Narrative Therapy
Narrative Therapy
difficulties. It knows that it’s not the person that’s the problem but the
problem that’s the problem. (Michael White, founder of narrative therapy).
Discuss the above and the role of the narrative therapist in the counselling
process.
Introduction
When the Beatles intoned the words “Is there anybody going to listen to my story?” one wonders
whether their intention was to draw a whole new generation into a reflection on the universal need
for relationship. Whatever the answer, it certainly highlights for the therapist the importance of
attentive listening and the centrality of story in the way that defines the person. The purpose of this
essay is to look at the way in which personal narrative can be used in the therapeutic setting to
facilitate the client to come to new levels of awareness by reframing their story. This will include an
exploration of the concepts which underlie narrative therapy as well as the specific role that the
counsellor plays in this setting.
Narrative Therapy
The guiding principle in narrative therapy is that people make sense of their lives by communicating
stories of their experiences. The stories are made up by linking together the events of our lives in a
certain sequence across a time period and the central plot consists of the way we try to find
meaning in these events. Subsequently, when a person becomes a narrator, he gauges the
expectations and reactions of his audience and this interaction results in changes to the self
narrative. With every telling, “persons are re‐authoring their lives” (White and Epston, 1990, p.13).
This focus on story distinguishes narrative from other schools of therapy. Behavioural therapy
focuses on behaviour; cognitive therapy focuses on logical thought and systems therapy focuses on
the family interactions as the basic unit while narrative focuses on the underlying “plot” of the
stories which give meaning to our lives. The emphasis in most schools of psychology is on
individuation; family therapy stresses the role of the family in understanding each person, but
narrative therapy goes a step further by postulating that our identity is constructed through the
network of our relationships, our experiences in society as well as by our history and culture. In this
way a person’s identity is said to be socially constructed. The evolution of this narrative approach is
best understood by an examination of the transition from a modernist to a postmodernist
understanding. In the postmodernist world truth and reality are understood to be relative and
dependent on history, culture and the perspective of the observer. This move away from immutable
objective realities has had profound influences on science, philosophy and all the behavioural
sciences. One implication is that from this perspective “the modern self is not an entity but a
construction” (McLeod, 1997, p.91). This has been developed further by a school of thought which
postulates that modern capitalism needs such a concept of self as a way of “constructing” people to
fit within the system and to feed on the markets (Cushman, 1995). This understanding becomes
important if the therapist sees his role as empowering the client towards self actualisation.
Social constructionism is the therapeutic perspective which stress that the reality which is seen and
experienced by the client is the actual reality which is to be accepted whether or not it is accurate or
rational. In this way of thinking, language and the way language is used in creating stories is what
creates meaning. Each story is true for the person telling it. This is one of the reasons why stories are
universal, from Aesop’s fables to the latest blockbuster from John Grisham. They help us to
crystallise personal meaning. Such meaning is essential. Frankl was fond of quoting Nietzsche “He
who has a why in life can bear with almost any how” (Frankl, 2004 p.9). Stories provide the basis for
hope.”When a people are in a hopeless situation, the only way out is to imagine other possibilities
and alternatives. It is the imagination that gives birth to hope and it is the story that is imagination’s
vehicle” (Bausch, 1984, p.61).
Narrative Therapy – A Respectful Way of Working
There is a considerable variety in the ways that people have taken up the narrative way of working,
in individual therapy, in schools and youth work and in work with indigenous communities. A
common thread running through all of these is a respectful way of working. The narrative approach
recognises people as the experts in their own lives. Clients have many skills, competencies values
and commitments which are used as the resources which can be harnessed to reduce the problems
which are impacting on their lives (Morgan, 2000). The problems are viewed as being separate from
the client. There is an emphasis on caring and being with the person very much in the same tradition
as the unconditional positive regard and empathy which underlies the person‐centred approach.
When a person enters therapy he is viewed as being stuck in his story; there is incongruence
between the story and his felt sense and need for authentic living. The counsellor must be willing to
enter into this milieu, into the client’s subjective world, from a “not knowing” position. The
counsellor is energised by the conversation which is seen as a voyage of discovery. The stories not
only change the person who is telling the story but also changes the counsellor who is privileged to
be part of this unfolding process (Corey, 2005). The counsellor wishes to facilitate the client to
recognise and change the beliefs, values and interpretations which are causing the problems.
However, he is attentive to his own beliefs least he unwittingly impose his own values and beliefs
while the client’s story is being reconstructed. Furthermore, he is attentive for the details that will
reveal the client’s individual competencies to deal with the problems which have been externalised.
The focus is on the client’s capacity for creative and imaginative thought which will be the means
through which the story is reconstructed. The client alone is the one who has the power to bring
about change.
The Problem is the Problem
If narrative therapy had one slogan it would be “The person is never the problem; the problem is the
problem”. This phrase captures the dignity and importance of each person, regardless of his
circumstances. One of the first things that a narrative counsellor does is to separate the person’s
identity or self from the presenting problem. Problems are viewed as entities that have been socially
constructed or defined. The French social philosopher Michael Foucault greatly influenced White
and Epston, the founders of narrative therapy, with his concept that the knowledge that people have
about their own lives is used by the dominant power system in a society to control those who live in
that society. Surely it is not a co‐incidence that the predominant form of therapy in use with
indigenous aborigines in Australia is the narrative approach. Neil Postman makes a similar point
when he argues convincingly that American television is transforming our culture into one vast arena
for show business in which all public affairs, politics, religion, education and journalism have been
turned into a form of frivolous entertainment (Postman, 1986). The result of this is that the
knowledge that people have is culturally determined. The culture we live in supplies us with the
stories but we know intuitively that these stories do not resonate with our deeper self. It is also
possible that the culture fails to provide us with a context or platform through which we can tell our
stories.
