PHY113(

GENERALPHYSI
CS1(
MECHANI
CS)
)

1.
0 UNI
TSANDDI
MENSI
ONS
Ther
ear
ethr
eei
mpor
tantf
undament
alquant
it
iesi
nphy
sics.Thesear
elengt
h,mass,
andt
ime.Theuni
tsoft
hesequant
it
iesf
ormt
hef
undament
alorbasi
cuni
tsuponwhi
ch
most(
thoughnotal
l
)ot
heruni
tsdepend.Ot
herf
undament
alquant
it
iesar
eshowni
nthe
t
abl
ebel
ow

S.
IFundament
alQuant
it
iesandUni
ts
QUANTI
TY UNI
T UNI
TABBREVI
ATI
ON

Lengt
h Met
re m

Mass Ki
l
ogr
am kg

Ti
me Second s

Temper
atur
e Kel
vi
n K

El
ect
ri
ccur
rent Amper
e A

Amountofsubst
ance Mol
e mol
e

Lumi
nousi
ntensi
ty Candel
a cd

1.
2 Der
iveduni
ts
Bysi
mpl
ecombi
nat
ionofSIbasi
cuni
t,wecanobt
ainot
herusef
uluni
ts.Theyar
ecal
l
ed
der
iveduni
ts.Theuni
tofv
olumei
sobt
ainedbymul
ti
ply
ingt
hreel
engt
hsm*
m*m=m3.
Ot
heri
mpor
tantder
iveduni
tsar
eli
stedbel
ow.

QUANTI
TY DERI
VATI
ON UNI
TS

Ar
ea Lengt
h*Br
eadt
h m2

Vol
ume Lengt
h*Br
eadt
h*Hei
ght m3

Densi
ty Mass/Vol
ume m3
kg/

1
SpeedorVel
oci
ty Di
stance/
ti
me m/
s

Accel
erat
ion (
Changei
nvel
oci
ty)
/ti
me s2
m/

For
ce Mass*accel
erat
ion s2(
kgm/ N)

Moment
um Mass*v
eloci
ty=For
ce*
Time Ns

Pr
essur
e For
ce/
Area m2
N/

Ener
gyorwor
k For
ce*di
stance Nm orj
oul
es

1.
3 Di
mensi
onsofPhy
sicalQuant
it
ies
Byt
he di
mensi
on ofa phy
sicalquant
it
y,we mean t
he wayi
tisr
elat
ed t
othe
f
undament
alquant
it
ies,
mass,
lengt
handt
ime.Thesear
eusual
l
ydenot
edbyM,
LandT
r
espect
ivel
y


Anar
ea,
Lengt
h*br
eadt
h,hasdi
mensi LorL2
onL*

 Densi
ty,
whi
chi
smass/
vol
ume,
hasdi
mensi L3orML-3
onM/

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethedi
mensi
onsofsomequant
it
iesi
nmechani
cswi
tht
hei
runi
tsi
n
br
acket

 Vel
oci
ty=di
spl
acement
/ti
me,
itsdi
mensi
onsar TorLT-1(
eL/ ms-1)

 Accel
erat
ion:
thedi
mensi
onsar
ethoseofv
eloci
ty/
ti
met
hati T2orLT-2(
sL/ ms-2)

 For
ce,
sincef
orce=mass*accel
erat
ion,
itsdi
mensi eMLT-2(
onsar kgms-2orN)

 Wor
korEner
gy:si
ncewor
k=f
orce*di
stance,
itsdi
mensi sML2T-2(
oni Kgm2s-2or
J)

Di
mensi
onscanbeusedt
over
if
ywhet
heraphy
sicalequat
ioni
scor
rectornot
.The
met
hodofdi
mensi
oncanbeusedt
ofi
ndt
her
elat
ionbet
weenquant
it
ieswhent
he
mat
hemat
icsi
stoodi
ff
icul
t.

EXERCI
SE
1.Det
ermi
net
hedi
mensi
onoft
hef
oll
owi
ngphy
sical
quant
it
ies

2
 a.Densi
ty;
baccel
erat
ion;
c.f
orce;
d.wor
korener
gy;
e.power
;f.moment
um

2.I
nthegasequat
i P+a)
on( (
v-b)=RT,
whatar
ethedi
mensi
onsoft
heconst
ant
sa
v
2

andb

2
3.Showt
hatt
hef
ormul
aS=Ut+½(
at )i
sdi
mensi
onal
l
ycor
rect

4.Asmal
lmassi
ssuspendedf
rom al
ongt
hreadsoast
ofor
m asi
mpl
ependul
um.
Supposeper
iodToft
heosci
l
lat
ionsdependsonl
yont
hemassm,
thel
engt
hlof
t
het
hreadandt
heaccel
erat
ion,g,off
ree-
fal
latt
hepl
aceconcer
ned.Det
ermi
ne
t
heexactr
elat
ionsbet
weent
hesequant
it
ies.

5.Awav
eissetupi
nast
ret
chedst
ri
ngbypl
ucki
ngt
hest
ri
ng.Supposet
hev
eloci
ty
C,
oft
hewav
edependsont
het
ensi
onF,
int
hest
ri
ng,
itsl
engt
hlandi
tsmassm,
det
ermi
net
her
elat
ionbet
weent
hesequant
it
ies.

2.
0 SCALARSANDVECTORS
2.
1 Scal
ar
Thi
sisaphy
sicalquant
it
ythathasmagni
tudeandi
scompl
etel
yspeci
fi
edbyanumber
andauni
t.Exampl
esar
e:mass,v
olume,f
requency
,lengt
h,t
imee.
t.
c.Ther
ulesof
or
dinar
yar
it
hmet
icar
eusedt
omani
pul
atescal
arquant
it
ies(
symbol
sar
erepr
esent
ed
i
nit
ali
c)

2.
2 Vect
or
Thi
sisaphy
sicalquant
it
ythathasbot
hmagni
tudeanddi
rect
ionandi
scompl
etel
y
speci
fi
c by a numer
icalnumber(
val
ue)
,a di
rect
ion and a uni
t. Exampl
es ar
e:
di
spl
acement
,vel
oci
ty,
for
cee.
t.
c.Av
ect
ori
srepr
esent
edanal
yti
cal
l
ybyabol
dfacet
ype
suchasFwhenwr
it
tenbyhand.Whenv
ect
orquant
it
iesar
eadded,t
hedi
rect
ionmust
bet
akeni
ntoaccount
.

2.
3Vect
orAl
gebr
a

3
Thef
oll
owi
ngdef
ini
ti
onsar
efundament
al
1.Two v
ect
orsA and B ar
eequali
ftheyhav
ethemagni
tudeand di
rect
ions
r
egar
dlessoft
hei
rini
ti
alpoi
ntt
hati
sA=B

B
A

2.Av
ect
orhav
ingdi
rect
ionopposi
tet
othatofv
ect
orsayA butwi
tht
hesame
l
engt
hisdenot
edas–A.

-A

3.Thesum ofr
esul
tantofv
ect
orsAandBoff
igur
e1(
a)bel
owi
sav
ect
orCf
ormed
bypl
aci
ngt
hei
nit
ialpoi
ntofBont
het
ermi
nalpoi
ntofAandj
oini
ngt
hei
nit
ial
poi
ntofAt
othet
ermi
nalpoi
ntofB(
1b)
.Wewr
it
eC=A+B.Thi
sdef
ini
ti
oni
s
equi
val
entt
othepar
all
elogr
am l
awf
orv
ect
oraddi
ti
onasi
ndi
cat
edi
nfi
g1c

4
 A
B B
A A V C=A+
V V B
B
C=A+
B 1c
1a 1b

Formor
ethanonev
ect
or:
A,B,
C,D=E(
Resul
tant
)

B D B
A C
D
A
C

4.Thedi
ff
erenceofv
ect
orsAandBr
epr
esent
edbyA-
Bist
hatv
ect
orCwhi
chwhen
addedt
oBgi
vesA.(
thati
sA+(
-B)
).I
fA=Bt
hisi
mpl
i
est
hatA-
B=zer
o(nul
l
)
v
ect
or.Thi
shasamagni
tudeofzer
obuti
tsdi
rect
ioni
snotdef
ined.

