Running Head: RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING

This is a prepublication draft version of an article

accepted to be published in the Handbook of Distance
Education:

Graham, C. R. (2019). Current research in blended learning.

In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of
distance education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York,
NY: Routledge.

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 2

Current Research in Blended Learning

Charles R. Graham

Department of Instructional Psychology & Technology

Brigham Young University
(801) 422-4110
[email protected]

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 3

1. Background and Definition of Blended Learning

Blended learning (BL) is being adopted worldwide in higher education, corporate

training, and K-12 education. Many have predicted that BL would “emerge as the predominant

model of the future” (Watson, 2008, p. 3), become the “new traditional model” (Ross & Gage,

2006, p. 167), or the “new normal” in course delivery (Norberg, Dziuban, & Moskal, 2011, p.

207). The first section of this chapter will explore how BL is being defined and what we know

about its adoption pace.

1.1 Definition of BL

Despite its current popularity, the term blended learning is defined variously across

institutions (some using the term hybrid). Researchers have expressed frustration over unclear

definitional contours of the BL ecosystem (see Oliver & Trigwell, 2005; Teng, Bonk, & Kim,

2009), and much of the early research in BL has attempted to describe and chart its boundaries.

In the third edition of this book (see Graham, 2013), more space was given to exploring

definitional questions:

1. What is being blended?

2. Should reduced seat time be part of the definition?

3. Should the quantity of online instruction be part of the definition?

4. Should quality factors be part of the definition?

In the past five years, definition issues in higher education have changed little. However,

in the K-12 sector, where online instruction often occurs within brick-and-mortar schools, the

Clayton Christensen Institute has popularized a definition emphasizing an “element of student

control over time, place, path and/or pace” in the online portion of the blend as well as the

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 4

importance of integrated instruction between the online and face-to-face modalities (Horn &

Staker, 2014, p. 34).

Because researchers have little control over the definition of an organically developing

term, blended learning might be viewed as a boundary object (Norberg, Dziuban, & Moskal,

2011): an element shared across communities of practice, “plastic enough to adapt to local needs

and constraints, yet robust enough to maintain a common identity across sites. . . .weakly

structured in common use . . . strongly structured in individual site-use” (Star & Griesemer,

1989, p. 393).

Agreement seems widespread that BL integrates face-to-face and online learning.

Beyond that, individual researchers and institutions differ in limiting definition boundaries.

Some require a reduction in face-to-face seat time, while others specify levels of online or face-

to-face instruction. In a review of the BL literature and implementation practices in the United

Kingdom, researchers recognized benefits to a broadly structured definition:

We noted from the interviews that some institutions have developed their own

language, definitions or typologies to describe their blended practices. We suggest

that this poor definition [of blended learning] may be a strength and part of the

reason why the term is being accepted. The lack of definition allows institutions

to adapt and use the term as they see fit, and to develop ownership of it. (Sharpe,

et al., 2006, p. 17)

In this chapter, blended learning will be defined as learning experiences that integrate

face-to-face and online instruction (Graham, 2006, 2013). Accepting such a broad definition of

BL forces researchers to describe and study specific models and pedagogies used in BL contexts.

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 5

1.2 Growth of BL

Despite widespread anecdotal evidence of BL adoption across education sectors,

quantifying adoption rates has proven difficult. Reasons for the difficulty include (a) different

institutions define BL differently, (b) most institutions lack formal mechanisms for labeling BL

courses, and (c) the choice to blend is often made by instructors without institutional oversight.

At the university level, early survey research of faculty, designers, and

administrators (N=562) found that 93% of the respondents were already using BL in some

way, although approximately 60% were using BL in 20% or fewer of their courses (Bonk,

Kim, & Zeng, 2006). These findings were limited in generalizability because the survey

respondents were all early adopters of online technologies. At about the same time, the

eLearning Guild (2003) reported 85.2% of organizations participating in their corporate

training (N=192) were using BL solutions, with 33.9% using BL in 20% or fewer of their

courses.

For over a decade the Online Learning Consortium (formally the Sloan Consortium)

has sponsored survey research tracking online use in higher education in the U.S. In one of

the early reports, data were collected from chief academic officers (N=994) to

disambiguate blended learning from online learning in general (Allen & Seaman, 2003).