The recent reports on child sexual abuse perpetrated over a span of twenty to thirty years by clergy
in the Dublin archdiocese is a chilling reminder of how power is abused in order to silence the victim
(Ryan Report, 2009). It is well known that many perpetrators of sexual abuse threaten their victims
with physical violence or emotional blackmail to prevent them from telling anyone what has
happened. Abuse survivors frequently report that their attempts to disclose were met with denial
on the part of their families or potential professional helpers. “The enforced silence initiated by the
perpetrator is amplified by a cultural silencing arising from the unwillingness of third parties to face
up to a situation that might frighten or disgust them” (McLeod, 1997, p. 101). Many of these
survivors had been pathologised and what subsequently brought them to therapy was their original
incapacity to tell their story.
Early on in the therapeutic encounter, counsellors often hear stories about problems and the
meanings that have been attached to the problem. However, these meanings were arrived at when
the client was under pressure from some aspect of the prevailing social construction. The client
selects certain events from the rich tapestry of the story so that he could get some meaning and
coping mechanism for himself. These meanings are referred to by narrative therapists as “thin
descriptions”. In fact many of the thin descriptions of people’s identities have been created by
others. They are often seen expressed as truths about the person who is labelled as bad or hopeless
or as a troublemaker (Morgan, 2000).
Externalising
One of the first strategies employed by the therapist in such situations is to “externalise” the
problem i.e. to assist the client in separating themselves from the dominant stories that they have
internalised. This is a way to deconstruct the problematic stories by breaking down one by one the
assumptions that have been made about the person and which have identified the client as a
problem. This is achieved systematically by means of externalising conversations which begin by
speaking about the problem in a way that separates it from the person’s identity. This requires a
paradigm shift in the way language is used. Instead of saying “I’m a depressed person”, this is
reframed by the therapist into “The depression has made it difficult for you to leave the house”. A
useful way to do this is to speak about the problem as if it (the problem) is a person. Again respect is
shown for the client when naming this separate entity as the counsellor encourages the client to
give a name to the problem. The externalising conversations act to disempower the effects of
labelling, pathologising and diagnosing and enable the client to describe himself and his world from
a new non problem saturated story.
Role of Counsellor
Some of the attributes of the counsellor and the importance of a respectful therapeutic environment
have been mentioned above. We have also seen the counsellor’s role in facilitating the externalising
of the client’s problem. In this way the narrative counsellor sees himself as working in collaboration
with the client, exploring with genuine curiosity so that he can see and understand the client’s story
with a view towards facilitating the client to re‐author that same story. The counsellor strives to be
an expert in exploring the client’s frame of reference as opposed to one who scientifically diagnoses
a client’s problems. Following on from this the main task of the counsellor is to help the client to
construct a preferred story. There is no set agenda. Although the use of questioning is one of the
primary techniques, the emphasis is on the counsellor’s way of being, the personal characteristics
which create a non judgemental therapeutic climate. The problem is externalised by mapping both
the influence that the problem has had on the person’s life and the subsequent effects of this
influence. As the client’s awareness grows, the counsellor seeks to discover the times when the
client successfully dealt with the problem. The goal is to move from these “unique outcome” stories
to solution stories through the use of “circulation questions” (Epson and White, 1992). This role has
much in common with the role of the life coach who seeks through targeted questioning to enable
the client to become aware that he has more knowledge and skills to deal with a new situation than
what he had previously realised (Law, 2007). Reconstructing a story and re‐visioning a new story line
is a challenge for the counsellor. Parry and Doan (1994) have suggested that our training has
inadvertently predisposed us therapists to be much better at story deconstruction than at story re‐
vision. The turning point which the counsellor watches for is when the client makes the choice to
create a new story rather than to continue in the old problem saturated story. The final stage of this
iterative process is where the counsellor works in collaboration with the client to consolidate the
new story. This can have significant implications as “Telling a different story about oneself can
require recruiting new audiences, and challenging the ways in which pre‐existing audiences and
communities promote problem‐saturated narratives” (Mcleod, 2006)
Critique
Narrative therapy has been criticised for arising from the social constructionist stance that holds that
there are no absolute truths and in which therapists prioritise their client’s concerns over and above
the accepted social norms. “Postmodernism seems to pull the philosophical, epistemological and
cultural mat from under our feet” (Wyile and Pare, 2001, p.11). However, many others see that
through the expert systems approaches, therapy is being integrated into advanced capitalism. To
counteract this danger, they view therapy as a form of social critique, an important element in the
struggle against the social and cultural trends which expert systems are reinforcing (Totton, 2007)
Narrative therapy is also criticised for the lack of clinical and empirical studies that give it validation.
However, supporters of the therapy such as those at the Dulwich Centre in Australia (2010) would
highlight its efficacy when judged on a qualitative basis.
Irish people have a natural affiliation with story. The success of the recent television series entitled
“Who do you think you Are?” (RTE1 Television) is testimony to the fact that we gain meaning from
linking with our stories from the past. A restructuring of our stories can be a powerful way for us to
reconstruct our lives. Each person has the potential to discover the story which resonates with
his/her individual psyche.
Conclusion
In outlining the background and general principles of narrative therapy we have identified the
particular attributes and approaches needed by the narrative counsellor. The broader issues raised
about the postmodernist approach challenges each of us to closely examine our basic assumptions
to ensure that we respect our client’s perspective and potential. In this way we will be better
equipped to ensure that our approach to therapy will be congruent with the client’s own story.
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