
the physical environment is arranged and made amenable to the instructional goals of
the teacher as far as the teacher can manipulate the movable features within a largely
immovable classroom space. Teachers must also plan the rules and procedures that
they will use to establish a sense of order in their classes. Teachers also have to plan
how they will organize students for instructions and how they will manage the
instructional process itself so as to manage students’ behaviour and learning at the
same time.

It is obvious therefore that planning is central to all aspects of a teacher’s work and
cannot be neglected or short circuited except at the expense of effective teaching and
learning. We look first at how teachers establish the learning environment in their
classrooms, how they plan classroom rules and procedures, and the instructional
behaviours which teachers need to develop as a part of their repertory of skills to
manage instruction and students’ behaviour.

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Table 5.1 Activity 5.1
Session Review
1. After reading the definitions give, what is your personal understanding of
classroom management? ----------------------------------------------------------------
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2. Why is classroom management regarded as problematic for beginning
teachers? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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3. Have experienced teachers generally solved the challenges created by student
behaviours or in preventing classroom management issues to emerge and
disrupt instruction? Why or why not? -------------------------------------------------
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4. Why should teachers include planning for the management of their
classrooms in planning for instruction? Do you think that this is a deliberate
practice or do teachers manage on the spot? You can get some insights from
teachers around you on this issue.
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Session 5.2
Establishing the Learning Environment, Classroom Rules and
Procedures

What should teachers do in meeting a class for the first time? Can you recall how any
of your former teachers introduced themselves for the first time? It is usual for
teachers to tell their names and then to indicate that they are the teachers for a
particular subject? It is also usual for the teacher to state his/her expectations of the
students and perhaps to say what type of teacher they are, for example “ I dislike
noise and chorus responses”, “ I hate a dirty classroom”, “ I do not give extensions for
assignments” , “my bark is worse than my bite”, and so on. In addition, teachers
might also try to appear stern on first meeting a new class to indicate that they are a
no-nonsense teacher, or to appear friendly so as to get students to like them from the
outset. They might not be able to continue with either of these fronts for very long if
they are not genuinely stern or friendly in the first place. On the other hand, a
teacher’s demeanour might change as they come to know their students better and
experience the joys and/or pains of teaching.

Beginning teachers fresh from their teacher education programmes might go to a new
class armed with the theories of how to commence their first day only to find students
who are already well socialized into the workings of schools having gone through
many such first meetings and know very well that the content of that first talk might
be only that – talk. We will return to these observations later as we explore how
teachers go about establishing rules and routines in their classrooms on meeting their
students for the first time. We turn our attention first to an examination of how
teachers set the stage for a meaningful working relationship with their students
through the establishment of a classroom environment that is designed to foster
effective teaching and learning.

Establishing the classroom environment

We begin this section by looking at what teachers can do to manipulate or arrange the
learning environment to make it as conducive as possible to teaching and learning.
Learning environment refers to the conditions created by the teacher within the
classroom to facilitate teaching and learning. Kyriacou (1998) explains that “The type
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of classroom climate generally considered to best facilitate pupil learning is one that
is purposeful, task-oriented, relaxed, warm and supportive and has a sense of order”
(p.64). The responsibility for creating a learning environment in which students can
participate purposefully in the learning experiences designed for them resides with the
teacher. Lang and Evans (2006) draw our attention to this fact by stating:
A teacher must build a climate that encourages learning. This involves the
physical facilities and organization of the classroom, interpersonal
communications, and the classroom management techniques used. The
combination of these elements creates an environment in which students are
motivated and encouraged to learn (p.173).
In taking the above into consideration, Lang and Evans (2006) defined classroom
climate as “the atmosphere in which students and teachers work and interactions
between the teacher and students occur.” They also observe that
Climate influences how and the degree to which the teacher exercises
authority, shows warmth and support, encourages competitiveness or
cooperation, allows independence and choice, and motivates. Students must
feel that they are safe, that they are valued, and that they can achieve… (p.
173).

Another perspective on classroom climate offered by Moore (2007) similarly assigns

the task of cultivating or creating an enriching, respectful and academic tone to
classroom life to the teacher. He shows the relationship between classroom climate
and student achievement and behaviour by claiming that:
Teachers whose classrooms are pleasant, positive, supportive, and challenging
will often find student achievement and behaviour to be at a higher level than
that of students in the classrooms of teachers who are harsh, negative,
unsupportive, and unchallenging (Moore, 2007, p.240).

In view of this, Moore (2007) suggested that “Teachers should create a climate at the
beginning of the year where the exchange of ideas is encouraged, respect for all
students and their work is fostered, and a sense of community is established” (p.240).
Research carried out in England by McBer (2001) on behalf of the Department for
Education and Employment, [now the Department for Education and Skills – DfES)
supports the links made by other writers, between classroom environment and student
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performance. In defining classroom climate, McBer (2001) states that it is “the
collective perceptions by pupils of what it feels like to be a pupil in any particular
teacher’s classroom, where those perceptions influence every student’s motivation to
learn and perform to the best of his or her ability” (2001, p.208).

Note that while classroom climate is something that is experienced or perceived by

students, it is one of those intangibles that teachers must work hard to construct. So,
extending the analogy of climate with reference to the classroom, students might
experience the classroom climate as cold, indifferent, uninviting and frigid; warm,
comfortable and caring, or as hot, stifling and steamy where conflicts abound and
tempers are persistently high. We can thus appreciate the research findings from
McBer’s investigation which concluded that “effective teachers use their knowledge,
skills and behaviours to create effective learning environments in their classrooms.”
Such teachers he also observes “create environments which maximise opportunities to
learn, in which pupils are well managed and motivated to learn” (McBer, 2001, p
208.).

In the classrooms of effective teachers therefore, students experience a classroom in

which there is:
1. Clarity around the purpose of each lesson….
2. Order within the classroom, where discipline, order and civilised
behaviour are maintained.
3. A clear set of Standards as to how pupils should behave and what
each pupil should do and try to achieve, with a clear focus on higher
rather than minimum standards.
4. Fairness: the degree to which there is an absence of favouritism, and a
consistent link between rewards in the classroom and actual
performance.
5. Participation: the opportunity for pupils to participate actively in the
class by discussion, questioning, giving out materials, and other similar
activities.
6. Support: feeling emotionally supported in the classroom, so that
pupils are willing to try new things and learn from mistakes.

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 7. Safety: the degree to which the classroom is a safe place, where pupils
are not at risk from emotional or physical bullying, or other fear-
arousing factor.
8. Interest: the feeling that the classroom is an interesting and exciting
place to be, where pupils feel stimulated to learn.
9. Environment: the feeling that the classroom is a comfortable, well
organised, clean and attractive physical environment (McBer, 2001,
pp. 208-209).

The points outlined above suggest that teachers have a critical role to play in not only
designing lessons for instruction but in creating the right conditions for learning. They
do this by ensuring that both the physical and psychological environments are
carefully managed to optimize learning. In view of this we conclude our discussion of
classroom climate by examining the suggestions outlined by Kellough and Kellough
(2003) for creating a positive classroom atmosphere. They pointed out that teachers
should:
• Admonish behaviour, not persons.
• Assure that no bias or prejudice is ever displayed against any individual
student.
• Attend to the classroom’s physical appearance and comfort – it is your place
of work; show pride in that fact.
• Be an interesting person and an optimistic and enthusiastic teacher.
• Encourage students to set high yet realistic goals for themselves, and then
show them how to work in increments towards meeting their goal – letting
each know that you are confident in her or his ability to achieve.
• Help students develop their skills in interactive and cooperative learning.
• Involve students in every aspects of their learning, including the planning of
learning activities, thereby giving them part ownership and responsibility in
their learning.
• Make the learning fun, at least to the extent possible and reasonable.
• Send positive and easily understood messages home to parents or guardians,
even if you have to get help and write the message in the language of the
student’s home.