5.Thepr
oductofav
ect
orAbyascal
arpi
sav
ect
orpAorApwi
thmagni
tudep
t
imest
hemagni
tudeofAanddi
rect
ioni
sthesameasoropposi
tet
othatofA
dependi
ngonwhet
herpi
sposi
ti
ve(
+ve)ornegat
ive(
-ve)
.Ifp=0t
hisi
mpl
i
est
hat
pA=0(
nul
lvect
or)

2.
4 LawsofVect
orAl
gebr
a
I
fA,
BandCar
evect
orsandpandqar
escal
ars,
1.A+B=B+A Commut
ati
vel
awf
oraddi
ti
on

2.A+(
B+C)=(
A+B)+C Associ
ati
vel
awf
oraddi
ti
on

3.p(
qA)=pqA=q(
pA) Associ
ati
vel
awf
ormul
ti
pli
cat
ion

4.(
p+q)
A=pA+qA Di
str
ibut
ivel
aw

5.p(
A+B)=pA+pB Di
str
ibut
ivel
aw

5
6
2.
5 Geomet
ri
cVect
orAddi
ti
on
Whent
woormor
evect
orsar
eaddedt
oget
her
,thosev
ect
orsmusthav
ethesameuni
t.
Thi
scanbedonei
nnumberofway
s:
i
. Gr
aphi
calmet
hod–e.
g.f
undament
al3-Theor
dert
owhi
cht
hev
ect
orsar
e
addeddoesnotmat
terf
ort
hreeormor
evect
ors.Ageomet
ri
cpr
oofoft
hisi
s
(
found)cal
l
edassoci
ati
vel
awf
oraddi
ti
ons.Thi
smet
hodcoul
dal
sobecal
l
ed
Geomet
ri
cmet
hod.Ther
ulesf
orv
ect
orsumsar
econv
eni
ent
lydescr
ibedby
geomet
ri
cmet
hods. Toaddv
ect
orBt
ovect
orA.Fi
rstdr
aw v
ect
orA on
gr
aphpaperandt
hendr
awv
ect
orBwi
thi
tst
ailst
art
ingf
rom t
het
ip(
head)of
A.Thus,t
her
esul
tantv
ect
orR=A+Bi
sthev
ect
ordr
awnf
rom t
het
ailofAt
o
t
het
ipofB.Thi
sisTr
iangl
emet
hodofAddi
ti
on.

i
i. Anal
ter
nat
ivegr
aphi
calpr
ocedur
eforaddi
ngt
wov
ect
orsi
sknownast
he
PARALLELOGRAM r
ule ofaddi
ti
on.I
n const
ruct
ion,t
het
ail
soft
het
wo
v
ect
orsAandBar
etoget
herandt
her
esul
tantv
ect
orRi
sthedi
agonalof
par
all
elogr
am f
orm wi
thAandBasi
tsi
des.Thi
sleadst
opar
all
elogr
am l
aw
ofv
ect
orswhi
chst
atest
hat
:ift
wov
ect
orsar
erepr
esent
edi
nmagni
tudeand
di
rect
ion by t
he adj
acent si
de of a par
all
elogr
am,t
he r
esul
tant i
s
r
epr
esent
edi
nmagni
tudeanddi
rect
ionbyt
hedi
agonaloft
hepar
all
elogr
am
dr
awnf
rom t
hecommonpoi
nt(
ort
ail
)oft
hev
ect
ors(
Figur
e1c)
.

i
ii
. Tr
igonomet
ri
cMet
hod

Al
thoughi
tispossi
blet
o det
ermi
net
hemagni
tudeand di
rect
ionoft
he
r
esul
tantoft
woormor
evect
orsoft
hesameki
ndgr
aphi
cal
l
ywi
thr
ulerand
pr
otr
act
or,t
hispr
ocedur
eisnotv
eryexact
.Thus,f
oraccur
ater
esul
ts,i
ts
necessar
ytouset
ri
gonomet
ry.Thi
smet
hodi
seasyt
ofi
ndt
her
esul
tantRof
t
wov
ect
orsAandBt
hatar
eper
pendi
cul
art
oeachot
her
.Themagni
tudeof
t
her
esul
tanti
sgi
venbyt
hePy
thagor em asR= A2 +B2 andt
eanTheor he
angl
eϴbet
weenRandAmaybef
oundf
rom t
anϴ=B/
A

R
B
7

A
Fr
om Fi
gur
e1c,appl
ycosi
ner
ule(
for
mul
ar)
,themagni
tudeofCwhi
chi
sther
esul
tant
orsum wi
l
lbe:
1/
2
a2 +b2 -
C =( 2abcosB) (
1)

Whent
hev
ect
orsaandbacti
nthesamedi
rect
ion(
aandbar
epar
all
el)angl
eBwi
l
lbe
1800sot
hatequat
ion(
1)gi
vest
hemagni
tudeofCas

1/
a2 +b2 +2ab)
c=( 2
Cos1800=-
1

2 1/
c=(
(a +b))2 =a +b

Whenaandbar
eint
heopposi
tedi
rect
ion,angl
eB wi
l
lbe0,t
hen(
aandbar
e
ant
ipar
all
el)

1/
2
a2 +b2 -
c=( 2abcos0) Cos00=1

1/
2
a2 +b2-
c=( 2ab)

2 1/
c=(
(a-
b) )2 =a-
b

I
fthet
wov
ect
orsar
eper
pendi
cul
ar, eB=900
angl

1/
2
a2 +b2 -
c=( 2abcos900)
1/
2
a2 +b2)
c=( ai
sper
pendi
cul
art
ob

Andgener
all
yforaandbatanangl
eof180-
Btoeachot
her

1/
2
a2 +b2 -
c=( 2abcosB)

8
9
 i
v. Vect
orAddi
ti
on:ComponentMet
hod.

Whenv
ect
orst
obeaddedar
enotper
pendi
cul
ar(
3-di
mensi
onalcases)t
hemet
hodof
addi
ti
onbycomponenti
sempl
oyed.Thecomponentofav
ect
ori
nanygi
vendi
rect
ioni
s
t
heef
fectoft
hatv
ect
ori
nthesai
ddi
rect
ion.

Anyv
ect
orAi
n3-di
mensi
onscanber
epr
esent
edwi
thi
nit
ialpoi
ntatt
heor
igi
n0ofa
r
ect
angul
arcoor
dinat
esy
stem.LetAbet
her
ect
angul
arcoor
dinat
esoft
het
ermi
nal
v
ect
orA wi
thi
nit
ialpoi
ntatO.Thev
ect
orsA1iA2jA3kar
ecal
l
edt
her
ect
angul
ar
componentv
ect
or(
componentv
ect
ors)ofAi
nthex,
yandzdi
rect
ionsr
espect
ivel
y.A1,
A2 andA3 ar
ecal
l
edt
her
ect
angul
arcomponent(
component
s)ofAi
nthex,yandz
di
rect
ionsr
espect
ivel
y.Thesum orr
esul
tantofA1i
,A2j
andA3ki
sthev
ect
orAsucht
hat

A =A1i+A2j+A3k

Themagni
tudeofAi
s: AI= A2
A =I 1 +A2
2 +A2
3

I
ngener
al,
theposi
ti
onv
ect
ororr
adi
usv
ect
orrf
rom Ot
othepoi
nt(
x,y
,z)i
swr
it
tenas

r=xi+y
j+zk

Andhasmagni
tude r=I
rI= x2 +y
2
+z2

Toaddt
woormor
evect
orsA,
BandCbyt
hecomponentmet
hodf
oll
owt
hispr
ocedur
e

1.Resol
vet
hei
nit
ial
vect
orsi
ntocomponent
sint
hex,
yandzdi
rect
ions

2.Addt
hecomponent
sint
hexdi
rect
iont
ogi
veRxl
i
kewi
sey
-di
rect
iont
ogi
veRy
andt
hecomponenti
nthezdi
rect
iont
ogi
veRz.Thati
s,t
hemagni
tudeofRx,
Ry
andRzar
egi
venbel
owr
espect
ivel
yas

Rx=Ax+Bx+Cx………………

Ry=Ay+By+Cy
………………

Rz=Az+Bz+Cz……………….

Cal
cul
atet
hemagni
tudeanddi
rect
ionoft
her
esul
tantRf
rom i
tscomponentRx,
RyandRzbyusi
ngt
hePy
thagor
eant
heor
em:

10
 R = R2
x +R2
y +R2
z

I
fthev
ect
orsbei
ngaddedal
lli
esi
nthesamepl
ane,onl
ytwocomponent
sneed
t
obeconsi
der
ed.

v
. Uni
tVect
ors
Auni
tvect
ori
sadi
mensi
onl
essv
ect
orofl
engt
huni
tyusedt
ospeci
fyagi
vendi
rect
ion.
I
thasnoot
herphy
sicalsi
gni
fi
cance.Theyar
eusedasaconv
eni
encei
ndescr
ibi
nga
di
rect
ioni
nspace.Fr
om f
igur
e3,
symbol
si,
jandkr
epr
esentuni
tvect
orspoi
nti
ngi
nthe
x,
yandzdi
rect
ion

Exer
cises
1.Acart
rav
els20.
0km duenor
thandt
hen35.
0km i
nthedi
rect
ion60westofnor
th.
Fi
ndt
hemagni
tudeanddi
rect
ionoft
hecar
’sr
esul
tantdi
spl
acement

2.Apar
ti
cleunder
goest
hreeconsecut
ivedi
spl
acement
s,gi
venbyd1 =(
i+3j-k)
cm,
d2=(
2i-
j-3k)cm andd3=(
-i+j
)fi
ndt
her
esul
tantdi
spl
acementoft
hepar
ti
cle

Sol
uti
on.

