DRILLING TECHNOLOGY II

Revision
 Well Types
 Wildcat
 Exploratory
 Development
 Step-out
 Infill
 Re-entry
 Rig Types
 Can be classified by location: Land (Onshore), Swamp or Offshore
 Land (Onshore): Mast or Mobil
 Swamp: Barge or Jack-up (they are usually bottom-supported)
 Offshore: Barge, Jack-up, Semi-submersible or drill ship
 Can be classified by ownership: Contractor owned, Operator owned or joint-
ownership; operator owned but contractor operates.

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  Rig Components
 Power system
 Hoisting system
 Fluid circulating system
 Rotary system
 Drill String
 Casing
 Drill Bits
 Drilling Team
 Drilling Contactors
 Tool pushers
 Drillers

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  Derrick Man
 Roughnecks
 Crane operators
 Mechanics
 Electricians
 Roustabouts
 Caterers
 Company Representatives
 Company Man
 Drilling Engineers
 Geologists
 Consultants
 Services Companies
 Cementers
 Loggers (mud and wireline)
 Mud engineers
 Directional Engineers

Drilling Organization (Shell Example)

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Well control system is one of the most important systems on the rig. Its functions include the
following;

 To detect a kick and to close the well at the surface.

 To circulate well under pressure and increase fluid density at the same time.
 To move pipe under pressure (stripping, use annular preventer).
 To divert flow from the rig.

When primary control is lost, kick occurs. It is uncontrolled flow of formation fluid into the
wellbore. For kick to occur, the hydrostatic pressure must be less than the formation pressure.

1. Pore Pressure (Formation Pressure)

Pore pressure can be considered a very import factor when drilling a well as poor knowledge or
understanding and improper evaluation of pore pressure can lead to such drilling problems as lost
circulation, kicks, blowouts, stuck pipes, hole instability and others. All of these could lead to excessive
costs of drilling a well. In well planning, pore pressure is the foundation of most of the segments as
improper attention can lead to other technical portions inadequate. Pore pressure must be considered
during the following well plan segments;

 Mud plan
 Fracture gradient
 Casing design
 Casing setting depth
 Cement plan
 Tubing design

All these segments are involved during rig selection and authority for expenditure, which must be
thoroughly evaluated before drilling operation commences.

When pore pressure is approximately equal to theoretical hydrostatic pressure for the given vertical
depth, formation pressure is said to be normal. Normal formation (pore) pressure is equal to the
hydrostatic pressure of the native formation fluids. The fluids in most cases vary from fresh water of
8.33 lb/gal (0.433 psi/ft) density to salt water of 9.0 lb/gal (0.465 psi/ft) density. There are also some
areas reported from field that are above this normal formation fluid density of 9.0 lb/gal. Normal pore
pressure for a given area usually is expressed in terms of the hydrostatic gradient provided pressure can
easily be communicated throughout. For instance, the list below (table 2.1) shows some of the areas
that have considerable drilling activity.

Areas or regions Pressure gradient Equivalent Water Density

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 (psi/ft) (kg/m3)
West Texas 0.433 1.000
Gulf of Mexico coastline 0.465 1.074
North Sea 0.452 1.044
Malaysia 0.442 1.021
Mackenzie Delta 0.442 1.021
West Africa 0.442 1.021
Anadarko Basin 0.433 1.000
Rocky Mountains 0.436 1.007
California 0.439 1.014

Example 1.1: Calculate the normal formation pressure expected at a depth of 8,000 ft in the Niger Delta
area.

Answer: 3,536 psi.

When formation fluids have pressures that doo not communicate freely, the pressure in this system is
termed ‘abnormal’. Abnormal pressure can be defined as any geopressure that is different from the
established normal trend for a given area and depth. Pore pressure may be (1) less than normal called
subnormal or (2) greater than normal, which is termed geopressured, superpressured or simply
abnormal pressured. This abnormal pressure is caused by entrapment seals, otherwise the pressure
would have rapidly dissipate and revert to normal pressure.

Pore Pressure Prediction Methods

Several methods of pressure prediction are available to the petroleum engineer and grouped as;

1. Areal analysis from seismic data

2. Offset well correlation
Log analysis
Drilling parameter evaluation
Production or test data
3. Real-time evaluation
qualitative
quantitative

Compaction of Sediments. The normal sedimentation process involves the deposition of layers of
various rock particles. As these layers continue to build depth and increase the overburden (total rock)
pressure, the underlying sediments are forced downward under the weight of surface deposition. The
overburden pressure in this case is defined as the total of the rock matrix pressure and the formation
fluid pressure. Under normal drilling conditions, the formation fluid pressure is the main concern, due to

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its ability to cause fluid flow into the wellbore under certain geological conditions and the general
inability of the rock matrix to move into the wellbore because of its semi-rigid structure.

The manner in which the rock matrix accepts the increasing overburden load explains the abnormal
pressures generated in this environment. As both the surface deposition and the resultant total
overburden increase, the underlying rock must accept the load.

Rock matrix strength can increase with an increase in grain-to-grain contact of the individual rock
particles. This implies that the resultant porosity must decrease with depth under normal sedimentary
conditions. This relationship can be seen in Fig. 2.1 If the normal porosity compaction process is
prohibited by not letting the fluids in the pore spaces escape, the rock matrix cannot increase its grain-
to-grain contact or its overburden support capabilities.