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 • Recognize and reward truly positive behaviors and individual successes, no
matter how meagre they might seem to you.
• Use interesting and motivating learning activities (2003, p.78).

Kellough and Kellough, also identified some behaviours that teachers are to avoid
which they argue inhibit rather than encourage learning. The behaviours to avoid
include those which involve, making comparison between students and classes,
encouraging students to be competitive, visibly giving up on students, telling a student
how much better he or she could be and using qualifying statement when giving a
positive remark such as “I like what you did but….” (2003, p.78).

The suggestions and guidelines for creating positive, constructive and facilitating
classroom learning environment/climate might seem overwhelming, idealistic and
perhaps not worth the effort. On the contrary however, they are feasible and
achievable if teachers are willing to take the time to engage in the task of making their
work spaces and the people with whom they work – the students – as comfortable and
task oriented as possible. This seems to be the obvious thing to do since most of a
teacher’s working and daylight hours are spent at work and away from home. In
addition, it is a part of the professional responsibility of teachers to create and
maintain an environment conducive for the discharge of their main teaching function
and the achievement of their primary objective - student learning and achievement.

Table 5.2 Activity 5.2

Reading Task
Read the chapter by Lang and Evans (2006) focusing on the section on classroom
climate and along with the preceding section, respond to the following questions.
1. What do you understand by the term classroom environment and how far can
teachers manipulate the physical, social and academic environment in their
classrooms? ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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2. What are the chief features of effective classroom climate? And how do these
compare with any classroom atmosphere that you learnt in as a student or in any
particular class in which you teach? How can you improve the climate of the
classroom in which you teach?-----------------------------------------------------------
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3. You can read the articles ‘A positive classroom climate’ and ‘The learning
environment – classroom climate’ for more information on classroom climate
from the respective websites: http://cte.udel.edu/TAbook/climate.html and
http://www.saskschools.ca/curr_content/adapthandbook/envir/classrm.html

Establishing classroom rules and procedures

Establishing classroom rules and procedures is one of the essential first steps towards
establishing a well managed classroom where the business of teaching and learning
can proceed in a climate where work is the norm and everyone knows and understand
what is acceptable and what is not. But is such a situation achievable in any
classroom? While the answer may be a resounding no or a hesitant yes it helps
nevertheless to know some of the chief ways in which teachers can establish rules and
procedures which are realistic enough to allow for some semblance of order in the
classroom. We will now look at some of the suggestions which have been offered in
the research literature about classroom rules and procedures.

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Rules and procedures help to determine the state of the classroom environment by
defining the boundaries for behaviour within a classroom – rules - and by regulating
the flow of activities within the classroom - routines (Smith and Laslett, 2000). A
more detailed explanation of rules and procedures and how they form a part of the
planning process generally is provided by Good and Brophy (2003) who explain that:
Effective classroom management begins with advanced planning, in which the
teacher thinks through the intended curriculum and its implications about the
kind of learning environment that will be needed to support it. Advanced
planning should attend to both rules and procedures. Rules define general
expectations or standards for classroom conduct…
Procedures are methods for accomplishing daily routines and other specific
activities that recur frequently in classrooms (Emmer, 1987, cited in Good and
Brophy, 2003, p.119).

Another definition of classroom rules and routines/procedures is provided by

Cruickshank, Bainer Jenkins, and Metcalf (2006) who explain that “Classroom rules
are directions that teach prosocial behaviours and create an environment conducive to
learning. Classroom routines are established procedures that direct and coordinate
how students move and how events occur” (p.383, bold in original). Cruickshank et
al pointed to research finding which shows “that academic achievement for students at
all levels is significantly higher in classrooms where rules and routines are
implemented” (2006, p.383). Levin and Nolan (2003) identify procedures and rules as
two types of classroom guidelines. They define procedures as “routines that call for
specified behaviours at particular times or during particular activities”. They noted as
well that “Procedures are directed at accomplishing something, not at managing
disruptive behaviour” (p.17). On the other hand Levin and Nolan (2003) explained
that “rules focus on appropriate behaviour” and “provide the guidelines for those
behaviours that are required if teaching and learning are to take place” (p.18).

Because rules cover a wider range of behaviours than do procedures it is generally a

more time-consuming task to develop rules. In explaining the reasons why rules are
needed, Levin and Nolan (2003) pointed to the dynamic nature of schools and
classrooms and to the wide range of activities – individual seat work, large group
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projects – that takes place within a classroom. While these changing activities create
the dynamism in the classroom which helps to motivate student learning, they also
have the potential for creating disruption. Research has indicated that “human
behaviour is highly sensitive to differing conditions across situations as well as to
changing conditions within situation” (Walker, 1979, cited in Levin and Nolan, 2003),
thereby justifying the need for rules aimed at “organizing the learning environment to
ensure the continuity and quality of teaching and learning and not at exerting control
over students (Brophy, 1988a, cited in Levin and Nolan, 2003, pp.18-19).

While it is agreed that rules and procedures are vital to the effective management of
the classroom, it is also agreed that rules should not be too numerous and ambiguous
such that the behaviours to which the rules apply are difficult to discern. In other
words, five to eight rules are the maximum which it is felt, students can recall easily.
Cruickshank et al also noted that “Rules should convey exactly what type of
behaviour is expected in observable, measurable terms”, which means that the
“wordings of the rules should be simple and specific enough to avoid alternative
interpretations.” They advised too that rules should be stated positively and that
desired behaviours are explained. Thus they suggested that “keep your eyes on the
teacher” is a better way of stating a rule rather than “no looking around”. They
suggested as well that rules should be placed prominently for all to see (2006, p.384).
In response to the question of whether students should have a say in the development
of classroom rules, they drew on research evidence which suggests “that the most
effective classroom managers engage students in the design of rules and routines”
(Cruickshank et al., 2006, p.384).

Levin and Nolan (2003) express similar views to those noted above with respect to
classroom rules. They noted therefore that:
A long list of do’s and don’ts is one sure way to reduce the likelihood that
rules will be effective. Teachers who attempt to cover every conceivable
classroom behaviour with a rule place themselves in the untenable position of
having to observe and monitor the most minute and insignificant student
behaviours. This leaves little time for teaching. Students, especially in upper
elementary and secondary grades, view a long list of do’s and don’ts as picky

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 and impossible to follow. They regard teachers who monitor and correct every
behaviour as nagging, unreasonable, and controlling (p.19).

How can teachers determine which rules are necessary if they are to ensure that they
are also fair, realistic and can be rationalized? Levin and Nolan in addressing this
issue stated that before meeting a class for the first time, the teacher should consider
seriously the necessary student behaviour that are needed in the classroom so as to
prevent discipline problems from occurring. They noted therefore that teachers should
keep in mind what constitutes a discipline problem in order to identify the appropriate
rules.