R=d1+d2+d3=(
2i+3j
-4k)cm

Ther
esul
tantdi
spl
acementhascomponent
sRx=2cm,
Ry=3cm andRz=-
4cm.
i
tsmagni
tudei
s

R = R2
x +R2
y +R2
z =5.
39cm

3.Aboatheadednor
thatav
eloci
tyof8km/
hr.Ast
rongwi
ndi
sbl
owi
ngwhose
pr
essur
ecausesi
ttomov
esi
deway
stot
hewestatav
eloci
tyof2.
0km/
h.Ther
e
i
sal
soat
otalcur
rentt
hatf
lowi
nadi
rect
ion30sout
hofeastatav
eloci
tyof5.
0
km/
h.Whati
stheboat
’sv
eloci
tyr
elat
ivet
otheear
thsur
face?

8km/
h Ay=
8km/
h
Ry= 11
5.
5km/
h

Cx=4.
3km/
h
2km/
h 5km/
h
Bx
 3
0

Rx
Thedi
rect
ionϴcanbeobt
ainedby anθ = =230,
t R = R2
x +R2
y =6km
Ry

4.Acari
sdr
ivennor
theastf
or40km,t
hennor
thwestf
or50km andt
hensout
hfor
30km.Dr
awt
hev
ect
ordi
agr
am anddet
ermi
net
her
esul
tantdi
spl
acementoft
he
car
.

r=34.
38km, 120N
78.
50km 40km
or
r(
-7.
08,
33.
64)
1350
45
0

30km

Tut
ori
als

1.I
fB i
sadded t
o A,underwhatcondi
ti
on doest
her
esul
tantv
ect
orhav
ea
magni
tudeequalt
oA+B?Underwhatcondi
ti
oni
sther
esul
tantv
ect
orequalt
o
zer
o?

2.Cant
hemagni
tudeofpar
ti
clesdi
spl
acementbegr
eat
ert
handi
stancet
rav
ell
ed?

3.I
fA=B,
whatcany
ouconcl
udeaboutt
hei
rcomponentofAandB?

4.Cant
hemagni
tudeofav
ect
orhav
eanegat
ivev
alue?Expl
ain

12
5.Can a v
ect
orhav
e a componentequalt
o zer
o and st
il
lhav
e a non-
zer
o
magni
tude?Expl
ain

6.Twov
ect
orsar
egi
venbyA=3i
-2j
andB=-
i-j

Cal
cul
ate(
a)A+B,
(b)A-B(
c)|
A+B|
,(d)t
hedi
rect
ionofA+BandA-B

7.I
foneoft
hecomponent
sofav
ect
ori
snotzer
oit
smagni
tudebezer
o?Expl
ain

8.Apar
ti
cl
eunder
goest
hef
oll
owi
ngconsecut
ivedi
spl
acement
s3.
5m sout
h,8.
2m
nor
theastand15m west
.Whati
sther
esul
tantdi
spl
acement
?

9.Fi
nd(
a)gr
aphi
cal
l
yand(
b)anal
yti
cal
l
ythesum orr
esul
tantoft
hef
oll
owi
ng
di
spl
acement
sA=2m NW, 300Nor
B=4m, thofeast
,C=7m duesout
h.

10.
Twov
ect
orsar
egi
venbyA=-
2i+j-3kandB=5i+3j
-k(
a)f
indat
hir
dvect
orC
sucht
hat3A+2B–C=0(
b)whatar
ethemagni
tudeofA,
BandC

11.
Twof
orces10Nand6Nact
sonabody
,thedi
rect
ionoft
hef
orcesar
enotknown
(
a)whati
sthemaxi
mum magni
tudeoft
hesef
orces(
b)whati
sthemi
nimum
magni
tude?Ans.16N,
4N

12.
Vect
orsA andBhav
ecomponent
sAx=-
5cm,Ay
=1.
1cm,Az=-
3.5cm andBx=
8.
8cm,
By=-
6.3cm,
Bz=9.
2cm det
ermi
net
hecomponent
soft
hev
ect
ors(
a)A+B,
(
b)B-
A(c)3B+2A(
d)expr
esst
hev
ect
orB-
Ainuni
tvect
ornot
ati
on

13.
Thr
eef
orcesact
satt
hepoi
ntOasshownbel
owf
ind(
a)t
hexandycomponent
s
oft
her
esul
tantf
orceand(
b)t
hemagni
tudeanddi
rect
ionoft
her
esul
tantf
orce

13
3.
0 VELOCI
TYANDACCELERATI
ON
Mot
ioni
schar
act
eri
zedbyachangei
nposi
ti
on.Mot
ioni
nast
rai
ghtpat
hiscal
l
edl
inear
mot
ion.Ki
nemat
ics i
s a mot
ion descr
ibed usi
ng t
he conceptofspace and t
ime
r
egar
dlessoft
hecausesoft
hemot
ions.Thesubj
ectofdy
nami
csont
heot
herhand
i
nvol
vesanobj
ectunder
goi
ng const
antaccel
erat
ionwi
tht
her
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween
mot
ion,
for
cesandt
hepr
oper
ti
esofmov
ingobj
ect
s

3.
1 Vel
oci
ty

I
fabodymov
esf
rom onepoi
ntAt
oanot
herpoi
ntBi
nat
imei
nter
valt
,thel
engt
hAB,
r
epr
esentt
he t
otalchange i
n posi
ti
on.Thi
stot
alchange i
n posi
ti
on i
s cal
l
ed
di
spl
acement
,s,ofabodyi
nthedi
rect
ionofB.Theuni
tofdi
spl
acementi
smet
re.On
t
heav
erage,t
hemagni
tudeoft
hedi
spl
acementchangesbyanamounts/
tev
eryone
second.Thi
samounti
sthemagni
tudeoft
heav
eragev
eloci
tyoft
hebody
.

Vel
oci
tyi
sdef
inedast
het
imer
ateofchangeofdi
spl
acement
.Ift
hedi
spl
acement
changesi
nequalamount
sinequalt
imei
nter
val
s,t
hev
eloci
tyi
ssai
dtobeuni
for
m or
const
ant{
thati
sv=s/
t=const
ant
}.I
fapar
ti
clemov
esal
ongt
hex-
axi
sfr
om poi
ntPt
o
poi
ntQ,
Leti
tsposi
ti
onatpoi
ntPbexiandt
imetandl
eti
tsposi
ti
onatpoi
ntQbexfat
t
imet
f.Att
imesot
hert
hant
iandt
f,t
heposi
ti
onoft
hepar
ti
clesbet
weent
heset
wo
poi
ntsmayv
ary(
thati
sexpl
ainedbet
terwi
thposi
ti
ont
imegr
aph)
.Int
het
imei
nter
val
∆t=t
f–t
,
ithedi
spl
acementoft
hepar
ti
clesi
s:∆x=xf–xi

Theav
eragev
eloci
tyoft
hepar
ti
clesVi
sdef
inedast
her
ati
ooft
hedi
spl
acement∆x
andt
het
imei
nter
val∆t
.Iti
sindependentofanypat
htaken(
e.g.i
fapar
ti
clest
art
sata
poi
ntandr
etur
nst
othesamepoi
ntv
iaanypat
h,i
tsav
eragev
eloci
tyi
szer
osi
nce∆x=
0)
.Di
spl
acementi
snotequalt
odi
stancecov
ered(
trav
eled)
.Itcanbeposi
ti
veor
negat
ivedependi
ngont
hedi
spl
acement
.

Thev
eloci
tyofapar
ti
cleatanyi
nst
antoft
imeoratsomepoi
ntonaspace–t
ime
gr
aphi
scal
l
edt
hei
nst
ant
aneousv
eloci
ty.Thi
sconcepti
sver
yimpor
tantwhent
he
av
eragev
eloci
tyi
ndi
ff
erentt
imei
nter
val
sisnotconst
ant
.Thei
nst
ant
aneousv
eloci
tyV
equal
sthel
i
mit
ingv
alueoft
her
ati
o∆x/∆tas∆tappr
oacheszer
o.