Since the total overburden load continues to increase with sedimentation and the rock matrix can no
longer carry its burden, the fluids in the pores of the rock must begin to support part of the overburden,
resulting in higher-than-normal fluid pressures. The depth at which the abnormally high porosities are
encountered is usually assumed to be the initial depth at which abnormal pressures are encountered.

The most common sealing mechanism in continuous depositional basins is a low-permeability layer of
rock, such as a clean shale section. The shale reduces normal fluid escape, causing undercompaction and
abnormal fluid pressures. Formation pressure resulting from undercompaction often can be
approximated with some simple calculations. If it is assumed that compaction does not occur below the
barrier, the formation fluid below the barrier must support all overburden, rock matrix and formation
fluids.

Figure 1.1 Abnormal pressure are generated in the uncompacted region

The pressure can be calculated using the equation 1.1

psi psi
P=0.465 D +1.0 ( Di−DB ) 1.1
ft B ft

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Where:

Di = depth of interest below barrier, ft

DB = depth of the barrier ie low-permeability section, ft

P = formation pressure at Di, psi.

2. Fracture Gradient Determination

Well planning demands knowledge of the pressures required to initiate a fracture into a fracture
into a formation. Fracture gradient calculations, as they are termed, are essential in minimizing
or avoiding lost circulation problems and in selecting proper casing seat depths

Theoretical Determination
A number of theoretical and field-developed equations have been used to approximate
formation fracture gradients. Many of these are suitable for immediate application in a given
area, while some require a hindsight approach based on density (or other) logging
measurements taken after the well has been drilled.

A common base for most fracture gradient determination principles is the assumption that the
geological area in question is a tectonically relaxed basin containing plastic-like shales with
interbedded sand-shale sequences.

As noted by Pilkington (PEL May 1978), None of the relationships discussed are valid in either
brittle, or naturally fractured formations including limestones, dolomites and shales. Returns
may also be lost in vugular formations regardless of the fracture gradient in the overlying
formations.

Calculation procedures for these areas rely on either a history of the field or geologic structure,
or on field determinations utilizing leakoff tests or logging methods.

Hubbert and Willis. In the paper "'Mechanics of Hydraulics Fracturing," Hubbert and Willis
explored the variables involved in initiating a fracture in formation. According to the authors, the
fracture gradient is a function of overburden stress, formation pressure, and a relationship
between the horizontal and vertical stresses. They believed this stress relationship to be in the
range of 1/3 to 1/2 of the total overburden. Therefore, fracture gradient determination according
to Hubbert and Willis would be as follows:

P 1 S 2P
( min )= ( z + )
Z 3 Z Z (2.1)

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Or

P 1 2P
(max )= (1+ )
Z 2 Z (2.2)

Where:

P = fracture pressure, psi

Z = depth, ft

Sz = overburden at depth Z, psi

P = pore pressure, psi

If an overburden stress gradient (Sz) of 1 psi/ft is assumed, Eq. 2.1 reduces to:

P 1 2P
(max )= (1+ )
Z 2 Z
(2.3)

and likewise for Eq. 2.2.

These procedures can be used in a graphical form for a quick solution. In Fig. 2-1, enter the
ordinate with the mud weight required to balance the formation. With a horizontal line, intersect
the formation pressure gradient line and construct a vertical line from this point to the minimum
and maximum fracture gradients. Read the fracture mud weight from the ordinate. From the
example in Fig. 2-1, the fracture mud weight for a 12.0-lb/gal equivalent formation pressure
could range from 14.4 to 15.7 Ib/gal.

In these equations, Hubbert and Willis assumed that the stress relationship and the overburden
gradients were constant for all depths. Since this has been proven untrue in most cases,
subsequent methods have attempted to account for one or both of these variables more
accurately.

Matthews and Kelly. In realizing that the cohesiveness of the rock matrix is usually related to
the matrix stress and varies only with the degree of compaction, Matthews and Kelly developed
the following, equation for calculating fracture gradients in sedimentary formations:

P K iσ
F= +
D D

2.4

Where:

P = formation pressure at the point of interest, psi

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D = depth of interest, ft

б= matrix stress at the point of interest, psi

Ki= matrix stress coefficient for the depth at which the value of б would be normal matrix stress,
dimensionless

F = fracture gradient at the point of interest, psi/ft

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Fig. 2-1 Graphical determination of fracture gradients as proposed by Hubbert and Willis

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Fig. 2-2 Matrix stress coefficients of Matthews and Kelly

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The matrix stress coefficient relates the actual matrix stress conditions of the formation to the
conditions of matrix stress if the formation were compacted normally.

The stress coefficient vs depth is presented in Fig. 2-2. Matthews and Kelly believed that the
coefficient would vary with different geological conditions. The values shown were obtained by
substituting actual field data of breakdown pressures into Eq. 2.4 and solving for Ki.

The procedure for calculating fracture gradients using the Matthews and Kelly technique is as
follows:

1. Obtain formation fluid pressure, P. This can be measured by drillstem tests, kick
data, logs, or another satisfactory method.