Defining a discipline problem as “any behavior that interferes with the teaching act,
interferes with the rights of others to learn, is psychologically or physically unsafe, or
destroy property”, Levin and Nolan (2003) contend that rules developed by the
teacher or by the teacher and students must be in keeping with how a discipline
problem is defined. Thus, such a rule can be rationalized to ensure that:
(1) the teacher’s right to teach is protected, (2) the students’ right to learning
are protected, (3) the students’ psychological and physical safety are
protected, and (4) property is protected. Rules so developed and
rationalized make sense to students because they are not arbitrary. Such
rules also lend themselves to the use of natural and logical consequences
when students fail to follow them (Levin and Nolan, 2003, p.19).

With respect to classroom procedures or routines much of what experienced teachers

do in the classroom have been observed by researchers who have found that teachers
typically develop routines to begin and end the day or class period, to regulate the use
of materials and equipment, and to guide transitions, group-work seatwork, and
teacher-led activities. They therefore noted that effective managers establish four
types of routines: management, activity, instructional, and executive planning
routines. For each, “the teacher must predetermine to whom the routine applies, when
it applies, and what procedures or steps are involved” (Cruickshank, 2006, p.384).
The four routines are examined below:
Management routines: involve non-academic matters such as distributing
and collecting materials and papers, leaving and entering the room, making
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transitions between activities and classes, cleaning the room and taking
attendance. They are the nuts and bolts of a smoothly functioning classroom…
Many management routines are related to classroom transitions such as
entering and leaving the room. Transitions are frequent classroom events…
While effective classroom managers construct transitions in approximately 30
seconds, less effective teachers require up to nine minutes… poorly conducted
transitions are disruptive, waste instructional time, and encourage
misbehaviour.

Activity routines: effective teachers establish activity routines that spell out
how each kind of activity will be conducted…
Effective planning for activity routines includes the location, duration, and
participants. Further, activity routines specify the content, structure, and
sequence of the activity and let students know what materials are needed.
Activity routines also provide important guidelines for appropriate student
behavior and interactions. They establish ways for the students and teacher to
gain each others’ attention and appraise students of when it is acceptable to
interact with one another

Instructional routines: establish what the teacher will do while teaching. For
example, when one mathematics teacher is about to begin teaching a new
concept, he sets up the teaching station by pulling down the projection screen
and focusing the overhead projector. His overhead transparencies are in a
three-ring binder, so he turns to the appropriate lesson and pulls out the
sequenced transparencies for that lesson. Immediately following the lesson, he
washes and returns the transparencies to the notebook. The handouts he needs
for class are stacked next to the overhead projector in the order in which they
will be distributed. Routine use of the overhead projector, transparencies, and
handouts are the backbone of this teacher’s instructional routine.

Executive planning routines: include establishing how, when and where you
will complete your teaching tasks – for example, how and when you will plan
for instruction, correct papers, use your preparation time at school, and fulfill
clerical responsibilities such as filling out attendance reports and grade cards.
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 Establishing these routines helps you manage your time more effectively so
that you can balance your professional and personal responsibilities
(Cruickshank, Bainer Jenkins and Metcalf, 2006, pp.384-387).

Having examined how rules and procedures for the classroom should be established
examine the cartoon below and comment on the issue to which the cartoon relates.
While it employs exaggeration as a device to convey the message as do most
cartoons, what do you believe to be the message that is being conveyed by the
cartoonist?

Figure 5.1 Mrs Mutner’s Classroom Rules

Source: maxweber.hunter.cuny.edu/…mutner.gif

Table 5.3 Activity 5.3

Topic Review.

Task: Analyzing content and underlying message in the cartoon

1. What principles for establishing classroom rules are absent from Mrs. Mutner’s
attempt at establishing such rules for her classroom above?---------------------------------
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2. What could be the likely consequences of her attempt to establish so many rules?
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3. Attempt to reduce and categorize Mrs Mutner’s classroom rules to make them more
realistic and achievable
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Write down the behaviours that are depicted in the cartoon below and make up a list
of classroom rules that apply to these behaviours. In other words draw up a list of
rules that you would need to share with students in order to prevent, reduce, eliminate
or address certain students’ behaviour which are likely to occur during lessons.
Attempt to categorize the rules that are applicable to the behaviours shown.

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Figure 5.2 Student and Teacher’s Classroom Behaviours

Source:
http://maxweber.hunter.cuny.edu/pub/eres/EDSPC715_MCINTYRE/4Compone
nts.html
Use the link above to read the information on creating a behaviour management
system for your classroom.

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Table 5. 4 Activity 5.4

Students Behaviours and Possible Classroom Rules and Procedures to Address or

Prevent these Behaviours
1. Make a note of the all the student behaviours that you can identify in the cartoon.
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2. Make a note of the behaviours that are ‘not pictured’.
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3. What rules do you think are needed to prevent or address these behaviours?
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4. What classroom procedures appear to be missing or not effectively enforced?

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5. Identify the teacher’s behaviours. How might these behaviours contribute to
students’ classroom behaviours?
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6. Read the following chapters included in your Course Reader (1) Teaching for
Order and Control by Charles Desforges (2) Classroom Management by Lang and
Evans and (3) Four Rules of Classroom Management by Smith and Laslett

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Session 5.3

Managing the Instructional Process and Student Behaviours

Planning for instruction involves the purposeful mapping out of how to organize
students for learning as well as working out the sequence in which the lesson is to be
presented. It also involves establishing a climate that is inviting, non-threatening and
businesslike. We have already examined how the teacher establishes such a climate
and the rules and procedures which are put in place to facilitate a smooth functioning
classroom as far as possible. We turn our attention now to the ways in which the
instructional skills of teachers influence the teaching/learning process in terms of how
well the lesson flows from beginning to end thereby allowing for the achievement of
instructional goals. While teachers must demonstrate some mastery in their
pedagogical behaviours to implement a successful lesson, they need also to be capable
of exhibiting certain behaviours that research has established are associated with
effective classroom management.

Classroom organization takes into account “the academic and social arrangements of
students within classrooms.” In organizing students for instruction teachers can
“teach to and work with the entire class of students, smaller groups of students, or
individual students” (Anderson 2004, p.63). But how does classroom organization
affects or influences the management of instruction? First, the teacher must plan
ahead how the different segment of the lesson will be implemented. Usually, at the
beginning of the lesson, the teacher will instruct the students as a whole group by
alerting them to the objectives or focus of the lesson, getting them motivated to learn
by activating some previous learning experiences which will open the pathway to new
learning. Whole class instruction therefore serves the important function at the
beginning of the lesson, of gaining the attention of all the students before they are
required to work in small groups, as triads, pairs or individually.

Secondly, deciding how to organize students for learning is not only a matter of
choosing when to use whole class, small group or individual instruction. There are
other factors to be considered. These include ensuring that instruction progresses
smoothly from one stage to the next, that sufficient time is spent on task to facilitate
learning while preventing boredom and tiredness and that enough time is allowed

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towards the end of the lesson to allow students to review the learning that might have
taken place, or to prepare them for the next lesson to come and provide closure for the
one about to end. The preceding points are reinforced by Kyriacou (1998) who
observed that “One of the key areas of lesson management are the skills used in
beginning a lesson, handling the transitions within the lesson between activities (say,
moving from group work to whole-class discussion) and bringing a lesson to a
successful ending” (p.49). Classroom organization is concerned with the decisions
made on how to organize or group students for instruction which may or may not
involve the physical rearrangement of the classroom and preplanned ideas on the
criteria to be used for grouping them. Proper organization enhances effective
management of lessons.