The report defined BL as having 30-79% of content delivered online; online learning as

80+% online delivery. Researchers found that 55.6% of institutions offered both blended

and online courses, 9.6% offered only blended courses, 16% offered only online courses,

and 18.8% offered neither (Allen & Seaman, 2003). A few years later the U.S. Department

of Education commissioned a study of distance education in degree-granting

postsecondary institutions, asking specifically about courses “formally designated” as

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 6

hybrid/blended online⎯defined as “a combination of online and in-class instruction with

reduced in-class seat time for students” (Lewis & Parsad, 2008, p. 1). The study found that

35% of institutions offered blended courses and that out of 12.2 million distance education

enrollments, 12% were in blended courses.

At the K-12 level, the Keeping Pace with K-12 Online Learning reports

(http://www.kpk12.com/reports/) have provided a broad view into K-12 online learning

practices in the U.S. since 2004. The 2011 report noted that “most district programs are

blended, instead of fully online,” but the reports do not provide numbers that distinguish

between blended and fully online (Watson, Murin, Vashaw, Gemin, & Rapp, 2011, p. 4).

Picciano and Seaman (2007, 2009, 2010) have conducted three national surveys that

distinguished the extent of the blended growth from fully online growth in U.S. K-12

institutions. Their survey of U.S. district school administrators (N=366) revealed that

during the 2005-06 school year 32.4% of districts had at least one student taking a blended

course, with 27.1% additional districts planning to implement blended courses in the

coming three years (Picciano & Seaman, 2007). A follow-up survey a couple of years later

(N=808) indicated that 41% of districts were implementing BL with 21.2% additional

districts planning to implement in the following three years (Picciano & Seaman, 2009).

Additionally, the 2009 report showed that of the approximately 23,000 blended

enrollments, 1% were in grades K-5, 20% in grades 6-8, and 78% in grades 9-12. The 2010

survey, which focused specifically on high school administrators (N=441), showed that

38% had at least one student enrolled in a blended course (Picciano & Seaman, 2010).

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 7

2. Blended Learning Models and Theory

Models and theory provide a common language and focus for scholarly communities

creating and extending knowledge (Dubin, 1978). Burkhardt and Schoenfeld (2003) noted that a

“reasonably stable theory base . . . allows for a clear focus on important issues and provides

sound (though still limited) guidance for the design of improved solutions to important

problems” (p. 6) and that “a lack of attention to coherent theory building leaves us looking

balkanized and incoherent, the whole . . . being less than the sum of its parts” (p. 13). In model

and theory development, the BL domain is in its adolescent years, with important maturing

needed ahead (Graham, Henrie, & Gibbons, 2014). Like related domains, including distance

education (Moore, 2004) and educational technology (Roblyer, 2005; McDougal & Jones, 2006),

BL research must overcome its growing pains and improve its research quality by focusing more

directly on models and theories.

Models and taxonomies of BL may also provide guidance for practitioners. The third

edition of this handbook presents several of the most prominent BL models for K-12, higher

education, and corporate training contexts (Graham, 2013). The Horn and Staker (2014)

taxonomy of blends, which has evolved in minor ways, continues to provide the dominant

language and terminology of practitioners and advocates for K-12 blended learning. In higher

education and corporate training few new models have been developed, and current models tend

to focus on surface-level physical dimensions of the learning environments, with a few very

general high-level pedagogical approaches. Future models to need to focus more directly on

pedagogical rather than physical dimensions of the blend. Graham, Henrie, & Gibbons’ (2014)

systematic review of models and theory in blended learning research categorized them into three

distinct types proposed by Gibbons and Bunderson (2005): explore, explain, and design.

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 8

Theoretical frameworks such as the community of inquiry, with constructs of social, teaching,

and cognitive presence, continue to be widely used (Garrison & Vaughan, 2008; Kineshanko,

2016).

While some of the research in BL is solidly grounded in theory, most of it has sought to

describe or solve localized challenges without contributing to coherent theory development.

Many studies consider theory only as background or as a lens to describe findings or outcomes;

few attempt to contribute substantively to the conversation around theory. Just as distance

learning required theory to focus researchers on psychological rather than physical distance

(Moore, 2013), BL needs theories to focus scholarship on the substantive psycho-social issues

that make it distinct.