2. Obtain the matrix stress by using Eq. 2.5 and assuming a gradient of 1.0 psi/ft for the
overburden:

σ =S−P (2.5)

3. Determine the depth Di, for which the matrix stress,σ , would be the normal value.
Assume that the overburden pressure is 1.0 psi/ft. From this it follows that.

0.535 Di=σ (2.6)

from which the value of Di can be found.

4. Use the value of Di and apply it to Fig. 2-2 to obtain the corresponding value of Ki

5. Using the values of D, б, P. and Ki, calculate the value of the fracture gradient, F
from Equation 2.4.

Example 2.1

Casing was set on a Texas Gulf Coast well at 7,200 ft. It was estimated that formation pressure
was equivalent to 11.0-Ib/gal mud. What is the fracture gradient immediately below the casing
seat? Use the Matthews and Kelly procedure.

Solution

1. P = (11.0lb/gal)(0.052)(7,200ft)

=4,118 psi

2. σ = S - P

= 7,200-4,118

= 3,082 psi

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3. Depth equivalent, Di

0.535 Di = б

Di = б/0.535 = 3082/0.535 = 5,760 ft

where 0.535 psi/ft is the rock matrix stress

4. From Fig. 4-2, Ki= 0.695

5.
P Ki σ
F= +
D D

4118 0.695∗3082
F= +
7200 7200

= 0.571 + 0.298

= 0.869 psi/ft

= 16.7 Ib/gal (equivalent mud weight)

A graphical solution to the Matthews and Kelly technique is presented in Fig. 2-3. Note that the
curved lines on the graph represent actual formation pressures and not mud weight in use.
Unfortunately, these are often erroneously interchanged. To solve for fracture gradients with
Fig. 2-3, enter at the desired depth and read horizontally until the actual formation pressure line
is intersected. Plot a vertical line from this point and read the fracture gradient in pounds per
gallon.

Eaton. Eaton extended concepts presented by Mathew’s and Kelly to introduce Poisson’s ratio
into the expression for the fracture pressure gradient.

S−P v P
F= ( )
D 1−v
+
D
(2.7)

Where:

P = well bore pressure, psi

D = depth ft

S = overburden stress, psi

v = Poisson’s ratio

F = fracture gradient, psi/ft

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Eaton assumed that both overburden stress and Poisson's ratio were variable with depth. Using
actual field fracture data and log-derived values, he prepared graphs illustrating these variables
(Figs. 2-4 and 2-5). Using a suitable choice for each variable, the nomograph prepared by Eaton
et al. (Fig. 2-6) can be used to calculate a fracture gradient.

A graphical presentation for the Eaton approach provides a quick solution. The chart (Fig. 2-7)
is used in the same manner as the Matthews and Kelly

Fig. 2-3 Graphical determination of fracture gradients using the Matthews and Kelly approach.

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chart (Fig. 2-3). Although the Eaton chart (Fig. 2-7) uses the curves in Figs. 2-4 and 2-5, a
similar chart can be established for a different area if the overburden stress or Poisson's ratio
values differ greatly.

Eaton's method or it’s modifications are perhaps the most widely used in the industry. It has
proved successful both on- and offshore throughout the world.

Christman. The previously discussed fracture gradient determination procedures assume that
overburden stress consists of rock matrix stress and formation fluid stress. Offshore, the water
(over a distance from the rig flow line to the

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Fig. 2-4 Variable overburden stress by Eaton

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Fig. 2-5 Variable Poisson's ratio with depth as proposed by Eaton

mud line) has no rock matrix. fracture gradients are lower when compared to land at equivalent
depth. In shallow water, the reduction in fracture gradient is almost insignificant. As water depth
increases, fracture gradient declines. Christman has accounted for the effect of water depth in
his total overburden gradient equation:

Gob= (1/D) (0.44 Dw + ρbD’) = 1/D(0.44Dw + ρbD’) (2.8)

Where:

Gob = total overburden gradient, psi/ft

D = depth below datum ft

Dw = water depth, ft

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ρb = average bulk density, g/cc

D' = depth below the mud line, ft

The effect of water depth on fracture gradients can be seen in Fig. 2-8.

Another procedure has been developed to calculate deepwater fracture gradients. It utilizes the
techniques established by Christman and the data collectlon by Eaton. Example 2.2 illustrates
the procedure for a well drilled in 1,000 ft of water.

Example 2.2

In the illustration in Fig. 2-9, what is the effective fracture gradient at the casing seat?

Solution:

1. Convert the water depth to an equivalent section of formation:

1,000 ft x 0.465 psi/ft = 465 psi

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Fig. 2-7 Graphical determination of fracture gradients using the Eaton approach (Courtesy of
Adams and Rountree Technology. Inc.)