Among the issues that teachers have to take into account to ensure the effective
management of instruction are the following which relates integrally to each phase of
a lesson. As Kyriacou (1998) notes, punctuality and mental set (an attitude of mind in
which the pupil prepares to devote attention and mental effort towards the activities
you set up) are the “two most important aspects of the beginning of the lesson” (p.49).
Other writers concur on these two aspects as indicated below.
Strategies for beginning of lessons: it is important that a lesson has a good beginning
and one which is stimulating, creative and diverse. Bourdillon and Storey (2002)
identified the following advice from experienced to beginning teachers about how to
begin lessons well as follow:

Try to arrive before the class.

Always ensure that the class is quiet, with bags put away…before beginning
the lessons.

Have some stimulus as well as yourself to set the class going – a prompt on
the board, an OHP [overhead projector] or a chart, for example. A prompt
allows the teacher to become more mobile in the class and avoid being rooted
behind the teacher’s desk or at the front.

Scan the whole class regularly and make eye contact with as many individuals
as possible; use pleasant, firm and friendly smiles!

Keep the introduction short and, if you need to impart an extended amount of
information, use a resource in addition to talking.

Be clear about the sequence of activities, the ‘what happens next’.
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Be aware that latecomers may interrupt an introduction; have a form of words
that tells them to sit down and wait and that you will clarify what has to be
done once the lesson is underway (Bourdillon and Storey, 2002, p.162).

Compare the points listed above with those given by Butt (2006) who warns that the
beginning of a lesson is the period “when students decide whether they are being
offered a valuable educational experience that they will engage with, or whether they
will reluctantly endure the next 70 minutes!” (p.66), or whatever amount of time the
lesson takes. In view of this he provides some similar and additional advice to those
above:

If possible, arrive in the classroom before the start of the lesson. Put the aim of
the lesson on the board, organize whatever teaching resources or technology
you will use, check the classroom layout and make sure you have everything
you need ‘to hand’.

Greet the students at the door, either line them up and organize an orderly
entrance to the classroom or supervise their entry with reminders to sit down
quickly… take out exercise books, etc.

When the majority of students are in the classroom settle them down, get them
to look to the front (try to get eye contact and scan the classroom) and to put
down any pens, pencils, or books they may be distracted by. Try to ensure
complete silence before you ‘start’ the lesson – expect it, ask for it, wait for it.
Students must not be talking and should be listening. A register is often taken
at this point, which also helps to establish control.

Be clear about the aims of the lesson. Students perform best when they
understand both the purpose of the lesson and your expectations of how they
should act and perform… Problems often occur if students are unclear about
what they have to do, how they should do it and what will happen if they
don’t!

Try to learn and refer to students by name…classroom management is much
easier once you can directly refer to an individual by name rather than
offering vague comments to a group of students.

Be clear and concise when giving instructions about activities you want the
students to undertake.

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In addition to the above, Butt (2006) emphasized the importance of starting lessons in
a brisk and purposeful fashion and to vary lesson introductions so as to prevent the
lessons from becoming too boring, predictable and routine. He therefore suggested
that in planning good starters teachers should:

Plan a starter that meets the lesson objectives;

Plan an activity that will be brief and keep to your timings;

Make your instructions and questions clear and concise;

Deal with diversions and distractions decisively;

Try to differentiate [ providing activities that will cater to different learning
styles and abilities] to ensure that all students can play a meaningful role in
the starter activity;

Keep starters varied. (Butt, 2006, p.72).

Table 5.5 (a) Activity 5.5 (a)

Application Activity

How essential is a good beginning to the management of instruction? What might be

the result of an ineffective lesson beginning? Provide some examples of interesting
lesson introductions for a topic in your subject area
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Skills for managing transitions within the lesson: While a lesson’s introduction sets
the tone for the rest of the lesson, how the teacher moves from one lesson segment to
the next or from activity to activity during the main phase of the lesson is just as
important. Concepts such as transition, momentum, pacing are used in reference to

208
how teachers plan the timing of the lesson with regards to how they sequence and
manage instruction so as to keep students gainfully occupied, and interested in the
lesson. Time for disruption is minimized when the teacher transitions quickly and
smoothly from one activity to another while maintaining adequate pacing and
momentum within the lesson. Bourdillon and Storey (2002) in explaining how the
timing of the lesson relates to the ideas of pacing and momentum noted that “The
pace of the lesson is the rapidity and frequency with which new points of knowledge
are introduced”, while momentum refers to “the rhythm of activities”. (p.97).
Transitions refers to the movement which takes place from one activity to another and
therefore encompasses pace and momentum.

The importance of these features to the successful implementation and management

of a lesson is underscored by Leask and Davison (2001) who observed that “Smooth,
seamless transitions between one part of the lesson and the next are vital if there is to
be overall continuity and coherence” (p.74). They noted in addition, the need for
teachers to explain the purpose of the first pupil task and subsequent tasks, the need
for the establishment of routines for the distribution of materials during the lesson, for
teacher to move around to monitor students progress and dealing with queries while
not interfering unnecessarily, and the need “to give one or two minute’ warning of the
end of the activity.” They observed that the effectiveness of the teacher’s management
of the class is dependent upon their active involvement and that the key skills needed
are “circulation; monitoring progress; the use of proximity to pupils; sensitivity to and
awareness of, pupils needs”. Leask and Davison commented at the same time on the
inappropriateness of sitting at the teacher’s desk and switching off, “Even when the
whole class is engaged in a task” (2001, p.74).

Butt (2006) concurs that the teacher should move around as the lesson gets underway
so as to provide support for individuals or groups in their learning activities. He wrote
in addition that “the pace of the lesson should be brisk and purposeful, but not at the
expense of the less able students’ learning” (p.73). In changing from one activity to
the next, he suggested that the teacher should be clear about how the new activity is to
be carried out by students and the time it should take. At the point at which a change
in activity is about to take place, the teacher should ensure silence so that students can
receive instructions for carrying out the new task. In transitioning from one activity to
209
the next, Kyriacou (2001) adds that “the teacher needs to be sensitive to how a lesson
is progressing in deciding when to initiate a transition” (p.51). He noted in this regard
that teachers can decide if it is necessary to allow more time on a task if students are
working well but slower than anticipated, rather than interrupt the activity before it is
completed in order to move on to another.

These suggestions given by the writers above are based on the assumptions that
teachers do plan for more than one activity for an instructional session. This
observation not only raises the issue of variety during instruction to keep students
stimulated but also points to a potential weakness in instructional planning if such
variety is not taken into consideration. It opens the potential for boredom and thus
provide an avenue for disruption, an issue we will return to when we examine teacher
behaviours and instructional management.

Table 5.5 (b) Activity 5.5 (b)

Application Activity: lesson observation – focus lesson development, lesson

pacing and momentum

Task # 1: Seek permission from a colleague to observe his/her lesson and focus
specifically on the development phase of a lesson and note down the way in
which the teacher moved from one activity to the next, the number of activities
used in the lesson, and the events (if any) which caused a break in the pace and
momentum of the lesson during the transitions. Discuss your findings with your
colleague and share online

Task # 2: How might the absence of proper pacing and momentum in a lesson
lead to classroom management problems?

Keep the issue of lesson transitions, pace and momentum in mind as you
examine the different types of teaching behaviours that can facilitate or lead to a
breakdown in the management of instruction.