3. Blended Learning Research

Research related to blended learning is rapidly increasing. Drysdale et al. (2013)

identified and analyzed over 200 English language dissertations studying blended learning

practices. Similarly, Halverson et al. (2012) identified the most cited journal articles, book

chapters, books, white papers, authors, and journals publishing blended learning research,

following up with a thematic analysis of the research questions and inquiry methodologies used

in the studies to identify strengths and areas for future research (Halverson et al., 2014). Because

fewer than 5% of the articles in the Drysdale et al. (2013) and Halverson et al. (2012, 2014)

studies focused on blended learning issues and contexts outside of North America, Spring et al.

(2016a, 2016b, 2017) conducted a series of studies to better understand the landscape of BL

across seven worldwide regions. This group interviewed international researchers, locating the

most cited articles and authors and using a network analysis to identify citation patterns and

themes. While it is too ambitious to cover all of the emerging BL research themes, this section

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 9

will address some of the most important research related to (a) institutional issues, (b) faculty

issues, and (c) student issues.

3.1 Institutional Issues

Educational institutions are in the crossroads of change with increasing pressures to

effectively meet the needs of a larger and more diverse group of students. Top institutional issues

include institutional change and adoption, learning access, and cost effectiveness.

3.1.1 Institutional Change and Adoption.

Blended learning can influence institutions’ capacity to meet strategic goals such as

increasing student access, maintaining student success and satisfaction, and managing growth

(Dziuban, Hartman, Cavanagh, & Moskal, 2011). Adoption of BL is increasing across

institutions, but generally through extension of existing practice rather than radical change

(Collis & van der Wende, 2002). Significant interest has been shown in how institutions can

provide leadership supporting effective BL adoption and implementation.

Minimal research exists on K-12 institutional adoption of BL. However, the book

Blended: Using Disruptive Innovation to Improve Schools includes institutional strategies

focused for administrative stakeholders around the theory of disruptive innovation. For higher

education a 2013 special issue of The Internet and Higher Education focused on BL policy and

implementation. In this issue Taylor and Newton (2013) studied facilitators and barriers to

institutional BL implementation, including the central role of senior leadership in that process.

Garrison and Vaughan (2013) documented two case studies of Canadian institutions where

institutional vision and leadership provided sustained support and resources, enabling the

institutions to better realize their missions. Additionally, Graham, Woodfield, and Harrison

(2013) studied six higher education institutions and developed a three-stage framework for

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 10

institutional adoption, with 12 indicators across the categories of strategy, structure, and support.

This framework was applied in two follow-up studies looking at the institutions’ transition from

the awareness/exploration phase to the adoption/early implementation phase (Porter, Graham,

Spring, & Welch, 2014) and at institutional decisions facilitating or impeding the adoption of BL

practices among faculty (Porter, Graham, Bodily, & Sandberg, 2016).

3.1.2 Access to Learning

Access issues drive much of BL’s worldwide growth. Bloemer and Swan (2015) studied

informal blending (students completing their degrees with both online and campus-based

courses), determining that students’ average credit hours taken per semester was increasing

because of improved access. A 2007 survey of 366 U.S. school districts, representing

approximately 3,632 schools and 2 million students, identified five primary reasons for online

and BL options:

1. Offering courses not otherwise available

2. Meeting needs of specific student groups

3. Offering advanced placement or college-level courses

4. Reducing students’ scheduling conflicts

5. Enabling failed courses to be retaken (Picciano & Seaman, 2007, p. 9)

All of these reasons involve access to educational opportunities that would be too costly

to provide in traditional ways. Online and blended options can thus address small and rural

schools’ needs as well as diverse students’ needs like advanced placement and credit recovery. A

BL initiative at Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT) targeted students who were deaf or hard

of hearing, as well as English language learners (ELLs; Long et al., 2007), improving access to

classroom participation as discussions shifted from the face-to-face contexts to asynchronous

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 11

discussion forums. Satisfaction levels for both subgroups were higher than for the normal student

population.

In higher education, costs for participating in traditional learning options are too high for

many potential students whose work, family situation, or other commitments preclude a rigid

school schedule. Flexible online options reduce costs associated with time and place scheduling,

but many forfeit access to a high-touch, relationship-oriented environment with instructors and

peers. BL options provide opportunities for benefit/cost tradeoffs relevant to students’ individual

circumstances and preferences. Blended options may particularly interest institutions reaching

out to non-traditional learners in local communities where they are well known and trusted; this

idea, called localness, has been emphasized by Sloan Consortium grant funding (Mayadas &

Picciano, 2007).