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Fig. 2-8 Offshore fracture gradients as a function of depth. Subsea indicates depth below floor.
(After Christman)

2 From Eaton's overburden stress chart in Fig. 2-4, the stress gradient at 4,000 ft
equals 0.89 psi/ft:

465psi / 0.89 psi/ft = 522ft, equivalent

1. Calculate and convert the apparent fracture gradient to actual fracture gradient:

522 + 3,000 ft = 3,522 ft, equivalent

From Eaton's fracture gradient chart, the gradient at 3,522 ft = l3.92Ib/ gal, or:

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fracture pressure = 0.052 x 13.92 Ib/gal x 3,522 ft = 2,549 psi

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Fig. 2-9 Typical effect of water depth on fracture gradient (see Example 2.2)

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 4. The effective fracture gradient from the mud flow line at the drillship deck to the casing
seat is:

2,549 psi x 19.23/(60 + 1,000 + 3,000) ft = 12.07 Ib/gaI

For comparison, the land fracture gradient at 4,000 ft is 14.2 lb/gal.

Field Determination of Fracture Gradients

It is common practice to pressure-test each new casing seat in field applications to determine
the exact minimum fracture gradient. The primary reason for this practice is due to the inability
of any theoretical procedure to account for all possible formation characteristics. For example,
several authors have noted wells that exhibited lower-than-expected fracture gradients due to
abnormally low bulk densities in the rock.

The most common procedure used for the field determination of fracture gradients is the leak off
test (often called the pressure integrity test). In the test, the blowout preventers are closed and
then pressure is applied incrementally to the shut in system until the formation initially accepts
fluid. The results of the test would be similar to those shown in Fig. 2-10. Example 2.3 illustrates
the procedure.

Example 2.3

Casing was set at 10,000 ft in a well. The operator performs a leakoff test to determine the
fracture gradient at 10,000 ft. If the mud weight in the well was 11.2 Ib/gal, what is the fracture
gradient at the casing seat?

Solution:

1. Close the blowout preventers and rig up a low-volume output pump.

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Flg.2.10 Typical results from a leak off test

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2. Apply pressure to the well and record the results as follows:

Volume pumped.
bbl Pressure. psi
0 0
1 45
1.5 125
2 230
250% 350
3 470
3.5 590
4 710
4.5 830
5 950
5.5 990
6 1010

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Fig. 2.11 Results of leak off test data from Example 2.3

3. The results are plotted in Fig. 5.11.

From these results, it appears that the formation will begin to fracture when 950 psi is applied.

4. Fracture gradient

= [(11.2 ppg) (0.052) (10.000 ft) + 950 psi] 10.000ft

= 6.774 psi/10000 ft = 0.6774 psi/ft = 13.02 ppg equivalent

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 Lost Circulation
When a significant and continuing loss of whole mud or cement occur in a drilling operation, lost
circulation is said to have taken place. Lost circulation is one of the most common and
troublesome downhole drilling problems. It also occurs in other operations than drilling such as
completion and workover operations. This problem has negative impact on well economics
directly or indirectly and has cost the industry hundreds of millions of US dollars annually. Aside
drilling and primary cement operation, lost circulation can occur during any operation that
involves pumping fluid down the hole. Indications of lost circulation may range from a gradual
drop in pit level to a partial or complete loss of return. In some extreme cases, the fluid level in
the annulus may drop rapidly, sometimes by hundreds of feet. When lost circulation occurs
during drilling operation, it results in additional cost in materials, services and rig time. It can
also lead to loss of formation-evaluation data as information from mud returns and drilled cutting
are no longer available. Lost circulation could as well lead to influx of formation fluid assuming
the wellbore fluid level drop so fast and far. There is possibility of reduction in well productivity
if the loss zone is a potential pay interval.

Occurrence of Lost Circulation

For lost circulation to occur, the following conditions must be present;

 a formation with flow channels that allow passage of hole fluid from the wellbore and
 an overbalance or positive pressure differential between the wellbore and the formation.

Both conditions must be present though one may be predominant. The following environment
together with the above conditions increases the chances of lost circulation;

Permeable Zones. In situations, where the rock is has high primary porosity and permeability
seems to cause lost circulation problems. Unconsolidated formations, gravel beds, loose
conglomerates and shallow or highly depleted sandstones have long been recognized as having
natural lost circulation tendencies.

Natural Fractures. Secondary porosity and permeability such as occur in naturally fracture
sandstones, shales and carbonates are conducive to lost circulation.

Induced Fractures. Drilling and cementing operations are contributing factors to induced
fracture. In some cases, where lost circulation occurs in areas where offset wells have not
experience lost circulation, then it could be an induced fracture from any of the above activities.
Casing setting depth can as well induce the formation and this can encourage lost circulation as
drilling progresses further.

Caverns. Caverns are limestones that have been leached by water. Void spaces in these
formations can be large enough that when they are encountered, the drillstring may actually drop
by as much as several feet preceding a sudden, complete loss of return. Rough drilling may occur

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just before a bit encounters a cavernous zone. Most severe lost circulation problems occur in
cavernous or extremely vugular formations.

Prevention of Lost Circulation

To prevent or at least minimize lost circulation problem, it either to seal off the problem zones or
reduce wellbore pressure differential. The most effective ways to prevent lost circulation are as
follows;

 Mud System
 Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) and
 Casing Setting Depth.