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Strategies for the ending of lessons
The ending of lessons is no less important than the beginning and developmental or
main phase of the lesson and might in fact be the phase that is likely to present the
most challenge if not properly planned for. As Bourdillon and Storey (2002) observe,
“The ending of lessons also present organizational challenges” (p.163). Such
challenges will arise if procedures are not in place to guide certain activities that
comes with the ending of the lesson, such as the return of instructional resources
distributed to students at the outset, providing closure for an activity that was not
completed, reserving sufficient time at the end to review the main teaching/learning
points and procedures to follow for leaving the classroom. With respect to the
management of the ending of a lesson, Kyriacou (2001) highlighted three important
issues relating to ending the lesson on time rather than too early or too late. As he
noted therefore:
Ending early can imply a lack of concern about the worthwhileness of using
all the time available… Ending late can imply that you lack the organisational
skills to marshal the activities together, and will deprive you of the
opportunity to finish the lesson in a well-ordered and unhurried fashion. Most
students will naturally resent lessons running over time on a regular basis
(p.52).

The second management issues identified by Kyriacou (2001) are those concerning
the procedures used for getting students ready for the ending of the lesson. These may
include “collecting books and equipment, giving feedback on the work done, and
setting homework or other action needed before the next lesson” (Kyriacou, 2001,
p.52). The third management issue is that which concerns how students exit the
classroom. This should be orderly and should be controlled by the teacher until the
pupils have learnt how to make a well-ordered exit from the classroom.

Examine the following checklist which summarizes the important points which should
be taken into consideration in planning for teaching and managing instruction. These
points should be revisited as you establish the link between planning for instruction
and classroom management. This involves as you should recall establishing the
appropriate classroom climate, the provision of rules and procedures and the practice
of skills and behaviours to prevent behavioural problems.
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 Key questions about your lesson management

1. Does my lesson start smoothly and promptly, and induce a positive mental set
among pupils?
2. Does the management of the lesson help to elicit and maintain pupils’
attention, interest and motivation?
3. Is the pace and flow of the lesson maintained at an appropriate level and are
transitions between activities well-managed?
4. Do I carefully monitor the progress of pupils so that the effectiveness of the
lesson is maintained by giving individual help or making modifications and
adjustments to the development of the lesson, as appropriate?
5. Do I give clear guidance and direction concerning what is expected of pupils
during each activity, and manage their time and effort, in relation to their
involvement in and the sequencing of the various activities, to good effect?
6. Do I make effective use of the various materials, resources and teaching aids,
so that pupils’ time is not wasted waiting for equipment to be set up or
materials distributed?
7. Do I organise and control the logistics of classroom life, such as how pupils
answer questions, collect equipment or form into groups, so that the order
necessary for learning to occur is maintained?
8. In particular, do I use effective management strategies in handling pupil
movement and the general level of noise?
9. Is the feedback conveyed to pupils about their progress helpful and
constructive, and does it encourage further progress?
10. Do my lessons end effectively, in terms of ending on time, drawing the topic
of the lesson to an appropriate conclusion, and having a well ordered exit by
pupils from the classroom?

Kyriacou, C. (2001). Essential teaching skills (2nd ed) (p.63). Cheltenham, United
Kingdom: Nelson Thornes Ltd.

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Table 5.5 (c) Activity 5.5 (c)

Lesson Ending
1. Why should teachers take as much care in bringing a lesson to closure as they
do in designing an effective lesson introduction? -----------------------------------
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2. What do effective lesson endings look like? -----------------------------------------
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Teachers’ Instructional Behaviours and the Management of Student Behaviours

We have focused on the relationship between instructional planning and lesson and
classroom management and have looked as well at how the teacher establishes the
classroom climate and the rules and procedures to ensure as far as possible that
classroom activities proceed as smoothly as possible and appropriate student
behaviours defined. In this section we examine the different instructional behaviours
of teachers that research findings have identified as being effective in eliciting and
managing appropriate student behaviours and in preventing, diffusing or correcting
inappropriate behaviours.

Planning for instruction involves more than working out the manner in which the
content of the lesson is to be presented and the activities that students will be engaged
in to acquire the content. Planning should involve attention to how to manage
students’ behaviour so that the possibilities for disruptions are minimized and that
students will be engaged meaningfully in the learning process. It is likely that

213
planning of this nature is more implicit than explicit and that thoughts about students’
behaviour are not even considered when planning a lesson. As the literature on
classroom management shows however, classroom teachers are even expected to
develop a personal classroom management plan to work out for themselves the
specific rules and routines/procedures that will guide their classroom interactions with
their students.

Not planning for the management of the classroom therefore is essentially an

abrogation of a key responsibility for ensuring the efficient and smooth running of the
classroom. Research has highlighted a number of teacher behaviours which are
associated with encouraging, managing, prohibiting or correcting certain student
behaviours. These teacher or instructional behaviours have been given specific labels
based on the nature of such behaviours. One of the first and perhaps most influential
study of teacher behaviours linked to the management of instruction was carried out
by Jacob Kounin and formed the basis for the book he published in 1970.

Subsequent to his ground breaking study, other researchers have built on or expanded
his work to the extent that the literature on classroom/school management is now
quite prolific. We will examine the different instructional behaviours initially
identified by Kounin and the student behaviours with which they are associated
whether to prevent, manage or correct the behaviours that students are likely to
exhibit.

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Table 5.6 Teacher Instructional Behaviours and their Meanings

Teacher Their Meanings

instructional
behaviours

1. Withitness: • Being aware of all events, activities and student behaviours in the
classroom. This knowledge is conveyed to students. Teachers who
demonstrate withitness are usually skilful at two particular
instructional behaviors. First, they know who is causing a
disturbance…Secondly, withit teachers can handle more than one
situation at a time and can do it promptly. They also know how to
react appropriately. (See page 96 of Manning and Bucher and read
activity 6-1 ‘Demonstrating Withitness’. Read also pages 176- 177
of Lang and Evans)

2. Desist • Efforts to stop misbehaviour. Desists are necessary at times and have
the potential of a ripple effect which occurs when the teacher’s
correction of a student’s behaviour produces better behaviour among
other students. Desists can also be threatening. The suggestion is that
teachers should know when a situation requires the issuing of a
desist or a more subtle response to a misbehaviour (See page 97 of
Manning and Bucher and read the situations presented in the section
‘How would you React 6-1 on page 98)

3. Overlapping • Essentially means the ability of a teacher to engage in multiple tasks

simultaneously. According to Wattenburg (1977, cited in Manning
and Bucher, 2007), “overlapping is what teachers do when they have
two matters to deal with at the same time” (p.97). Overlapping as
Manning and Bucher argues “is an essential instructional skill
because teachers often are expected to engage in more than one
activity at a time” (2007, p. 98).
• Read page 98 of Manning and Bucher for situations that leads to
overlapping and examples of situations in which teachers have
successfully used overlapping.
• Read page 177 of Lang and Evans which also gives examples of
effective overlapping behaviours.

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Teacher
Their Meanings
Instructional
Behaviours

4. Satiation • Occurs when a teacher teaches the same lesson for so long that the
students grow tired of the topic. According to Manning and Bucher
(2007) “With a little thought and planning, effective teachers can
avoid satiation and its accompanying problems” by taking the
appropriate steps to overcome it. (p.99). Among the step they
identified are showing genuine zest and enthusiasm for the topic;
making a positive statement about the topic; and pointing out the
intellectual challenge that the activity provides.
• Read activity 6-2 ‘Avoiding Satiation’ in Manning and Bucher
(2007).