14
 Vx =lm ∆x =dx
i (
Slopeoft
hedi
stancet
imegr
aph)
→0∆t d
∆t t

Vcanbeposi
ti
ve,negat
iveorzer
o.Thei
nst
ant
aneousspeedofapar
ti
clei
sdef
inedas
t
hemagni
tudeoft
hei
nst
ant
aneousv
eloci
ty.Not
e:speedcannev
erbenegat
ive(
-ve)

3.
2 Accel
erat
ion
Whent
hev
eloci
tyofapar
ti
clechangeswi
tht
ime,
thepar
ti
clei
ssai
dtobeaccel
erat
ing.
Accel
erat
ioni
sdef
inedast
het
imer
ateofchangeofv
eloci
ty.I
fthev
eloci
tyofabody
i
ncr
easesf
rom ani
nit
ialv
alue,U(
Vi)t
oaf
inalv
alueV(
Vf)i
nat
imei
nter
val
,t,t
he
av
erageaccel
erat
ioni
sgi
venby

(
V- v
U) ( v ∆V
-)
f i
a= = =
t (t
f-) ∆t
t
i

V =U +at (
1)

Thei
nst
ant
aneousaccel
erat
ioni
sdef
inedast
hel
i
mitoft
heav
erageaccel
erat
ionas∆t
appr
oacheszer
othati
s

a=lm ∆V =dV
i (
Slopeoft
hev
eloci
tyt
ime
→0 ∆t d
∆t t
gr
aph)

Not
e:Ret
ardat
ion(
-a)i
srat
eofdecr
easeofv
eloci
ty

I
fai
sposi
ti
ve(
+ve)
,accel
erat
ioni
sint
he+v
ex-
dir
ect
ion,-
asi
mpl
yimpl
i
est
hat
accel
erat
ion i
sint
he negat
ive(
–ve)x-
dir
ect
ion.Thi
simpl
i
es t
hatAccel
erat
ion =
i
nst
ant
aneousaccel
erat
ion

I
fthev
eloci
tyoft
hebodyi
ncr
easesbyequalamount
sinequalt
imei
nter
val
,the
accel
erat
ioni
ssai
dtobeuni
for
m orconst
antt
hati
s

(
V-U)
a= =const
ant
t

Theuni
tofVi
sm/ s2.I
s,a=m/ fthev
eloci
tyofabodyi
ncr
easesuni
for
mlyf
rom an

15
i
nit
ial
vel
oci
tyUt
oaf
inal
vel
oci
tyVi
nat
imei
nter
val
t,t
heav
eragev
eloci
tyVavgwi
l
lbe

(
V +U) S
Vavg = =
2 t

Butf
rom equat
ion1
S (V +U) (
( )+U)
U +at
= =
t 2 2

1 2
S =Ut+ at (
2)
2
I
fthebodyst
art
sfr
om r
est
,U=0.Equat
ion2becomes

1 2
S = at
2

Si
ncef
rom equat
ion(
1),
V=U+at
,thenmaki
ngtsubj
ectoft
hef
ormul
a,wehav
ethat

(
V- U)
t=
a

Combi
ningt
hisequat
ionwi
thequat
ion2el
i
minat
est
.theequat
iont
henbecomes

V-U 1 V-
U2
S =U( ) [( )]
a
+a
2 a

V2 =U2 +2aS (
3)

ForU=0,
equat
ion3becomes

V2 =2aS Or

V = 2aS

Equat
ions(
1),(
2)and(
3)ar
ethet
hreef
undament
alequat
ionsofmot
ionf
orl
i
near
mot
ionunderconst
antaccel
erat
ionoruni
for
m accel
erat
ion.

16
3.
3 Gr
aphsofMot
ion

Gr
aphsofmot
ionf
orbodi
esunderconst
antaccel
erat
ioni
soft
wot
ypes:Di
spl
acement
-
t
imegr
aph(
fi
ga)andVel
oci
ty-
ti
megr
aph.Thesl
opeoft
hedi
spl
acementt
imegr
aphof
abodyunderconst
antaccel
erat
ioni
sthev
eloci
ty.Thati
s

S2-S1 S
Sl
ope= = =V wher
eS =di
spl
acement
t
2-t1 t

Fi
gur
e(b)i
sthev
eloci
ty–t
imegr
aphofabodyunderconst
antaccel
erat
ion.Fr
om t
he
gr
aphweseet
hat
:
(
V-U)
Sl
ope= =a
t

Thear
eaA1 oft
her
ect
angl
eis:A1 =Utandt
hear
eaA2 oft
het
ri
angl
ewi
thbaseti
s:
2
A2=(
1/2)
at .Thet
otal
area,
Aundert
hev
eloci
ty-
ti
megr
aphi
s

1 2
A =A1 +A2 =Ut+ at =S(
tot
aldi
spl
acement
)
2

S2 V

at
A2
S1 U
t

A1 U

t
1 t
2 t
1 t
2

(
a)Displ
acementt
ime (
b)Vel
oci
tyt
imegr
aph
graph

17
18
Exampl
es

1.Acart
rav
els270km i
n4.
5h(
a)whati
sit
sav
eragev
eloci
ty(
b)how f
ar
wi
l
litgoi
n7.
0hatt
hisav
eragev
eloci
ty(
c)howl
ongwi
l
litt
aket
otr
avel
300km att
hisav
eragev
eloci
ty.

a.Vavg=∆S/
t=270/
4.5=6.
0km/
hr

b.S=Vavg*t=6.
0*7=420km

c.t=S/
V=300/
60=5.
0h

2.Acart
rav
elsat100km/
hfor2h,
at60km/
hfort
henext2handf
inal
l
yat
80km/
hfor1h.Whati
sthecar
’sav
eragev
eloci
tyf
ort
heent
ir
ejour
ney
?

Av
eragev
eloci
ty=(
tot
aldi
stancecov
ered)
/(t
otal
timet
aken)

( Vit
S1 +S2 +S3) ( 1 +V2t2 +V3t3)
Vavg = = =80km/
hr
(t1 +t
2 +t
3) (t
1 +t2 +t3)
(
S=Vt
)

3.Whati
stheaccel
erat
ionofacart
hatgoesf
rom 20km/
hto30km/
hin1.
5s
(
b)att
hesameaccel
erat
ion,
howl
ongwi
l
litt
aket
hecart
ogof
rom 30t
o
36km/
h?

a.Accel
erat
ion=(
V-U)
/t=6.
7km/
hr

b.t
=(V-
U)/
a=0.
9s(
V=36km,
U=30km,
a=6.
7km/
hr)

4. Thebr
akeofacer
tai
ncarcanpr
oduceanaccel
erat
i s2 (
onof6m/ a)how
l
ongdoesi
ttakest
hecart
ocomet
ofr
om av
eloci
tyof30m/
s(b)howf
ar
doest
hecart
rav
eldur
ingt
het
imet
hebr
akei
sappl
i
ed.

a.t=V/
a=5sec

2
b.S=Ut+(
1/2)at=75m U=30m/
s,t=
5s

5.Thebr
akeofacarwhosei
nit
ialv
eloci
tyi
s30m/
sar
eappl
i
edandt
hecar

19
 r
ecei
vesanaccel
erat
ionof- s2.How wi
2m/ l
lithav
egone(
a)wheni
ts
v
eloci
tyhasdecr
easet
o15m/
s(b)wheni
thascomet
oast
op.

a.V2 =U2 +2aS

V2-
U2
S= =169m
2a

b.V=0.Thi
simpl
i
est
hatS=225m

6.The v
eloci
ty ofa par
ti
cle mov
ing al
ong t
he x-
axi
svar
ies wi
tht
ime
2
accor
dingt
otheexpr
essi
onv=(
40-5t)m/
swhenti
sinSec(
a)f
indt
he
av
erageaccel
erat
ioni
nthet
imei
nter
val
st=0t
ot=2s(
b)det
ermi
net
he
accel
erat
ionatt=2sec

2
a. Vicor
respondst
otihenceVi=(
40-5t
i);
fort
i=0,
Vi=40m/
s

2
Vfcor
respondst
otfhence Vf=(
40-
5ti);
fort
f=2sec,
Vf=20m/
s

∆V Vf-
Vi
b. av
erageaccel
erat
ion = = =-
10m/
s
∆t tf-
ti

c.a=dV/
dtatt=2.Thi
simpl
i
es-
10tm/
s

Hencei
sequal
to- s2
20m/

OR
2
usi
ngl
i
mit
ingf
act
ort
hati
sas∆t→0,
thev
eloci
tyatt
imeti
sgi
venbyV=(
40-5t)m/
s
andt
hev
eloci
tyatt
imet+∆ti
sgi
venby

2 2 2
V=40-
5(t+∆t
) =40–5t–10t
∆t–5(
∆t)

Thechangei
nvel
oci
tyov
ert
het
imei
nter
val
∆ti
s

2
∆V=Vf–Vi=[
–10t
∆t–5(
∆t)]m/
s

Di
vi
det
hrough∆tandt
aki
ngl
i
mitoft
her
esul
tsas∆tappr
oacheszer
o,wehav
e
accel
erat
ionatanyt
imetas

20
 m ∆V =l
a=li
()
→0 ∆t
∆t
i
m (-
∆t
→0
10t- )=-
5∆t 10t m/
s

att=2sec,
a=-20m/
s

TUTORI
ALS
1.Anel
ect
roni
nacat
hoder
ayt
ubeofaTVsetent
ersar
egi
onwher
eitaccel
erat
es
uni
for
mlyf
rom aspeedof3x104m/
stoaspeedof5x106m/
sinadi
stanceof2cm

(
a)Howl
ongi
stheel
ect
roni
nther
egi
onwher
eitaccel
erat
es

(
b)Whati
stheaccel
erat
ionoft
heel
ect
roni
nthi
sregi
on?