3.1.3 Cost Effectiveness

Cost effectiveness drives higher education institutions towards BL approaches (Betts,

Hartman, & Oxholm, 2009). With BL courses the University of Central Florida, has lowered

costs by improving scheduling efficiency and reducing need for physical infrastructure (Dziuban

et al., 2004, 2011). The National Center for Academic Transformation supported early research

to determine whether universities could engage in large-scale course redesign that would

decrease cost and improve learning outcomes (http://www.thencat.org). They offered $6 million

in grants to 30 institutions to engage in course redesign with detailed cost analysis. Half of the

designs included BL with reduced classroom seat time; seven involved significant technological

enhancements with no reduction in seat time, and eight moved completely online with some

optional face-to-face class sessions (Graham & Allen, 2009). Twigg (2003) reported total cost

savings across all the projects of $3.6 million each year, with institutional reductions ranging

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 12

from 20% to 84%, with an average savings of 40%. The projects reported quality improvements

including completion rates, student satisfaction, retention rates, and attitudes towards subject

matter.

Historically corporations have more effectively reported cost effectiveness than higher

education institutions. However, Blain (2010) reported that only 3% of global companies and

26% of European companies measure return on investment (ROI). A large-scale study by Bersin

and Associates (Bersin, 2004) of BL training programs in 16 large corporations found that

almost all generated an ROI of 100% or better. Blended programs reduced costly training

inefficiencies in wait time, hours and salaries, and facilities, among others. Institutions reporting

significant ROI due to BL training included Avaya (Chute, Williams, & Hancock, 2006),

Microsoft (Ziob & Mosher, 2006), IBM (Lewis & Orton, 2006), and Intel (Mahesh & Woll,

2007).

3.2 Student Issues

Students are the main clients of blended learning solutions. Their learning issues include

effectiveness, engagement, and satisfaction.

3.2.1 Learning Effectiveness

BL includes characteristics of environments with demonstrated potential to directly

impact learning. Media studies resulting in “no significant difference” have taught researchers

that although the physical affordances of an environment can enable or constrain particular

pedagogical methods, the active ingredient in learning is the pedagogy rather than the medium

(Clark, 1983). Although the physical characteristics of learning environments (e.g., online or

face-to-face) are not causal factors, they may represent classes of pedagogies distinct enough that

differences may be measured in meta-analyses where actual causes have not been identified.

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 13

At least five published meta-analyses have looked specifically at BL as a moderating

variable. Zhao and colleagues’ (2005) meta-analysis considered 12 moderating factors and found

that instructor involvement (76 studies) had the greatest impact, largely enabling “studies that

used a combination of technology and face-to-face education [to produce] the most positive

outcomes” (p. 1863). A (2006) meta-analysis by Sitzmann et al. compared effectiveness of web-

based instruction (WBI) and BL with classroom instruction (CI). Outcomes in declarative (104

studies) and procedural knowledge (18 studies) were analyzed separately: BL was determined

more effective than CI, with effect sizes of +0.34 for declarative and +0.52 for procedural

knowledge. BL effects on outcomes were much larger than the effect sizes for pure WBI

compared with CI, which were +0.07 for declarative and -0.15 for procedural knowledge.

Additionally, Bernard et al. (2009) meta-analysed distance education (DE) courses comparing

synchronous (5 studies), asynchronous (37 studies), and mixed (blended; 7 studies), finding no

significant difference among the DE modalities. However, the low number of studies in the non-

asynchronous categories suggested need for further research.

The U.S. Department of Education sponsored a meta-analysis considering contrasts

between online and traditional face-to-face learning (Means et al., 2010, 2013), with 50 different

contrasts from 45 published studies. In 21 of the 50 cases, online learners had opportunities for

face-to-face contact with an instructor; these were considered BL. The primary findings of the

study claimed that “classes with online learning (whether taught completely online or blended)

on average produced stronger student learning outcomes than did classes with [only] face-to-face

instruction. The mean effect size for all 50 contrasts was +0.20, p < .001” (p. 18). When the data

were disaggregated to compare the effects from the purely online contrasts (29 cases) with the

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 14

BL contrasts (21 cases), researchers found BL to be superior, with a mean effect size of +0.35

compared to a mean effect size of +0.05 for purely online.