5. Jerkiness • Refers to the lack of lesson smoothness and momentum. Wattenberg

(1977, cited by Manning and Bucher) states that some teachers
demonstrate jerkiness in the way they pace instruction or proceed
with the lesson” (p.100). This is seen when they switch from one
topic to another suddenly or when they change activities without
completing the one from which they switched.

6. Stimulus • When the teacher is distracted from the lesson by another event or
Bound
issue. The teacher becomes bound by the stimulus which causes the
distraction. According to Manning and Bucher, this causes a loss in
the instructional focus and momentum. They noted however that this
distraction can be prevented if the teacher recognizes the negative
effects it has on the lesson and “make a genuine commitment to
maintaining the instructional focus” (2007, p.100).

7. Thrust • This refers to the action of teachers in suddenly ‘bursting in’ on

students activities with an order, statement or question without
looking for or being sensitive to the group readiness to receive the
message.
• See page 100 Manning and Bucher

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Teacher Their Meanings
Instructional
Behaviours

8. Dangles and • A dangle occurs when a teacher starts an activity and leaves it
Truncation
hanging in midair by beginning another activity. Later the teacher
might resume the original activity. A truncation is similar to a
dangle but in this case the teacher does not resume the dropped
activity.
• Read through ‘How would you React 6-2 on page 101 of Manning
and Bucher in your reader.

9. Flip Flops • Occurs mainly at transition points such as when the teacher
terminates one activity and begins another and then reverts to the
first activity. When this happens, Manning and Bucher argue that the
teacher confuses students, who then begin to lose their instructional
focus and misbehave. They noted also that “Teachers who are good
instructional managers realize the importance of smoothness and
momentum, and …carefully avoid flip-flops…” (2007, p.101).

10. Slowdowns: • Kounin differentiated between two types of slowdowns which relate
Overdwelling
to instructional movement and consist of movements which reduce
and
Fragmentation smoothness by slowing down the rate of instructional movement.
The first type of slowdown is overdwelling which happens “when a
teacher dwells on corrective behaviour longer than needed or on a
lesson longer than required for most students’ understanding and
interest levels.” The next type of slowdown is fragmentation which
“is produced when a teacher breaks down an activity or behaviour
into subparts, even though the activity could be performed easily as a
single unit or an uninterrupted sequence” (Manning and Bucher,
2007, p.102).
• See page 102 of Manning and Bucher for Management Tip 6-2 and
page 103 for activity 6-3 ‘Determining Slowing’

Source: Manning, M. L. and Bucher, K. T. (2007). Classroom management: Models,

applications, and cases. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

217
The teacher behaviours outlined above are concerned mainly with the management of
the instructional process. According to Manning and Bucher (2007)
Good classroom management occurs when teachers create a positive
classroom environment, clear classroom procedures and clear classroom rules.
By identifying behaviour and implementing interventions, teachers are able to
make a difference and help students understand the structure of the classroom
(Grossman, 2004; Wemlinger, 2004, cited in Manning and Bucher, 2007,
p.104).
Manning and Bucher (2007) also noted that Kounin’s “Instructional model has
considerable potential to help teachers in the role of both instructor and manager” and
“reflects the philosophy that preventing behaviour problems is easier than dealing
with them after they occur” (p.104).

In amplifying the discussion of Kounin’s instructional model, Jones and Jones (2004)
explained that Kounin conducted intense research on the classroom practices of
teachers acknowledged as effective in managing their classroom and those who had
serious and consistent management problems. His chief finding was that the teachers
described as successful teachers prevented discipline problems from occurring by
using “many types of management skills to ensure that students were consistently and
actively engaged in instructional activities (p.282). Jones and Jones noted therefore
that:
 Successful teachers were better prepared and organized and moved smoothly
from one activity to another
 These teachers also maintained students involvement in instructional activities
by initially stimulating the students interests and effectively holding their
attention throughout the lesson
 Successful teachers used seatwork that was individualized and interesting
 The more effective teachers had greater classroom awareness, constantly
scanning the classroom so that they were aware of potential problems and
could deal with these before any real difficulty arose
 These teachers anticipated students needs, organized their classrooms to
minimize restlessness and boredom, and effectively coped with the multiple
and often overlapping demands associated with teaching (2004, p.282).

218
Despite the fact that Kounin’s findings have been reinforced by subsequent research
which has even showed that successful classroom management is associated with
students learning gains (Brophy & Good, 1986; Teddlie & Stringfield, 1993, cited in
Manning and Bucher, 2007), Kounin’s work has been criticized for being silent on
actions to be taken when behaviours escalate out of control. Perhaps that was not his
concern and Manning and Bucher (2007) have commented on the usefulness of his
model within the realm of teachers’ instructional behaviours during lessons. In any
event other models or approaches to classroom management exist which focus on
issues such as assertive discipline (the Canter model); behaviour modification (the
Skinner model); social discipline (The Dreikers model); discipline with dignity (The
Curwin and Mendler model); and cooperative discipline (The Albert model).

As you will no doubt discover from your reading of the research literature and general
texts on classroom management, the emphasis and language of the research and
writing community on this topic has changed over time as more focus is being paid to
preventing problems rather than reacting to problems. Thus, it is now common
practice to speak of classroom management rather than classroom control, and less
focus on discipline and more on prevention. The language of classroom management
is therefore now more positive and less punitive in tone. At the same time, the
literature on classroom/school management shows a remarkable degree of consistency
in some of the guidelines given for dealing with or preventing misbehaviour from
occurring or escalating and in the advice given to teachers on how they should interact
with students.

For instance, as we have already discussed, the literature stress the establishment of a
classroom climate conducive to teaching and learning, the setting of rules to guide the
running of the classroom and development of procedures for carrying out certain
routine activities. Suggestions have been provided for teachers concerning the
management of instruction and students’ behaviour using their own professional skills
and behaviours which they are expected to monitor and hone continuously. At the
same time, teachers have also been cautioned about how to deal with students who are
out of control, how not to embarrass students and to demonstrate a show of
power/authority especially through threats which might result in a situation where a
student’s response is intended to ‘save face’ which therefore results in an act of
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defiance at the same time. The literature also urges teachers to show respect to
students, to refrain from comparing them with others and in some cases not to touch
them in a threatening way and a whole host of other do’s and dont’s.

It seems very clear that much student misbehaviour can be prevented if teachers take
seriously their responsibility to design a classroom environment where learning in a
business like, yet convivial way is promoted and where mischief making feels out of
place. Of even greater import however is the role of the school itself in working
assiduously to find ways to reduce incidents of misbehaviour especially if they fall
within the definition of illicit activities, aggression and violence. The extent to which
administrative actions can also lead to a break down in efforts to manage classrooms
instruction and student behaviour is underscored by Kellough and Kellough (2003)
below in highlighting the manner in which administrators interrupt classrooms. This
extract below was used by them in their text as the basis for an exercise designed for
the observation of a classroom for frequency of external interruption.