1.Av
eragev
eloc3andi
nst
ant
aneousv
eloci
tyar
egener
all
ydi
ff
erentquant
it
ies,can
t
heyev
erbeequal
foraspeci
fi
cty
peofmot
ion?Expl
ain

2.I
fVi
snonzer
oforsomet
imei
nter
val∆t
,doest
hismeant
hatt
hei
nst
ant
aneous
v
eloci
tyi
snev
erzer
odur
ingt
hei
nter
val
?Expl
ain

3.I
fthev
eloci
tyofapar
ti
clesi
szer
o,cani
tsaccel
erat
ionev
erbenon-
zer
oandv
ice
v
ersa?Expl
ain

4.Aj
oggerr
unsi
nast
rai
ghtl
i
newi
thanav
eragev
eloci
tyof5m/
sfor4mi
nandt
hen
wi
thanav
eragev
eloci
tyof4m/
sfor3mi
n.(
a)whati
shert
otaldi
spl
acement(
b)
whati
sherav
eragev
eloci
tydur
ingt
hist
ime?(
1.92km,
4.57m/
s)

5.Att=1s,
apar
ti
clemov
ingwi
thconst
antv
eloci
tyi
slocat
edatx=-
3m andatt=
6s,
thepar
ti
clei
slocat
edatx=5m,

a.Fr
om t
hisi
nfor
mat
ion,
plott
heposi
ti
onasaf
unct
ionoft
ime

b.Det
ermi
net
hev
eloci
tyoft
hepar
ti
clesf
rom t
hesl
opeoft
hisgr
aph

6.Thev
eloci
tyofapar
ti
clesmov
ingal
ongt
hex-
axi
svar
iesi
nti
meaccor
dingt
othe
r
elat
ionV=(
15-8t
)m/
s.Fi
nd

a.Theaccel
erat
ionoft
hepar
ti
cles

b.I
t’
svel
oci
tyatt=3s

21
 c.I
t’
sav
eragev
eloci
tyi
nthet
imei
nter
val
t=0t
ot=2s

(
- s2;
8m/ -9m/
s;7m/
s)

7. Apar
ti
clet
rav
elsi
nthe+v
ex-
dir
ect
ionf
or10sataconst
antspeedof50m/
s.I
t
t
hen accel
erat
esuni
for
mlyt
oaspeedof80m/
sint
henext5s.Fi
nd(
a)t
heav
erage
accel
erat
ionoft
hepar
ti
clesi
nthef
ir
st10s(
b)i
tsav
eragespeedi
nthei
nter
val
t=10s
t
ot=15s(
c)t
het
otal
displ
acementoft
hepar
ti
clesbet
weent=0andt=15sand(
d)i
ts
av
eragespeedi
nint
erv
alt=10st
ot=15s[
0; s2;
6m/ 825m and65m/
s]

8. Thei
nit
ialspeedofabodyi
s5.
2m/
s.Whati
sit
sspeedaf
ter2.
5si
fit(
a)
accel
erat
es uni
for
mlyat3. s2 and(
0m/ b)accel
erat
esuni
for
mlyat-
3. s2 (
0m/ -xaxi
s)?
(
12.
7m/
s;- 2.
3m/
s)

9. Anel
ect
ronhasani
nit
ialv
eloci
tyof3.
0x10^
5m/
s.I
fitunder
goesanaccel
erat
ion
of 8x1014m/
s2(
a)howl
ongwi
l
litt
aket
oreachav
eloci
t 4x105m/
yof5. sand(
b)how
f
ar hasi
ttr
avel
l
edi
nthi
s t
i 3x10-10s;
me?( 1.26×10-4m)

4.
0 THELAWSOFMOTI
ON{
Newt
on’
slawofmot
ion}

4.
1 For
ce

Thechangei
nmot
ionofanobj
ecti
scausedbyf
orce.I
fanobj
ectmov
eswi
thuni
for
m
mot
ion(
const
antv
eloci
ty)i
tsmot
iondoesnotchange,
ther
efor
enof
orcei
srequi
redt
o
mai
ntai
nthemot
ion.I
fsev
eralf
orcesactonanobj
ect(
simul
taneousl
y),
theobj
ectwi
l
l
accel
erat
eonl
yift
henetf
orceact
ingoni
tisnotequalt
ozer
o(t
hati
sther
esul
tant
f
orceort
heunbal
ancef
orce)
.Ift
henetf
orcei
szer
o,t
heaccel
erat
ioni
szer
oandt
he
v
eloci
tyoft
heobj
ectr
emai
nsconst
ant
.Whent
hev
eloci
tyofabodyi
sconst
antori
fthe
bodyi
satr
est
,iti
ssai
dtobei
nequi
l
ibr
ium.Thesef
orcescanbecont
actf
orce(
pul
l
andpush)andact
ion-
at-
a-di
stancef
orexampl
e(Gr
avi
tat
ional
,El
ect
rost
ati
c,magnet
ic)

Basi
cal
l
y,t
her
ear
efourt
ypesofi
nter
act
ivef
orcewi
thbot
hty
peabov
ecombi
ned

I
. Gr
avi
tat
ional
att
ract
ionsbet
weenobj
ect
sbecauseoft
hei
rmass

22
 I
I. El
ect
romagnet
icf
orcesbet
weenchar
gesatr
estori
nmot
ion

I
II
. St
rongnucl
earf
orcesbet
weensubat
omi
cpar
ti
clesand

I
V. Weak-
nucl
earf
orces(
weak-
int
eract
ion)ar
iseasar
esul
tofr
adi
oact
ivedecay
pr
ocesses

4.
2 Newt
on’
sFi
rstLawandI
ner
ti
alf
rame
Thef
ir
stl
awst
atest
hat“
ever
ybodycont
inuesi
nit
sst
ateofr
estoruni
for
m mot
ioni
na
st
rai
ghtl
ine,
unl
essi
mpr
essed(
ext
ernalr
esul
tantf
orceact
s)f
orceact
soni
t”
.Wecan
sayt
hatwhent
her
esul
tantf
orceonabodyi
szer
o,i
tsaccel
erat
ioni
szer
o.Thati
swhen
F=0,t
hena=0whi
chi
mpl
i
est
hatani
sol
atedbodyi
sei
theratr
estormov
ingwi
th
const
antv
eloci
ty.

Thi
slaw i
ssomet
imescal
l
edLaw ofI
ner
ti
al,si
ncei
tappl
i
est
oobj
ect
sinani
ner
ti
al
f
rameofr
efer
ence.Ani
ner
ti
alf
rameofr
efer
encei
sonei
nwhi
chanobj
ectwi
l
lmov
e
wi
thconst
antv
eloci
tyi
flef
tundi
stur
bed.Ani
ner
ti
alf
ramei
sonewi
thnoaccel
erat
ion.
I
ngener
al,
iner
ti
alf
ramesar
ethosei
nwhi
chNewt
on’
slawsofmot
ionar
eval
i
d.

Ther
eluct
anceofast
ati
onar
yobj
ectt
omov
eandt
hemov
ingobj
ectt
ost
opi
scal
l
ed
I
ner
ti
al.Obj
ectwi
thbi
gmassf
eel
smor
erel
uct
antt
ochangei
tsst
atet
hananobj
ect
wi
thsmal
lmasswhi
chi
mpl
i
est
hatmassofanobj
ecti
sameasur
eofi
tsi
ner
ti
al.