Most recently in 2014, Bernard et al. conducted another meta-analysis, using 117 studies

comparing classroom instruction (CI) with blended learning (BL) conditions. The BL condition

outperformed the CI condition with an effect size of (g+=+0.33). The study also analyzed

interaction patterns of student-instructor (s-i), student-student (s-s), and student-content (s-c)

during BL. If two types of interaction were involved, the effect size was (g+=+0.44); if all three

types occurred it was (g+=+0.47). Among possible moderating variables tested, the effect size

was the largest (g+=+0.59) when the purpose for using technology in BL was for “cognitive

support.”

This evidence of outcome differences in online, blended, and face-to-face learning

warrant study. However, causal factors leading to these outcomes are not understood. Zhao et al.

(2005) suggested instructor involvement as a critical factor, and Bernard et al. (2014) considered

student-instructor interaction as an important treatment effect. The Means et al. (2010, 2013)

outcomes similarly credited instructor-directed learning environments with the largest

pedagogical effect. However, these studies did not identify specific aspects of instructor

involvement/interactions resulting in qualitative differences between a face-to-face or

synchronous high-fidelity environment and asynchronous text-based learning. Nor did they

suggest whether instructor involvement might be more critical for declarative versus procedural

learning. The Means et al. study reported opportunity for face-to-face time with the instructor

during instruction to be one of the significant moderating variables for online learning. However,

the Bernard study, which attempted to differentiate between learning declarative or procedural

knowledge, seemed to imply no significant moderating effect of human interaction on acquiring

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 15

declarative knowledge. Others have argued that improved outcomes may have more to do with

learners’ increased time on task in the BL environment (Sitzmann et al., 2006; Means et al.,

2010).

While the meta-analyses give a broad view of BL impact in experimental studies, many

non-experimental studies have also considered BL learning effectiveness. The Research

Initiative for Teaching Effectiveness at the University of Central Florida (UCF), an early

institutional adopter of BL, conducted a multi-year study involving tens of thousands of students

examining success rates (C- grade or above) of their online, blended, and face-to-face course

offerings. Accounting for college, gender, and modality, they found that while college was the

best predictor of success rates, within colleges the success rates for BL were higher than either

face-to-face or entirely online courses for both genders (Dziuban et al., 2004). A study looking

at success rates of BL offerings at the Rochester Institute of Technology (with a high

representation of students with hearing impairment) reported 95% completing courses with a

grade C- or above (Starenko, Vignare, & Humbert, 2007). Larson and Sung (2009) went beyond

academic performance, finding that 52% of BL students had increased interest in the subject

matter more than online or face-to-face participants.

As previously mentioned, more research is needed to identify quantity and quality factors

of blended designs that impact achievement and success rates. Shea and Bidjerano (2011) used

the community of inquiry framework to analyze levels of teaching presence and social presence

in blended and fully online learning environments, including relative impact of these constructs

on cognitive presence. The BL students reported higher levels of all three components of the

teaching presence construct (instructional design, discourse facilitation, and direct instruction)

and two of the three social presence components (affective communication and open

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 16

communication with instructor and other students). Researchers have reasoned that these factors

could explain why meta-analyses show students in blended courses outperforming students in

purely online courses.

3.2.2 Student Engagement

Researchers have correlated student engagement with many positive outcomes including

academic achievement, satisfaction, and persistence, but no consensus exists for defining and

measuring student engagement (Reschly & Christenson, 2012). A prominent model found in the

Handbook of Research on Student Engagement notes three domains for engagement: behavioral,

emotional, and cognitive (Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004). Additionally, engagement can

be studied at various levels including institutional, school, course, or activity (Skinner & Pitzer,

2012). Online technologies have increased the range of ways engagement can be measured,

including analytics to access real-time data beyond the typical end-of-course self-report survey

(Henrie, Halverson, & Graham, 2015). One study used learning management system log data

and brief activity-level surveys to document variations in learner engagement across a semester,

finding that clear instructions and relevant activities were more impactful than modality (Henrie,

Bodily, Manwaring, & Graham, 2015).