Mud system is the most effective way to prevent lost circulation. Mud can be designed to keep
filtrate losses to a workable minimum and to maintain a thin, firm, impermeable filter cake along
the borehole wall. The mud specific density should be as low as possible, but high enough to
control the formation pressure. The mud can be designed such that the hydrostatic pressure will
be high enough to maintain a positive differential that would not allow formation fluid influx and
at the same time not fracture the formation. The mud-weight is the single most important factor
in drilling mud design.

Even when the mud weight is far less than the fracture pressure, lost circulation can still result
from a high equivalent circulating density (ECD) caused by excessive pump pressure and poor
hydraulic practice. The mud’s rheological properties (viscosity, yield point and gel strength)
should be specified to maintain its desired cuttings suspended and transport properties, but at the
same time be able to be circulated at optimal pump pressure. High surge pressure is another
contributor to lost circulation. Excessive tripping speed in the hole should be minimized to avoid
lost circulation.

Casing setting depth is another important factor to be considered as it is crucial in preventing lost
circulation. Casing setting depths must not be at low pressure zone and this can warrant use of
one or more intermediate casing to protect low-pressure zones from high mud weight required to
drill deeper intervals.

There are several methods of combating lost circulation once it occurs. Selecting the best method
for a particular situation involves three diagnostic steps;

 Determining at what depth the loss is occurring

 Describing the type of loss zone
 Evaluating the severity of the loss.

Controlling lost circulation involve techniques that seal off the loss interval and they may intail
the following (Howard and Scott, 1951).

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  Allowing the formation to heal itself by removing the condition that caused the lost
 Using LCM or drilled solids to bridge off the interval
 Spotting a high-viscosity plug across the interval
 Squeezing the interval with cement
 Setting pipe across the interval
 Abandoning or sidetracking the loss interval.

LCM involves the use of solids to seal off the interval. Drilled formation cutting can be used to
bridge the loss zone and restore circulation. In other cases solid LCM are added to the mud
system in concentration not exceeding 10- to 20-lbm/bbl.

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Table 2.2: Common Lost Circulation Materials (Source: Mitchel and Miska, 2011)

Classification Examples Description

Fibrous Materials Wood Fiber (Shredded wood, Relatively little rigidity. Can
sawdust), paper pulp, glass be forced into large openings,
fiber, cotton fiber, animal where they bridge over and
hair, leather fiber, straw and form a mat or base that acts to
shredded tires seal off the formation when
solids from the drilling fluid
deposit on it. If the openings
are too small for the bibers to
enter, a bulky, easily
removable external cake may
form on the walls of the hole.
Not recommended for oil-
based muds.
Flaky (lamellar) materials Cellophane, mica (fine and Not normally used in cement
coarse), plastic laminate, because they tend to plug
wood chips. surface and downhole
cementing equipment. Also
may contain organic
chemicals that can seriously
extend cement-thickening
time.
Sealing action similar to that
of fibrous materials.
Cellophane products are not
recommended for use in oil-
based muds.
Granular material Nut shells (fine, medium, Tend to form a bridge just
coarse, and very coarse), inside the opening of the
ground plastics, seed grains, pore. Must contain particles
coarsely ground rock that approximate the size of
materials (eg., bentonite, the opening, as well as a
asphalt, limestone). gradation of smaller particles
to form a seal. Granular
materials may be used in oil-
base muds.
Combination Selected blends of fibrous Blended products containing
and flaky materials and cellophane flakes are not
granular LCM. recommended for used in oil-
based muds.

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3. KICKS

A kick is an influx of fluid from the formation into the weIlbore.

Two conditions must be present in the wellbore for a kick to occur: (1) the pressure inside the
wellbore at the face of the kicking formation must be less than the pore pressure of the
formation, and (2) the kicking formation must have sufficient permeability to allow flow into the
wellbore.

Formations penetrated with a bit are porous to some degree. The pores in the rock contain oil,
gas or water. These fluids are under a given pressure depending on a number of factors.
Formations such as sandstone or limestone are usually permeable, that is, the pores are connected
and the fluid can flow through. When a permeable formation is penetrated by a bit, the pores are
exposed and the pore pressure tries to push the fluid out of the pores and into the wellbore. The
only force normally acting to oppose this is the pressure caused by the weight of the column of
drilling fluid in the wellbore.

When the pore pressure exceeds the hydrostatic pressure, the fluids from the formation will start
feeding into the wellbore.

CALCULATION AIDS

Constants

1 Barrel = 42 Gallons = 5.615 Cu. Ft.

Gradient

Psi/Ft = 0.052W W = Mud Weight, ppg

Hydrostatic Pressure

P = 0.052 WD

where;

P = hydrostatic pressure, psi

D = TVD, ft

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Friction Pressure

Effect of pump speed: Pnew = Pold * 2.1

Effect of mud weight: Pnew = Pold *

2.2

Boyle’s Law – Pressure/ Volume Relationship

P1V1 = P2V2 (P is in psia = psi +15)

Rule of squares

Pipe capacity, Bbls/1000ft = d2 bbl/ft d = inside pipe diameter, inches

d2 d2
Annular capacity, bbls/1000’ = d22 – d12 Ap = or
1000 1029

d2 = hole diam, d1 = outside pipe diam, inches

Ap = ( π4 d ) ¿ . ( 231¿
2 2 gal
3 ( bbl
. ) 42 gal )( 12∈.
ft )

d2
Ap= (
1,029.4 )
bbl/ ft

Influx gradient

H = influx height, ft

SICP = casing pressure, psi

SIDPP = drill pipe, psi

Gm = mud gradient psi/ft

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Gi = influx gradient, psi/ft