4.
3 Newt
on’
sSecondLawandFundament
alEquat
ion

Thesecondl
awst
atest
hatt
hechangei
nmoment
um peruni
tti
mei
spr
opor
ti
onal
tot
he
i
mpr
essedf
orceandi
ttakespl
acei
nthedi
rect
ionoft
hest
rai
ghtl
i
neal
ongwhi
cht
he
f
orceact
s.I
nanot
herway
,thel
awst
atest
hatt
het
imer
ateofchangeofmoment
um of
apar
ti
clei
sequal
tot
her
esul
tantext
ernal
for
ceact
ingi
ntheobj
ect(
par
ti
cle)
.

dP d(
mV)
∑F =dt= dt (
1)

p =mV(
moment
um ofapar
ti
cle)

23
 ∑F i
sthev
ect
orsum ofal
lext
ernalf
orces.Fr
om equat
ion(
1),wehav
efor
m=const
ant
,

d(
mV) dV dV
∑F = dt =m
dt
buta=
dt

t
her
efor
e, ∑F =ma (
2)

Equat
ion(
1)and(
2)ar
eNewt s2ndl
on’ awwhi
chi
sthef
undament
alequat
ion

Ther
efor
e,f
rom (
2)weconcl
udet
hatt
her
esul
tantf
orceonapar
ti
cleequalt
oit
smass
mul
ti
pli
edbyi
tsaccel
erat
ioni
fthemassi
sconst
ant
.Equat
ion(
1)i
sval
i
donl
ywhent
he
speedoft
hepar
ti
clei
slesst
hant
hespeedofl
i
ght
.

Ther
esul
tantf
orcei
szer
oifa=0,wher
eVi
sconst
antorzer he1stl
o.Hencet aw of
mot
ioni
saspeci
alcaseoft
hesecondl
aw.TheSIuni
toff
orcei
sN.Af
orceof1Ni
s
def
inedast
hef
orcet
hat
,whenact
ingona1kgmass,pr
oducesanaccel
erat
ionof
s2.1N =1kgm/
1m/ s.Thet
abl
ebel
ow showsdi
ff
erentsy
stem ofuni
tformass,
accel
erat
ionandf
orce.

Sy
stemsofUni
ts Mass Accel
erat
ion For
ce

SI Kg s2
m/ s2
N=kgm/

Cgs G s2
Cm/ dy s2
ne=gcm/

Br
it
ishEngi
neer
ing Sl
ug Ft
/s2 l
b=sl
ugf
t/s2

1N=105dy
ne=0.
225l
b

Lb=pound:1poundoff
orcewhenact
ingona1-
slugmasspr
oducesanaccel
erat
ionof
1f
t/s2

1Lb=1sl
ugf
t/s2

4.
4 Newt
on’
sthi
rdl
aw

I
ftwobodi
esi
nter
act
,thef
orceofbody1and2(
F12)i
sequalt
oandopposi
tet
hef
orce

24
ofbody2onbody1(
F21)(
Inadi
rect
ional
ongt
hel
i
nej
oini
ngt
hepar
ti
cles)t
hen

F21 =-
F12

Theact
ionf
orcei
sequali
nmagni
tudet
other
eact
ionf
orceandopposi
tei
ndi
rect
ion.
t
hati
stheact
ionandr
eact
ionf
orcesal
way
sacti
ndi
ff
erentobj
ect
s.Not
ethatan
i
sol
atedf
orcecannotexi
sti
nnat
ure.

Exampl
es

1.Af
orceof3000Ni
sappl
i
edt
oa1500kgcaratr
est(
a)whati
sit
saccel
erat
ion(
b)
whatwi
l
lit
svel
oci
tybe5sl
ater
.

(
a)a=F/ s2
m =2m/

(
b)v=at=11.
0m/
s

2.A60gt
enni
sbal
lappr
oachesar
acketat15m/
sincont
actwi
tht
her
acketf
or
0.
005sandt
henr
e-bouncesat20m/
s.Fi
ndt
heav
eragef
orcet
hatt
her
acket
exer
tedont
hebal
l
.

Thebal
laccel
erat
iona=(
V-U)
/t

V=-
20m/
s,U=15m/
s,t=0.
005s

F=ma=-420N(
Minussi
gnshowst
hatt
hef
orcewasi
nopposi
tedi
rect
ion)

3.Anobj
ectofmass0.
3kgi
spl
acedonahor
izont
alf
ri
cti
onl
esssur
face.Two
f
orcesactont
heobj
ectasshowni
nthef
igur
ebel
ow.Thef
orceF1 hasa
magni
tudeof5.
0NandF2hasmagni
tudeof8.
0N.Det
ermi
net
heaccel
erat
ionof
t
heobj
ect

F2 F1=5.
0N

F2=8.
0N

60
0

20
F1

25
 ∑F =F
x 1x +F2x =F1cos200 +F2cos600 =8.
7N

∑F =F y 1y +F2y =- n200 +F2si

I
fai
s+v
e,m2si
nϴ>m1(
thati
sm2accel
erat
esdownt
hei
ncl
i
nedpl
ane)

I
fm1>m2si
nϴ(
accel
erat
ionofm2i
supt
hei
ncl
i
neanddownwar
dform1)

(
∑F)
a=
m

I
fweassumet
hatm1=10kg, ϴ=450,
m2=5kg, thena=-
4. s2
2m/

The–v
esi
gnshowst
hatai
sagai
nstgr
avi
ty.

Tut
ori
als
1.Anobj
ecthasmassof200g.Fi
ndi
tswei
ghti
ndy
neandi 96x105dy
nN.Ans1. ne
or1.
96N

2.Aper
sonwei
ghs120l
b.Det
ermi
ne(
a)herwei
ghti
nN(
b)hermassi
nkg[
534N
&54.
4kg]

3.A6kgobj
ectunder
goesanaccel
erat
i s2 (
onof2m/ a)whati
sthemagni
tudeof
t
her
esul
tantf
orceact
ingoni
t?(
b)I
fthi
ssamef
orcei
sappl
i
edt
oa4kgobj
ect
,
whataccel
erat
ionwi
l
litpr
oduce?[
12N, s2]
3m/

4.A4kgobj
ecthasav
eloci
tyof3im/
satonei
nst
ant
.tsecondsl
ater
,it
svel
oci
tyi
s
(
8i+10j
)m/
s.Assumi
ngt
heobj
ectwassubj
ectt
oaconst
antnetf
orce.Fi
nda.
t
hecomponentoft
hef
orceb.i
tsmagni
tude(
Fx=2.
5N,
Fy=5N)

5.Twof
orcesF1 andF2 actona5kgmass.I
fF1 =20N,F2 =15N,f
indt
he
accel
erat
ioni
n(a)F1per
pendi
cul
arF2

26
5.
0 WORK,
ENERGY&POWER
5.
1 Wor
k

WORKi
sdef
inedast
hepr
oductofdi
spl
acementandf
orceappl
i
edi
nthedi
rect
ionof
t
hedi
spl
acement sW =FD.Thewor
.Thati kdonebyaconst
antf
orceFact
ingona
par
ti
clei
sdef
inedast
hepr
oductoft
hecomponentoft
hef
orcei
nthedi
rect
ionoft
he
par
ti
cle’
sdi
spl
acementandt
hemagni
tudeoft
hedi
spl
acement
.thati
sthewor
kdoneby
Fi
s:W =Fscosθ [
fr
om F.
S=|
FScosϴ|
].Howev
er,t
hewor
kdonebyav
ary
ingf
orce
xf
act
ingonanobj
ectmov
ingal
ongt
hex-
axi
sfr
om Xit
oXfi
sgi
venbyW =∫Fxdx
xi

I
fther
ear
esev
eralf
orcesact
ingont
hepar
ti
cle,t
henetwor
kdonebyt
hef
orcesi
sthe
sum oft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
wor
kdonebyeachf
orce.

5.
2 Ener
gy

Ener
gyi
sdef
inedascapaci
tyf
ordoi
ngwor
k,t
hust
heuni
tofener
gyi
ssameaswor
k
(
thati
sJoul
e).Ener
gymani
festi
ndi
ff
erentf
orms,
thesear
e:

1.Ki
net
icener
gysuchast
heener
gypossessbyamov
ingcaroraf
all
i
ngst
onedue
t
oit
smot
ion

2.Chemi
calener
gysuchast
heener
gycont
aini
nfoodf
rom whi
chder
ivesener
gy
usedwhi
l
ewor
king

3.Heatener
gysuchast
heener
gydev
elopedi
ntheengi
neofacarwhi
cht
hecar
usesf
ormot
ion

4.El
ect
ri
cal
ener
gy:
ener
gyt
rav
ell
i
ngal
ongconduct
orsusedi
ndr
ivi
ngf
ans

27
 5.Li
ghtener
gy:
ener
gyemi
tt
edbyl
i
ghtbul
bs

6.Soundener
gy:
ener
gyi
nspeaker
s

7.Nucl
earener
gy:
ener
gyder
ivef
rom t
henucl
eusofat
oms,
nucl
eargener
ator
s

Ener
gyi
nonef
orm canbet
ransf
orm i
nto anot
herf
orm bymeansofappr
opr
iat
e
mechani
sms.

5.
2.1 Mechani
calener
gy
Abodycanpossessmechani
calener
gyorhav
etheabi
l
ityt
odomechani
calwor
kei
ther
byv
irt
ueofi
tsmot
ionori
tsposi
ti
on.Forexampl
e,acarmov
ingwi
thv
eloci
tyVpossess
K.
Ebyv
irt
ueofi
tsmot
ionwhi
l
east
onehel
datahei
ght
,hpossessP.
Ebyv
irt
ueofi
ts
posi
ti
on.