Though often used to justify blended approaches, improved student engagement is not

frequently studied. Analysis found that over half of the most frequently cited 85 articles and

chapters mentioned engagement, but only four directly addressed research questions related to

this construct (Halverson et al., 2012, 2014). Much of the blended learning engagement research

stays at a general level, not specifying pedagogical features that might impact engagement. For

example, a 2007 survey (institutions = 45, N = 23,706, blended course enrollment =

approximately 70%) found a positive correlation between measures of engagement and students’

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 17

use of course-related learning technologies (Chen, Lambert, & Guidry, 2010). Vaughan (2010)

used the National Survey of Student Engagement and description to explore positive impacts on

students’ active learning in redesigned blended courses required by an institutional initiative.

Alternatively, a study by Delialioğlu (2012) compared student engagement between lecture and

problem-based approaches in blended courses and found higher levels of engagement with the

latter. Halverson’s (2016) research looking at engagement in the online and face-to-face portions

of blended courses at two institutions found that students experienced engagement differently in

the two modalities. However, she was not able to determine how the differences might be

connected to pedagogical practices distinct between the modalities. Qualitatively oriented

research, including a cross-case analysis of student experiences with BL, documented the

varying barriers to engagement faced by students with different backgrounds and needs (Holley

& Oliver, 2010).

3.2.3 Student Satisfaction

Research has found that learner satisfaction in BL courses is influenced by students’

expectations, goals, and preferences as well as by the course design and implementation. For

example, a learner expecting no instructor interaction might be well satisfied with a moderate

interaction level, while a student expecting high interaction might be dissatisfied with the same

experience.

Vignare (2007) suggested a need to identify and benchmark the elements leading to

satisfaction in BL environments. Dziuban, Moskal, & Hartman (2005) used factor analysis to

identify two dimensions of satisfaction⎯learning engagement and interaction value ⎯then later

identified eight elements contributing to learner satisfaction in online and blended courses

(Moskal, Dziuban, & Hartman, 2010). Rothmund (2008) also found a correlation between

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 18

learner interaction and satisfaction in blended courses. Akyol, Garrison, & Ozden (2009)

confirmed that students valued both social presence and teaching presence in their BL

experiences.

Because student satisfaction is connected to learner dispositions as well as course design,

some researchers have hypothesized that student satisfaction with BL would be moderated by

learner characteristics. For example, satisfaction of non-traditional adult learners may be

significantly influenced by the convenience, flexibility, and low cost of BL (Moskal, Dziuban, &

Hartman, 2010). Researchers at the University of Central Florida investigated ways satisfaction

might be influenced by generation (e.g., millennials, boomers, genXers); they found significant

differences, with millenials being least favorable towards blended environments (Dziuban,

Moskal, & Hartman, 2005; Dziuban, Moskal, Brophy-Ellison, & Shea, 2007; Dziuban, Moskal,

& Futch, 2007). Another study used Kolb’s (1984) Learning Style Inventory to determine

whether students with different learning styles had different satisfaction profiles in a blended

course (Akkoyunlu & Soylu, 2008), hypothesizing that assimilators (oriented towards

information & ideas) would be more satisfied by online components, while divergers (oriented

towards people & feelings) would be drawn to the face-to-face components of the blend.

Significant differences were found between the two groups on all six measured elements of the

blended environment. Assimilators scored the online and face-to-face components as a close

first and second place, while divergers distinctly valued the face-to-face environment over the

online aspect. Graff (2003) also looked at learning styles in blended courses and found

significant differences. Students with “intuitive” learning approaches (judgments based on

feelings) experienced less sense of community than other students. Rovai & Jordan (2004) dealt

with sense of community in fully online, blended, and traditional face-to-face courses, finding

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 19

that blended learning experiences had build a stronger sense of community among students than

either fully online or traditional courses.

Available evidence shows that many learners value both the richness of interactions in a

face-to-face environment and the flexibility, convenience, and reduced costs associated with

online learning. This combination may be why most research finds high student satisfaction with

BL options. However, researchers must recognize that, as with learning effectiveness, the

pedagogical possibilities (e.g., interaction levels, learner choice) enabled by the modality are

what lead to satisfaction. Research looking at over a million course evaluations across different

course formats showed that “modality does not impact the dimensionality by which students

evaluate their course experiences” (Dziuban & Moskal, 2011, p. 236).

3.3 Faculty Issues

Teaching faculty experience many challenges from the rapid growth of blended and

online learning. While students drive the demand for blended learning, faculty have probably the

most important influence in a blended course or program’s success. Many important faculty

issues need research, but this section will briefly focus on three: (1) faculty adoption, (2) faculty

satisfaction and workload, and (3) professional development.