It is disconcerting how often teachers and students learning in classroom of some schools
are interrupted by announcements from over the intercom, a phone call, or a visitor at the
door. After all, no one would even consider interrupting a surgeon during the most climatic
moments of an open heart operation, nor a defense attorney at the climax of her summation,
but, far too often teachers are interrupted just at a critical point in a lesson. Once lost
because of an interruption, student attention and that teachable moment is nearly impossible
to recapture.
School administrators and office personnel must sometimes be reminded that the most
important thing going on in school is that which teachers have been hired to do – teach – and
the act of teaching must not be frivolously interrupted. In our opinion, except for absolutely
critical reasons, teachers should never be interrupted after the first five minutes of a class
period and before the last five minutes. That policy should be established and rigidly
adhered to. Otherwise, after many years of being a student, the lesson learned is that the
least important thing going on at the school is that which is going on in the classroom. No
wonder then it is so difficult for teachers in some schools to gain student attention and
respect. That respect should be shown starting from the school’s central office (Kellough
and Kellough, 2003, p.87).

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It seems that in an effort to support teachers in dealing more effectively and
proactively with the issue of managing instruction and students’ behaviour, a more
responsive approach to the increasing challenges of teaching would be to provide
regular opportunities for in-service educational opportunities. In this instance these in-
service professional development programmes should be focussed on how to
effectively manage classrooms for these have proven effective in helping teachers to
learn and develop professionally within the context of practice. Teachers can also be
encouraged and expected as a part of managing their own professional development to
do their own individual research to keep abreast of educational developments. Very
often teachers become engrossed in seeking out content for teaching while neglecting
to keep informed about developments in the area of classroom pedagogies and
research on issues relating to students’ learning and the management of classrooms.
We look now at some of the ways in which teachers can prevent classroom
management problems linked to certain student behaviours.

Proactive intervention skills

It was noted earlier that it is now common practice to speak of classroom management
rather than classroom control, and less focus on discipline and more on prevention.
Some recommendations have been made with respect to the development of proactive
skills by teachers so as to lessen the need for “intrusive management techniques”.
Among the proactive intervention skills identified by Levin and Nolan (2003) are the
following:

1. Changing the pace of instruction. When students are showing signs of

boredom, it is time to change the pace of instruction so as to increase the
participation of students. Levin and Nolan suggested that “To reduce the need
for on-the-spot change-of-pace activities, lesson plans should provide for a
variety of learning experiences that accommodate the attention spans and
interests of the students both in time and in type”(p.25).
2. Removing seductive objectives. This skill does not call for the disruption of the
teaching act. It requires that the teacher removes the object that is attracting
the attention of the students and promise to return it after class

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 3. Interest boosting of a student who shows signs of off-task behaviour. This skill
is usually required when students become off-task when involved in individual
or small group task. Levin and Nolan contend that “It is during these times
that the potential for chatter, daydreaming, or other off-task behaviour is
high”. They offer that when this occur the teacher “can boost the interest of
the student by walking over to the student and asking how the work is going or
checking the answers…” (2003, p.25).
4. Redirecting the behaviour of off-task students. This skill helps to refocus the
student’s attention. Students who are passing notes, talking, or daydreaming
may be asked to read, do a problem, or answer a question. When this
technique is used, it is important to treat the student as if she/[he] were paying
attention. Levin and Nolan discount the need for causing the student ridicule
by making remarks such as “you would know where we were if you were
paying attention.” They explained that the “get back on-task” message the
teacher is sending is clearly received by the student whether or not she/[he]
answers the question…and does not require any negative comment (2003,
p.26).
5. Nonpunitive time out. This skill should be used for students who show signs of
encountering a provoking, painful, frustrating, or fatiguing situation. This
consists of a change in activity to give the student time to regain control before
re-entering the learning environment. Levin and Nolan pointed out that
teachers must be alert to the signs of frustration so they can act in a timely
fashion to help students cope.
6. Encouraging the appropriate behaviour of other students: This is achieved be
referring to other students who are performing the desired behaviour with
respect to the performance of an assigned task. This will remind “off-task
students of the behaviour that is expected of them” (Levin and Nolan, 2003,
p.26).
7. Providing cues for expected behaviour. Cues can be quite effective in
obtaining the desired behaviour, but the teacher must be sure the cue is
understood by all. (Levin and Nolan, 2003, p.26).

We conclude this section of the unit by reviewing how teachers should ensure that
they establish classroom in which teaching and learning can go on apace with the
222
minimum of distraction to the process and how interactions between teachers and
students can be more professional, amicable and respectful. Moore (2007) provides a
summary of some guidelines for the management of the classroom derived from
experienced teachers.

He noted that they are ‘teacher-tested suggestions for preventing behaviour problems
some if not most of which you would have discerned explicitly or implicitly from the
issues examined in this unit and from the related readings:
1. Begin class on time
2. Set up procedures for beginning your class
3. Set up procedures for dismissing your class
4. Keep desks and storage areas clean
5. Stop misbehaviour immediately
6. Make transitions between activities quick and orderly
7. Talk of the class not to the chalkboard
8. Be polite to the students and reinforce their politeness
9. Be firm and consistent
10. Do not threaten
11. Be with-it
12. Use non-verbal signals
13. Be helpful, not hurtful
14. Use corporal punishment only as a last resort
15. Plan well
16. Use verbal reprimands with care
17. Always set a good example (Moore, 2007, pp.287-288).
Attempt to explain the significance of these guidelines and the possible repercussions
that can results if they are not heeded.

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Table 5.7 Activity 5.6

Topic Review
1. How far can teachers use the behaviours described by Kounin to manage
students’ behaviour during instruction. In you classroom observations note if
and to what degree of success did the teacher observed display any of these or
any other teacher behaviour to prevent, or in response to a possible student
misbehaviour or off task behaviour. --------------------------------------------------
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2. How useful is Kounin’s model of instructional management to the
contemporary classroom? --------------------------------------------------------------
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3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Kounin’s model of
instructional management? -------------------------------------------------------------
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Figure 5.3 Components of Classroom Management
Review Activity

Source: http://www.aare.edu.au/01pap/Image362.jpg

Table 5.8 Activity 5.7

Examine the diagram above and respond to the items below:

1. How important is the issue of classroom management to the teaching/learning process

2. What are some of the different views on classroom management? Specifically, how
have writers defended their use of the term classroom management as against the
more traditional term classroom discipline?
3. How important are classroom rules and routines and what are some of the benefits to
be derived from establishing them?
4. How is time management a facet of classroom management and what relationship is
there between the establishment and implementation of classroom rules and the
management of lessons in terms of maintaining momentum, transitions, and time on
tasks?

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Session 5.4

Contemporary Challenges to the Management of Students’

Behaviour in Schools and Classrooms

The historic and contemporary nature of students’ behaviours in schools and

classrooms

Despite the plethora of books written on classroom management, the numerous

studies done on the issue of classroom discipline and control and the different
intervention strategies developed to combat issues relating to students’ misbehaviour,
the management of students behaviour in schools and classrooms continue to be one
of the most serious threat to teaching and learning in many schools in many countries
today. We can identify several reasons for this from the negative effects/influences of
the internet, the television, lyrics found in popular music, nature of students’
socialization experiences, the use and abuse of drugs, and the culture of violence
which pervades many societies. Teachers as the primary agents through which the
curriculum is delivered and who are largely responsible for the cultural transmission
of a society’s traditions, values, history and heritage find themselves with the
responsibility for curing and curtailing the effects of all the societal ills identified
above and more.