KICK IDENTIFICATION

Fluid Gradient
Range Fluid Gradient Range
Gas 0.05 - 0.20 Gas 0.05 - 0.20
Combinatio 0.2 - 0.4
Oil 0.3 - 0.4
n of gas , oil
or salt H2O Water 0.43 and up
Oil
Oil or Salt 0.4 – 0.5
Water

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Note

Pit gain = vol of kick

Measure: SIDPP, SICP and Pit gain (bbls)

Pbh = Pore press

And

Pbh = γmD + SIDPP = 0.052(MW)D + SIDPP 2.3

Also Pbh = (γmhm) + (γkf)( hkf) + SICP 2.4

where;

γm, γkf = mud and kick fluid gradient respectively psi/ft

hm, hkf = mud and kick heights respectively , ft

Setting Eq 2.3 equal to Eq 2.4

γmD + SIDPP = γmhm + γkf hkf + SICP 2.5

γm(D - hm) = γkf hkf + SICP – SIDPP 2.6

But

hkf = D – hm

Therefore

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γmhkf - γkf hkf = SICP – SIDPP 2.7

OR

γkf hkf - γmhkf = SIDPP – SICP 2.8

γkf = γm – [(SIDPP – SICP)/ hkf] 2.9

Note

hkf = Pit gain / AA , (bbl / bbl/ft) = ft 2.10

where AA = annular area or capacity , bbl/ft

Example 2.1

Given :

TD = 15000 , MW = 15ppg, drill pipe OD = 4.5”, hole size = 8.5” SIDPP = 780 psi, SICP =
1100psi, pit gain = 50 bbl

(a) Determine the type of kick fluid

Solution:

Kick fluid height = hkf = pit gain/AA

= 50bbls / 0.0505 bbls/ft
= 990ft

Kick fluid gradient γkf ?

ρm = (0.052)(15ppg)=0.78 psi/ft

Kick fluid is either oil or salt water.

(b) What is the density of the kick fluid?

γkf/0.052 = 0.46/0.052 = 8.85ppg

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 (c) What is the pressure drop across the column of the kick fluid when it has migrated ½
way up the well ? (Note: Well is shut in).

Δh = Vol/AA = 50/0.0505 = 990ft

ΔP = γkf Δh = (0.46psi/ft)(990ft) = 455psi
or
ΔP = 8.85ppg * 0.052 * 990 = 455psi

KICK CONTROL CALCULATIONS

In order to understand the accompanying calculations on kick control, the following definitions
and accompanying diagrams are given.

SIDPP: - Shut-in drill pipe pressure = Pore pressure - mud hydrostatic pressure

SICP - Shut-in casing pressure

Kill Rate - Mud pumping rate during kick-killing. It is approximately 1/2 regular pump speed.

Kill Rate Pressure (Reduced Circulating Pressure) - This is the same as the drill pipe pressure at
the surface.

ICP - Initial Circulating Pressure: This is equal to: kill rate pressure + SIDPP + SF.

FCP - Final Circulating Pressure: This is given as: (Kill Rate Pressure)

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Borehole condition when kick occurs

2.1 KICK CONTROL PRQCEDURES

Kick control involves the circulation of the kick fluid from the wellbore. To kill a kick, the
hydrostatic pressure of the mud column must be increased until it is greater than the formation
pressure. Usually, a kicking well can be shut in safely, allowing the bottom hole pressure to
stabilize, and then circulated at constant bottom hole pressure while hydrostatic pressure is
increased to the required value. Such a procedure is known as a "constant bottom hole pressure
technique." The pipe must be near the bottom so that the kill mud will be effective in "killing"
the kick. There are three common ways of the constant bottom-hole pressure methods used to kill
a kick. These are known as:

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Driller's method: this method entails circulating the well clean of formation fluids, shutting in the
well, preparing new mud weight to kill the well, and killing the well by circulating the weighted
mud.

Wait and Weight method: as the name implies, the mud weight is increased to kill mud weight in
the mud pits as soon as a kick is taken, and then used to circulate out the kick.

Concurrent method: as soon as a kick is taken, circulation is immediately started at the same time
increasing the mud weight to kill mud weight. Circulation is continued and mud weight is
increased to. kill mud weight. The method and application of each technique is fully explained.

Driller's Method: The purpose of the driller's method is to avoid the use of calculation, graphs
and written records, and to do only things that are natural to the driller and the drilling crew. The
technique for this method is as follows:

(1) When the kick occurs, shut the well in.

(2) Write down the drill-pipe and casing pressure.

(3) When ready to start circulating, open the choke, start the pump up to kill rate, then close the
choke until the annulus pressure guage shows the same value as when shut in.

(4) Then, switch to drill-pipe pressure and hold 1b.ill. drillpipe pressure constant by opening or
closing the choke. Maintain the pump rate constant.

(5) Circulate holding drill-pipe pressure constant until the kick is circulated out of the hole and
there is no more gas or salt water in the annulus.