3.3.1 Faculty Adoption of BL

Faculty at both university and K-12 levels are being asked to teach in blended and online

modalities. Brown’s (2016) review of literature identified six factors influencing faculty

adoption. External influencers were (a) technology interactions, (b) academic workload, (c)

institutional environment, and (d) teacher-student interactions. Internal influencers were (a)

instructor attitudes & beliefs and (b) instructor learning. Ocak (2011) interviewed 117 faculty

across four higher education institutions and found the most significant barriers to faculty

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 20

adopting blended practices involved (a) instructional processes (complex instruction, time

demands , inadequate planning/organization, and ineffective communication), (b) community

concerns (lack of institutional support and role stability), and (c) technical issues (difficulty with

new technologies and limited internet access). Technical literacy, including internet self-

efficacy as well as structural technology access issues at the institution are prominent factors in

faculty adoption of tools that enable blended teaching (Buchanan, Sainter, & Saunders, 2013).

Finally, Porter & Graham (2016) compared faculty self-categorization of their adoption

(Rogers, 1983) with actual adoption behaviors and found that their self-perception tended to be

at higher levels than their conduct and activity. Using indicators from the Blended Learning

Institutional Adoption Framework (Graham et al., 2013), she probed faculty about how specific

institutional practices would influence their adoption decisions; results showed faculty in

different adoption categories valued different types of institutional strategy, structure, and

support. In a follow-up qualitative study, Porter et al. (2016) sought to understand how to address

needs of faculty in the early and late majority adoption categories in order to increase their

adoption of blended practices at the institution level.

3.3.2 Satisfaction and Workload

The University of Central Florida found that 88% of instructors were satisfied with

teaching blended courses and that 81% were “definitely” willing and 13% “probably” willing to

teach another blended course (Dziuban et al., 2004). This compares to the 87% faculty

satisfaction with teaching purely online courses, with only 67% “definitely” willing to teach

purely online again (Dziuban et al., 2004). All faculty involved in a BL pilot program at the

University of Wisconsin were happy with their first blended teaching experience and were

willing to recommend the approach to others (Aycock, Garnham, & Kaleta, 2002). However, in

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 21

contrast a BL pilot project at the Rochester Institute of Technology found only 41% were willing

to teach a blended course again (Vignare & Starenko, 2005).

Faculty satisfaction with online course redesign was influenced by factors associated with

(a) student experience (satisfaction, interaction levels, performance, etc.), (b) instruction

opportunities (recognition, reliable technology, collaboration opportunities, professional

development, etc.), and (c) institutional support (workload, compensation, promotion and tenure

issues, etc.) (Bolliger & Wasilik, 2009). Student factors were of first concern; faculty are not

likely to be satisfied if their students’ experience is not positive (Moskal, Dziuban, & Hartman,

2010). Using student ratings of faculty competence as an indirect measure of faculty satisfaction

in blended and online contexts, Larsen & Sung (2009) reported student ratings of exceptional

faculty competence for purely online (76%), blended (44%), and face-to-face (76%).

Relationships with their students motivate and renew many teachers. Forms of online learning

with minimal teacher-student interaction, particularly if the instructor feels reduced to

assignment grader, can be unsatisfying for faculty (Hawkins, Barbour, & Graham, 2012, 2012).

BL can add faculty satisfaction, (particularly for those accustomed to traditional teaching) by

enabling some face-to-face relationships with students.

As with online learning, researchers recognize that BL faculty workloads may increase,

especially for novice teachers (Colwell, 2006), with time required (a) to learn new technologies

and teaching strategies, (b) to create and maintain online materials, and (c) to communicate with

students by email and other ICT channels. Some recent work has been done for accurately

measuring BL workload (Kennedy et al., 2015; Ryan et al., 2015; Tynan et al., 2015).

3.3.3 Professional Development

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 22

Professional development preparing faculty for blended teaching is necessary, as the

majority have limited experience in online or blended teaching and need guidance in redesign

and implementation. Examples of effective programs supporting prospective BL faculty can be

found at various institutions. Garrison & Vaughan (2008) at the University of Calgary have been

proponents of the community of inquiry as a framework for professional development in blended

teaching. The University of Central Florida (UCF) has followed up their excellent IDL6543

professional development course (Dziuban, Hartman, Cavanagh, & Moskal, 2011) with the

openly available BlendKit online faculty development course (Moskal, Thompson, & Futch,

2015). The University of Wisconsin-Madison (Garnham & Kaleta, 2002; Aycock, Garnham &

Kaleta, 2002) and Rochester Institute of Technology (Vignare & Starenko, 2005; Starenko,

Vignare, & Humbert, 2007) also have exemplary offerings.