Some writers have gone to the extent to assure prospective teachers in particular, that
the principles of classroom management that are available are workable and should at
least be applied. It is useful for you to remember or note that theories relating to
classroom management are not to be viewed as generally idealistic principles which
are derived from theoreticians. Theories are derived from empirical evidence
combined with the work of the intellect as answers to questions and problems are
sought. Thus the suggestions which are given to help prevent or to respond to student
misbehaviour are derived from research which involves classroom observations. For
example, Kounin’s model of instructional management was developed from
observations of video tapes on classrooms instructions of experienced teachers and
how they managed their classrooms during instruction. Whatever the nature of the
influences on students’ behaviour, the overall effect is expressed in violence of some

226
form or another. The work by King (1998) provides a historical perspective on the
nature of school violence in Jamaica and shows that violence is not only physical in
nature. She also points to some of the reasons for school violence which are generated
within school themselves drawing on the research findings of Evans. The research
findings of Anderson (2004/05) also points to the currency and nature of the situation
where school violence is concerned in Jamaica.

A reading of some of the literature on classroom management and the issue of student
misbehaviour from different cultural contexts and reports in the media, indicate that
school/classroom related problems and incidents of violence, aggression and other
serious forms of misconduct are not very different in nature but differs if at all mainly
in magnitude and/or sophistication. It is necessary therefore to have a broad based
knowledge of this very important and central issue which affects the work of
teachers/schools and the performance of students. Familiarity with the variety and
nature of students’ behaviour, their possible causes and effects, the steps or measures
taken to prevent and remediate and the results of these steps to date is essential
knowledge for both prospective and in-service or practicing teachers. The success or
failure of intervention/prevention strategies might be indicative of the extent to which
behavioural management theories developed for other cultural contexts are relevant or
not applicable to the Caribbean situation.

This final session of the unit and of the course invites you to contribute to our
collective knowledge base on the status of school and classroom problems, violence,
control and management as the issue of student conduct and behaviour have been
defined and described over time. For this session, you will begin with the reading in
your course reader by Ruby King which outlined the historic nature of school
violence in Jamaica. Can you locate any similar discussion of school violence in your
country? If not use King’s article as the starting point. Then read through the article
by Anderson (2004) which outlines the currency of the situation of school violence in
Jamaica following the prompts given in the activity box. Thereafter, examine the
newspaper clippings included in your course reader. These are a random selection of
articles related to school violence and some attempts and suggestions for addressing
the problem.

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Your task is to locate similar articles in your daily newspaper(s) and to do a form of
analysis of the types of challenges which currently exist in the management of
students’ behaviour in schools/classrooms. In other words, what are the most common
issues with which schools and teachers are faced in relation to students’
misbehaviour? how have these been addressed and how can the various theories
relating to the management of students’ behaviour be applied and are they in fact
relevant/useful to our Caribbean context? Think too of our local/regional response to
the issue of school/classroom behaviours such as violence.

228
Table 5.8 Activity 5.8
Reading Task

Read through the articles by King (1998) and Anderson (2004/05) in your course
reader and respond to the following items.
1. What examples of violence in schools did Anderson identify in furtherance of
her claim that “violence and aggression have become an endemic problem in
Jamaica, and…the entire Caribbean”? (p.97).

2. What are some of the causes of violence as identified by Anderson in her

article? How do these relate to other causes of violence seen in the general
literature on school violence?

3. Explain your understanding of the intervention strategies identified by

4. Discuss the skills that teachers need to develop to deal effectively with
students misbehaviour, the actions that can be taken by them to prevent or
reduce misbehaviour and the role of teachers themselves in contributing to
student misbehaviour based on the issues raised by Anderson.

Article by King (1998)

1. What perspective does the author provides on the nature of violence?

2. How did the author show that schools themselves can foster the development
of violent behaviour among students

3. What parallels does the author draw between the schools erected by former
slaves and their views and treatment of these schools as compared with how
schools are treated in contemporary society?

4. Note King’s explanation of how the colonial curriculum was used as a

‘civilizing influence’ and as a means to contain potential violence. Discuss the
suggestions in King’s statement that the vestiges of the two-tiered system of
education which has been retained has encouraged violence which the colonial
curriculum which was designed to curb violence while promoting good

229
 interpersonal relationship has been discarded

5. Note the nine societal factors which King, drawing on the work of Frank and
Marie Hill, identified as being associated with high incidence of violence in
U.S schools and how these have been related to the Jamaican context. What
does this suggest about the nature of school violence?

6. Note also the characteristics identified as predictors of school violence and the
characteristics of schools with relatively little violence then comment on
King’s assertion that “Management is at the heart of the problem of school
violence” and that school principals and senior staff and teachers can so
something about some of the predictors of violence and of little violence”

After going through the articles by King (1998) and Anderson (2004) which are
research based articles, go through the sample of newspaper articles in your reader
and note the issues addressed in them. How do the articles reinforce the data provided
in the academic literature on school and classroom management? Keep in mind that
the newspaper is also used as a source of primary and contemporary data for research.

Table 5.9 Activity 5.9

Newspaper Articles

In examining the newspaper articles it is useful to note the title of the article
and read through first to establish if the title captures adequately the content of
the article.

Make a note of the focus of the article and make some inferences from it.
Drawing inference means making some conclusions based on the article or
extracting meanings which are implied in the content. After reading through
all the sample articles, provide a general commentary which should capture
the essence of the articles read. The main points have been extracted from one
below:

The main issues discussed in the article entitled “Violence in Our Schools:

230
  The writer signalled her concern over the level of violence and aggressive
behaviour among students
 She noted that violence exists in ways we might be afraid to admit – many cases
not reported
 The daily occurrences of acts of violence include the use of a range of weapons
such as knives and ice picks
 The writer identified some of the deep-seated causes of acts of violence under
three headings ‘lost generations’, ‘children are angry’, and ‘tradition’.
 The writer gave one example of a strategy – the safe school programme – being
used to curb the incidents of violence in schools. She pointed to another solution
– better parenting
 The writer of the article is writing from an informed and experiential position
given that she identifies herself as a principal of a high school and noted early in
the article that “The principal’s office is kept busy throughout the day” no doubt
dealing with cases of violence and other acts of misdemeanour.

Note from a reading of the other articles how they reinforce the issue of
school based violence. The articles represent a mix of perspectives and so
collectively they provide information that can be used to obtain a wide
ranging understanding of the nature of school violence, the factors
contributing to violence, the strategies that have been used to deal with violent
occurrences, their success/failure (article entitled ‘JTA says school violence
worsening), and views concerning how these acts of aggression and violence
can be prevented in the first place (article by Tortello)

Summary
In this unit we examined:
 The relationship between instructional planning and the management of the
instructional process
 The rationale and work involved in establishing the learning environment,
classroom rules and procedure
 The teaching behaviours associated with specific leaner behaviour
 The historic and contemporary challenges to the management of students’
behaviour in schools and classrooms.

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Conclusion
After studying the five units in this course it is expected that you would have learnt
some of the fundamental aspects of teaching which you will be able to transfer and
apply to your classroom practice when you compete the programme or as you learn
about and understand them if you are now teaching and studying part time to become
a certified professional teacher. The teaching skills that you learnt in this course are
likely to be considered in some more details in your subject disciplines or other core
education courses as you progress through the programme.

At the same time what you have learnt in this course and in the preceding course,
Introduction to Teaching and Learning, are expected to provide the foundational
knowledge which you will find necessary to revisit, review and draw on in your
second year of the programme. At that stage in your teacher preparation, you will
carry out your first field-based practicum and study in more details and apply in
practice, topics such as unit and lesson planning and classroom management for
which you are further prepared in the course, School-Based Experience I:
EDTL2020.

232
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