(6) Stop the pump, shut the well in, and mix the kill mud weight.

Use the mud-weight-increase graph or the weight given by the drilling superintendent, or mud
engineer.

(7) When the pits are full of the new weight mud, open the choke, start the pump up to the kill
rate, then close the choke down until the casing pressure guage shows the same value as when
shut in. Hold the casing pressure constant at the shut-in value until the new mud gets to the bit.
The time, or pump strokes, required should be obtained from the drilling superintendent, or mud
engineer. Keep the crew mixing the. kill weight mud.

(8) Then, switch from casing pressure to drill-pipe pressure and hold the drill-pipe pressure
constant at that new value until the new, heavier mud appears at the flowline or choke. Keep the
pump rate constant.

The techniques of the driller's method are common to all methods of well control so once it is
mastered, you have the basics. The driller should practice and be able to:

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(1) Shut the well in.

(2) Bring the pump up to a kill rate and then obtain the original shut-in casing pressure.

(3) Hold pump strokes constant.

(4) Hold drill-pipe pressure constant.

The method of holding the casing pressure constant while

bringing the pump rate up is very important. Obviously, the choke needs to be opened before
starting the pump and then closed down to obtain the original casing pressure. Well killing
procedures always start this way.

Do not hold the casing pressure constant any longer than absolutely necessary. If in doubt about
the casing pressure value, shut the well in and check the shut-in casing pressure. If it varies from
the value you were using, use the new shut-in value.

There are some limits to the driller's method. Because the new mud weight is not added until
after the kick is circulated out of the hole, the pressures are higher at the casing shoe so there is a
better chance for lost circulation, and pressures are on the stack for a longer time, which could
lead to other troubles.

On rigs with subsea wellheads, the riser choke line causes a back pressure which may cause lost
returns.

The driller's method is acceptable where there is little danger of

lost returns. It should never be used: (1) With subsea wellheads,

(2) Where there is a danger of lost returns, (3) When only surface pipe is set,

(4) When there may be badly worn spots in long strings of casing, (5) When the stack and
surface pipe configuration make the well-

head flange a critical point.

SUMMARY OF DRILLER'S METHOD

 Shut the well in.

 Record information.

SIDPP SICP

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DEPTH MUD WEIGHT

PIT VOLUME INCREASE

• Start circulating by holding the casing pressure constant with the choke until the pump is up to
the kill rate, then hold the drill-pipe pressure constant using the choke.

1) Circulate the kick out of the well.

2) Stop, shut in, and mix the new mud weight.

a. Fill the drill pipe with the new mud by holding the casing pressure constant at the shut-in
value while pumping at a constant pump rate.

• When the drill pipe is full of the new mud, keep the drill pipe pressure constant by using the
choke until the well is dead. Keep pump strokes constant.

OR

1 - Shut well in (read SIDPP and SICP)

2 - Start pumping old mud at kill rate and control the choke so that the: stand pipe press.
= ICP, and ICP = SIDPP + kill rate press. + SF

3 - Circulate fluid to the surface and out

4 - Increase the mud weight so that:

MW = SIDPP (.052)(depth)

5 - Pump New mud down the drill string (start at stand pipe pressure = ICP)

6 - New (Kill) mud weight at the bit and stand pipe pressure = FP

7 - Kill mud is circulated to the surface and the well is dead.

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Key Indicators:

Two circulations are needed in this method.

1) Vent out kick-fluid using old mud

2) Pump heavier mud (new mud) into the well.

Example:

Kick is taken, well is shut in (BOP's closed). Guages Read: SIDPP - 250 psi; SICP = 400 psi
Previous Recordings: Mud-weight = 12.0 ppg;

Kill rate = 42 strokes/min; kill rate press = 1500 psi; Well depth = 10,000 ft.

To compute the following:

(a) ICP = kill rate press. + SIDPP + SF

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= 1500 + 250 + 100 psi (where 100 = safety factor) = 1850 psi

Start pumping at kill rate = 42 spm; then open the choke (and keep adjusting it) so that the drill
pipe press. = ICP = 1850 psi

(b) Kick fluid will be vented out in time; t1

AnnulusVolume (bbl)
t1 = ,min ute
stks bbl
Stro ker ate( )∗Stksvol ( )
min stks

Then mix new batch of mud with:

(c) New mud wt = Old MW + SIDPP/(0.052)Depth

= 120 + 250/0.052 * 10000 =12.5 ppg.

Start pumping New mud down the drill pipe at the kill rate.

Initially, the drill pipe pressure = ICP = 1850 psi and casing pressure = SIDPP = 250 psi

(d) The New mud hits the bit in time t2

DrillPipeVolume (bbl )
t 2= ,min ute
stks bbl
Stro ker ate( )∗Stksvol ( )
min stks

The drill pipe pressure now reads FCP.

(e) FCP = (Kill Rate Press) * [(New mud wt)/(Old mud wt)]

Pump the kill mud to surface at FCP

= 1500 (12.5/12.0) = 1560 psi

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Wait and Weight Method: This method of well control produces the least extra pressure on the
hole and should always be used in marine drilling or where there is a chance of lost circulation or
equipment failure. This method requires a period of waiting which could cause stuck drill pipe,
but with reasonable mud mixing facilities, this should not be a serious problem.