Ginsberg & Ciabocchi (2015) studied professional development for blended teaching at

116 institutions of higher education and reported on structural elements including (a) delivery

mode, (b) participation incentives, (c) enrollment choice, and (4) participant outcomes (e.g.,

readiness to teach BL). Additionally, the study explored which elements of the professional

development programs have been most/least successful and why? The study found that face-to-

face (72%) was the most common delivery format provided, followed by asynchronous online

instruction (55%), blended instruction (45%), and finally synchronous online instruction (30%).

Top areas for improvement included providing incentives, requiring training, increasing number

of training staff, and increasing institutional support/funding. While there is limited research on

professional development practices specifically for K-12 teachers preparing to teach in blended

contexts, there has been some research on PD for K-12 online teaching, which often includes

blended contexts (Rice & Dawley, 2009;).

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 23

Professional organizations in higher education and K-12 have created competencies for

blended and online teaching on which systematic and sustained faculty professional development

might be based (Klein, Spector, Grabowski, & de la Teja, 2004; Powell, Rabbitt, & Kennedy,

2014). However, little research has attempted to identify blended teaching competencies

distinguishable from traditional or online competencies. Torrisi-Steele & Drew (2013) supported

increased focus on technical pedagogy skills in the professional development.

4. Recommendations for Future Research

Although BL is often treated in terms of blending physical attributes of online and face-

to-face instruction, its psycho-social relationships are the core of its research and design. Like

engineering or architecture, education is a design-oriented field, concerned with tradeoffs

involving cost, efficiency, and effectiveness. The foundational challenge of BL research is

seeking to find ways of combining the strengths of both humans and machines so both can be

maximized by blending them to benefit learners.

Although research shows some general patterns across the modalities of face-to-face,

online only, and blended learning, the root causes for improved learning outcomes in BL

contexts are not yet apparent. They will likely be grounded in the pedagogical practices enabled

by blended learning, requiring research to examine more closely what happens at the activity

level in different blends. Several studies report student and faculty satisfaction with BL;

however, satisfaction data must be more closely linked with specific BL design features,

discovering how BL designs impact both performance and satisfaction outcomes and learners’

dispositions towards the subject matter, promoting learner persistence beyond a specific course.

Additionally, significant institutional issues should be explored. Issues affecting faculty

satisfaction (e.g., workload, professional development) are underrepresented in the research.

This is a prepublication draft version of an article accepted to the Handbook of Distance Education: Graham, C. R.
(2019). Current research in blended learning. In M. G. Moore & W. C. Diehl (Eds.), Handbook of distance
education (4th ed., pp. 173–188). New York, NY: Routledge.
RESEARCH IN BLENDED LEARNING 24

Other areas recommended for research include (a) impacts of interaction quantity and quality on

outcomes, (b) relationships between face-to-face and online presence in building BL community

and student engagement, and (c) correlation between time on task and BL outcomes. Garrison

and Vaughan (2008) identified establishing and maintaining cognitive presence in blended

communities as the top BL research need related to the CoI framework. Other researchers have

suggested relationships between learner characteristics and success with different blends

(Dziuban et al., 2007), particularly relevant as adolescent learners, who lack adult learning

characteristics like high self-regulation, encounter BL.

Increasing use of blended learning in higher education, corporate training, and K-12

learning contexts requires more theoretically grounded research to guide practice. Scholarly

knowledge is founded on theoretical development, including frameworks appropriate to the three

important activities of knowledge creation (Gibbons & Bunderson, 2005). Exploring identifies,

describes, and categorizes⎯documenting the wide range of blended learning models and

developing taxonomies to enable meaningful systemization facilitating analysis of physical and

pedagogical characteristics of the blends. Explaining via theoretical frameworks the how and

why of BL outcomes possibly extends prominent distance learning theories to the BL context and

develops new theories specifically created for understanding BL issues. Designing to create the

bases for instructional theories will aid practitioners in tailoring BL to their specific needs.

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