5.
2.2 Ki
net
icEner
gy

Supposedapar
ti
clehasaconst
antmassandt
hatatt
imest
1andt
2,i
tisl
ocat
edatpoi
nt
dv1 dv2
p1andp2andmov
ingwi
thv
eloci
tesv
i 1 = andv2 = r
espect
ivel
y.Ther
efor
e,t
he
dt dt
1
t
otal
wor
kdonei
nmov
ingt
hepar
ti
clef
rom p1t
op2i
sgi
v F.
enbyw =∫ v
dv= m( 2 v2)
1 -1
2

Tot
alwor
kdonef
rom p1t
op2→ K.
Eatp2,
-K.
Eatp1

→ w =T2-
T1 (
1)

wher
e,T1 =1 mv2;T =1 mv2 (
V <<C)
2 1 2
2 2

Ki
net
icener
gyi
sdef
inedast
heener
gyabodypossessesbyv
irt
ueofi
tsmot
ion.

5.
2.3 Pot
ent
ialEner
gy

Thescal
arVsucht
hatF=-
∇vi
scal
l
edt
hepot
ent
ialener
gyorscal
arpot
ent
ialoft
he
par
ti
clei
ntheconser
vat
ivef
orcef
iel
d.

Thet
otal
wor
kdonef
rom p1 t
op2 →P.
Eatp1–P.
Eatp2 canbewr
it
tenas

w =v
1
v
-2
(
2) v
1
=v(
p1 )

28
Ener
gyneededi
nsomemachi
nei
sst
oredi
nsomecomponent
soft
hemachi
neas
pot
ent
ialener
gy.I
napur
emechani
calsy
stem onl
ytheset
wof
ormsofmechani
cal
ener
gyar
econsi
der
edwi
tht
her
esul
tthati
nener
gyconser
vat
ionl
aw,t
het
otalener
gy
gi
ves

Tot
alEner
gy=K.
E+P.
E=const
ant(
forapur
emechani
cal
syst
em)

E =T +V =const
ant (
Pri
nci
pleofconser
vat
ion)

Thewor
k-ener
gyt
heor
em st
atest
hat“
thenetwor
kdoneonapar
ti
clebyext
ernal
f
orcesequal
sthechangei
nK.
Eoft
hepar
ti
cle”

Thati
s ki =1 mv
W =kf - 2-1 mv2
2 f 2 i

5.
3 Power
Thet
imer
ateofdoi
ngwor
konapar
ti
clei
sof
tencal
l
edt
hei
nst
ant
aneouspoweror
powerappl
iedt
othepar
ti
cle.

dw
P= wher
eW =wor
k;P=power
dt

I
fFi
sthef
orceact
ingonapar
ti
cleandVi
sthev
eloci
tyoft
hepar
ti
cle,
then

wor
kdone(orexpended) w
P =F.
V= =
t
ime t

Theuni
tofpoweri
sJoul
epersecondJ/
sorwat
t(w)
.1wat
t=1J/
s(1hp=746wat
ts
=0.
75kw)

5.
4 Ef
fi
ciencyy
Ef
fi
ciencyyi
sdef
inedast
her
ati
ooft
heusef
ulener
gy(
orwor
k)out
putofamachi
ne(
or
anyot
herener
gyconv
ert
ingsy
stem)t
otheener
gy(
orwor
k)i
nput
.Thati
s

energyoutput
y=
energyi
nput

Theef
fi
ciencyofanyr
ealmachi
nei
slesst
hanuni
ty(
one)becauset
heener
gyout
puteo
i
sal
way
slesst
hant
heener
gyi
nputei.Themi
ssi
ngener
gydi
ssi
pat
esi
nthemachi
ne

29
duet
odi
ssi
pat
ivef
act
ors(
ener
gy)sot
hat

Ei =Eo + Ed orWi =Wo +Wd

Eo Wo Po
t
hus y= = = Po Pi→poweri
( nput∕
out
put
)
Ei Wi Pi

5.
5 Wor
kdonebyaSpr
ing
The Spr
ing wi
l
lexer
ta f
orce on t
he body(
att
ached)gi
ven by Fs =-
Kx [
x=
di
spl
acement
;K = f
orceconst
ant
.Thenegat
ivesi
gn (
-ve)i
ndi
cat hatFx i
est sin
opposi
tedi
rect
iont
ox]
.Si
ncet
hespr
ingf
orceal
way
sact
stowar
dtheequi
l
ibr
ium
posi
ti
on,
iti
ssomet
imescal
l
edRest
ori
ngf
orce.

Wor
kdonef
rom x1 = x0t
oxf =0,i
mpl
i
est
hat
0
xf

∫F dx=∫
x1
(-
Kx)
dx
s
-
xm

Wor
kdoneWDbyt
hespr
ingi
sposi
ti
ve(
+ve)

WD =12kx2
m (
3)

WDbyt
heappl
i
edf
orce(
ext
ernal
agent
)isgi
venby
x xm

∫ ∫
dx =12kx2
m

WDFapp = Fappdx = Kx m
o o

Exampl
es

1.Abal
lofmass0.
1kgi
sthr
ownv
ert
ical
l
yupwar
dwi
thani
nit
ial
vel
oci
tyof20m/
s.
Cal
cul
atet
he(
a)P.
Ehal
fway(
b)P.
Eatmaxhei
ght(
c)P.
Easi
tleav
est
hegr
ound
(
d)K.
Ehal
fwayup(
e)K.
Easi
tleav
est
hegr
ound(
f)K.
Eatt
hemaxhei
ghtand
usey
ouranswert
oshowt
hatener
gyi
sconser
vedi
nthi
sexer
cise.

a.V2=U2-2gh athmax,
V=0

U2=2gh

hmax=20.
4m

30
 Hal 1 h=10.
fwayup( 2m)
2

P.
E=10J

b.P.
Emax=20J

c.P.
Eatgr
oundl
evel

h=0t
henP.
E=0J

d.K.
Eatt
hegr
oundl
evel
V=20m/
s

E=1 mV2=20J
K.
2

E1/2h=12mV2=10J
e.K.

f
.K.
Eathmaxt
hati
satV=0,
K.E=0J

Forener
gyt
obeconser
ved,t
het
otalmechani
calener
gy(
sum ofK.
EandP.
E)
mustbet
hesamef
oral
lpoi
ntsorhei
ght
.Thus,
fort
he3hei
ght
s

P.
E+K.
E=(
0+20)J=(
10+10)J=(
20+0)J=20J

2.Aconcr
etesl
abwei
ghi
ng1500N eachar
etobel
oadedi
ntoat
rai
l
erwhi
chi
s
1.
5m hi
gh.Thel
oaderusedani
ncl
i
nedpl
anemadeofpl
ankI
ncl
i
neatanangl
eof
15degr
eet
othehor
izont
al.I
fthecoef
fi
cientofdy
nami
cfr
ict
ionbet
weent
he
pl
ankandt
hesl
api
s0.
3,cal
cul
atet
heef
fi
ci
encyoft
hei
ncl
i
nedpl
ane.

Wor
kinputWi=Wor
kdonebyt
hel
oaf
ers=FS
F=Componentofwei
ghtal
ongt
hei
ncl
i
ne+dy
nami
cfr
ict
ional
for
ce
F=W si
n150+Rxᶙ
ButRx=W cos150,
ᶙ=0.
3, W =1500
F=822.
9N
S=l
engt
hoft
hei
ncl
i
nedpl
ane=1.
5/(
Sin150)=5.
80m

Wi=FS=(
822.
9x5.
8)J

=4772.
79N

31
 Wor
kout
put=WDbyi
ncl
i
nedpl
ane=Wo

=mgh=wh=(
1500x1.
5)J

wor
koutput wo 1500x1.
5
t
heef
fi
ciency= = = =0.
472 =47.
2%
wor nput wi 822.
ki 9x5.
8

3.A6kgbl
ocki
nit
ial
l
yatr
esti
spul
l
edt
other
ightal
onghor
izont
al,
smoot
hsur
face
byaconst
.Hor
izont
alf
orceof12N.Fi
ndt
hespeedoft
hebl
ockaf
teri
tmov
esa
di
stanceof3m

Sol
uti
on:

TheWDbyt
hisf
orcei
s:

Wf =Fs =(
12N)
(3m)=36N.
m =36J

Usi
ngt
hewor
k-ener
gyt
heor
em t sWf =Kf-Ki=1mv
hati f
–0→ Vf =3.
2 46m/
s
2

Orf
rom V2=U2+2as

2m
(
→ a= f
s
r )
om F=ma→V =3.
46m/
s

4.Abl
ockofmass1.
6kgi
sat
tachedt
oaspr
ingwi
thaf
or .Of103 N/
ceconst m.
Thespr
ingi
scompr
essedadi
stance2.
0cm andt
hebl
ocki
srel
easedf
rom r
est
(
a)cal
cul
atet
hev
eloci
tyoft
hebl
ockasi
tpassest
hroughequi
l
ibr
ium posi
ti
onX
=0i
fthesur
facei
sfr
ict
ionl
ess(
b)cal
cul
atet
hev
eloci
tyoft
hebl
ockt
hrough
equi
l
ibr
ium posi
ti
onf
orconst
antf
ri
cti
onal
for
ceof4Nr
etar
dsi
tsmot
ion.