The procedure for "The Wait and Weight Method" is as follows:

(1) When the kick occurs, shut the well in.

(2) Fill out the pressure control worksheet and increase the mud weight.

(3) When the new mud weight is ready, open the choke and start the pump up to kill rate while
keeping the casing pressure constant with the choke. (With subsea wells, let the casing pressure
drop about 100 psi below the shut-in value.) When the pump is up to the kill rate, adjust the
choke to. get the calculated Initial Circulating Pressure. The casing pressure should be at about
the shut-in value.

(4) Continue pumping the new mud down the hole and reduce the initial Circulating Pressure
according to the graph on the pressure control worksheet.

(5) When the new mud weight gets to the bit, maintain the Final Circulating Pressure and
constant pump strokes until the well is dead.

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SUMMARY OF WAIT AND WEIGHT METHOD

a. Shut in the well.

b. Record information.

SIDPP SICP

DEPTH MUD WEIGHT

PIT VOLUME INCREASE

• Calculate or read from chart.

MUD WEIGHT INCREASE

INITIAL CIRCULATING PRESSURE (ICP)

FINAL CIRCULATING PRESSURE (FCP)

SURFACE TO BIT PUMP STROKES OR TIME

• Increase the mud weight in the pits.

 Start circulating by holding the casing pressure constant until the pump is up to the kill
rate.

 Then, adjust the drill-pipe pressure to the ICP with the choke.

 As the drill pipe is displaced, reduce the ICP according to the graph, by opening the
choke.

 When the drill pipe is displaced with the heavy mud, continue to hold the FCP on the drill
pipe and keep the pump at the kill rate until the heavy mud returns to the surface.

Wait and weight method:

1 - Shut well in (read SIDPP and SICP).

2 - Wait until mud weight is increased by

MW = SIDPP/ (0.052)( depth)

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3 - Start pumping New (kill) mud down the drill pipe at ICP (control with choke) and at kill rate.

4 - Kill mud at the bit and the stand pipe pressure = FCP.

5 - Hold stand pipe pressure = FCP until kill mud is at the surface and the well is dead.

Summary: Wait and weight method

Wait and weight method:

This technique requires only one circulation. Assume the same example as for Driller's
method;

SIDPP = 250 psi

SICP = 400 psi

(a) After the well is shut in, wait until the mud weight is increased by:

SIDPP 250
=
(0 .052 )Depth (0 .052)(10000 )
Start pumping New (Kill) mud down the drill pipe at ICP (control with choke) and at kill rate.
2020/2021 PET 401 Page 45
(b) ICP = 1500 + 250 + 100 = 1850 psi

Control choke so that drill pipe pressure falls linearly (with time) to FCP when new mud hits bit.

(c) FCP = (1500)(12.5)/(12.0) = 1560 psi

Hold drill pipe pressure = FCP until kill mud reaches the surface and the well is dead.

(d) Surface to Bit time (mins) =

DrillPipeInsideVolume (bbl)
t 2= ,min ute
stks bbl
Killrate( )∗Stksvol ( )
min stks

(e) Bottoms up time (mins) =

AnnulusVolume (bbl)
t1= ,minute
stks bbl
Killrate( )∗Stksvol ( )
min stks

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Wait and weight method

Concurrent Method: The concurrent method is generally thought to be more complicated than
either the driller's method or the wait and weight method. It requires a lot of record keeping. It
has the disadvantage of having slightly higher pressures than the wait and weight method, and
the mud mixing is sometimes a little less satisfactory. In using this method, the mud is weighed
as well as being circulated. The mud weight must be increased while circulating and then kept at
the required weight.

The procedure for the concurrent method.

(1) After the well is closed in and the information recorded, calculate the initial circulating
pressure, the final circulating pressure, and the mud weight increase. Fill out the worksheet using
the increments of mud weight across the bottom of the graph instead of the time or pump
strokes~

(2) Start the pump and bring to the kill rate while holding the casing pressure constant. When the
pump is up to the kill rate, adjust the drill-pipe pressure to the calculated valve. The circulation
can be started as soon as the initial circulating pressure has been determined.

(3) When circulating, have the mud pit personnel call up the mud weights as the mud weight in
the pits is increased. Each time that the mud weight increases to one• of the values Ion the table
at the bottom of the chart, have the choke operator adjust the circulating pressure to the drill-pipe
pressure shown on the graph.

(4) Continue until the heavy mud has circulated back to the surface, and the well is dead.

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SUMMARY OF CONCURRENT METHOD

• Shut the well in.

• Record information.

SIDPP SICP

DEPTH MUD WEIGHT

PIT VOLUME INCREASE

• Fill out worksheet and make calculations.

• Start circulating' by holding casing pressure constant until the pump is up to the kill rate, then
adjust to the Initial Circulating Pressure on the drill pipe.

• Start increasing the, mud weight in the pits.

•Adjust the Circulating Pressure to the value on the graph corresponding to the mud weight
going down the drill pipe. Keep pump rate constant.

2020/2021 PET 401 Page 48