Sol
uti
on:

2x10-2m
Xm =–2cm=-

1
Ws= kx2m =0. k=103N/
2J( m)
2

Usi
ngwor
kener
gyt
heor
em wi
thVi=0gi
ves

32
 1 2 1 2
Ws = mv
f
-mv
ivi=0
2 2

v
f
=0.
5m/
s

(
b) wf =-
fs =-
( (
4N)2x10-2m)=-
0.08JWDbyt
hef
ri
cti
onal
for
ce

ThenetWDont
hebl
ock=WDbyt
hespr
ing+WDbyf
ri
cti
on

.
i
.eWnet =Ws +Wf =0.
12J Usi
ngwor
kener
gyt
heor
em gi
ves:

1 2
mvf =Wnet
2

Vf =0.
39m/
s

TUTORI
AL

1.Cant
heK.
Eofanobj
ecthav
eanegat
ivev
alue?Expl
ain

2.I
fthespeedofapol
eisdoubl
e,whathappenst
oit
sK.
E?

3.Whatcanbesai
daboutt
hespeedofanobj
ecti
fthenet
wor
k(Wnet)ont
hatobj
ect
i
szer
o

4.A15kgbl
ocki
sdr
aggedov
erar
oughhor
izont
alsur
facebyaconst
antf
orceof
70Nact
i eof25ot
ngatanangl othehor
izont
al.t
hel
ocki
sdi
spl
aced5m by(
a)
t
he70Nf
orce(
b)t
hef
orceoff
ri
cti
on(
c)t
henor
malf
orce(
d)t
hef
orceofgr
avi
ty
(
e)t
henetwor
kdoneont
hebody[
Ans:
a.317J b.-
176J c.zer
o
d.zer
o e.141J]

5.Af
orceact
ingonapar
ti
clei
sgi
venbyFx =(
8x-16)
,wher
exi
sinmet
ers.Fi
nd
t
henetwor
kdonebyt
hef
orceast
hepar
ti
clemov
esf
rom x=0t
ox=3m.

6.A3kgmasshasani
nit
ial
vel
oci
tyofV0=(
5i-
3j)m/
s a.whati
sit
ski
net
icener
gy
att
hist
ime? B.f
indt
hechangei
nit
sKi
net
icener
gyi
fit
svel
oci
tychangest
o
(
8i+4j
)m/
s[ ntV2=V.
hi V][
Ans:a.51J, b.69J]

7.Amechani
cpushesa200kgcarf
rom r
estt
oaspeedof3m/
swi
thaconst
ant
hor
izont
alf
orce.Dur
ingt
hist
ime,t
hecarmov
esadi
stanceof30m.negl
ect
ing
33
 f
ri
cti
onbet
weent
hecarandt
her
oad,
det
ermi
ne a.t
he wor
k done byt
he
mechani
c b.t
hehor
izont
alf
orceexer
tedont
hecar[
ans:
a.9000J b.
300N]

8.A1500kgCaraccel
erat
esuni
for
mlyf
rom r
estt
oaspeedof10m/
sin3secs.
Fi
ndt
he:a.wor
kdoneont
hecari
nthi
sti
meb.t
heav
eragepowerdel
i
ver
edby
t
heengi
nei
nthef
ir
st3secc.t
hei
nst
ant
aneouspowerdel
i
ver
edbyt
heengi
neat
t
=2sec[
Ans:
a.75000J b.25000W (
33.
5hp) c.33300W (
44.
7hp)
]

9.I
sanywor
kbei
ngdoneonacarmov
ingwi
thconst
antv
eloci
tyal
ongast
rai
ght
l
evel
road?Expl
ain.

10.
Acarofmass800kgt
rav
ell
i
ngat70km/
honahor
izont
alr
oadi
sbr
oughtt
orest
byt
heact
ionoft
hebr
akesi
nadi
stanceof15m.cal
cul
atet
heamountofwor
k
donei
nst
oppi
ngt
hecar
.Ift
heco-
eff
ici
entofdy
nami
cfr
ict
ionbet
weent
het
yres
andt
her
oadi
s0.
2,cal
cul
atet
heav
erager
etar
dingf
orceduet
othebr
akes

11.
In1970,t
hepopul
ati
onoft
hewor
l 5x1020 andabout2x1020Jof
dwasabout3.
wor
k was per
for
med under human condi
ti
on. Fi
nd t
he av
erage power
consumpt
ionperper
soni
nwat
tsandhor
sepower
?[1y 15x107s]
r=3. [
1.8
KW; 2.
4hp]

12.
An800kgcarmov
ingat6m/
sbegi
nst
omov
edownhi
l
l40m hi
ghwi
thi
tsengi
ne
of
f.Thedr
iverappl
i
est
hebr
akessot
hatt
hecar
’sspeedatt
hebot
tom oft
hehi
l
l
i
s20m/
s.howmuchener
gysl
ostt
ofr
ict
ion?

13.
Abookwei
ghabout1.
5lb.Whati
sther
estener
gyi
nfoot
-pounds?I
nJoul
es?

14.
Aboypul
l
sawagonwi
thaf
orceof45Nbymeansofar
opet
hatmakesanangl
e
of400 wi
tht
hegr
ound.Howmuchwor
kdoeshedoi
nmov
ingt
hewagon50m?
(
Ans;
1.72KJ)

15.
A15kgobj
ecti
nit
ial
l
yatr
esti
srai
sedt
oahei
ghtof8m byaf
orceof200N.
Whati
sthev
eloci
tyoft
heobj
ectatt
hishei
ght
?[Ans:
7.5m/
s]

34
6.
0 CONSERVATI
ONOFENERGYANDPOWER
Af
orcei
sconser
vat
ivei
fthewor
kdonebyt
hatf
orceact
ingonapar
ti
clei
sindependent
on t
he pat
hthe par
ti
clet
akes bet
ween t
wo gi
ven poi
nts.Orr
athera f
orce i
s
conser
vat
ivei
fthewor
kdonebyt
hatf
orcei
szer
owhent
hepar
ti
clemov
est
hroughan
ar
bit
rar
ycl
osedpat
handr
etur
nst
oit
sini
ti
alposi
ti
on.Af
orcet
hatdoesnotmeett
his
cr
it
eri
oni
ssai
dtobeNonconser
vat
ive.

Supposet
her
eexi
stsascal
arf
unct
ionVsucht
hat F=-∇V t
henwecanpr
ovet
he
f
oll
owi
ng:

Theor
em 1–Thet
otal
wor
kdonei
nmov
ingpar
ti
cleal
ongCf
rom p1t
op2i
s

W =∫
p2 p1)-
dr=V(
F. V(p2) (
1)
p1

I
nsuchcases,wor
kdonei
sindependentoft
hepat
hCj
oini
ngpoi
ntsp1 andp2.
Thewor
k donebysuchaf
orcef
iel
disaconser
vat
ivef
orcef
iel
d

Theor
em 2–Af
orcef
iel
dFi
sconser
vat
ivei
fandonl
yif(
if
f)t
her
eexi
stsacont
inuousl
y
di
ff
erent
iabl
escal
arf
iel
dVsucht
hatF=-
∇Vorequi
val
ent
lyi
ff∇*
F=cur
lF=0

Theor
em 3–Acont
inuousl
ydi
ff
erent
iabl
efor
cef
iel
dFi
sconser
vat
ivei
fandonl
yif(
if
f)
f
oranycl
osednon-
int
ersect
ingcur
veC ∮F.
dv=0.Thi
simpl
i
est
hatt
het
otalwor
kdone

i
nmov
ingapar
ti
clear
oundanycl
osedpat
hiszer
o.

Pot
ent
ialener
gy(
P.E)f
orV canbeassoci
atedonl
ywi
thaconser
vat
ivef
orce.I
fa
conser
vat
ivef
orceact
sonapar
ti
clet
hatmov
eal
ongt
hex-
axi
sXit
oXf,t
hechangei
n
t
heP.
Eequal
sthenegat
ive(
–ve)oft
hewor
kdonebyt
hatf
orce.

35
 xf
Uf-Ui=-∫Fxdx
xi (
2)

Thel
awofconser
vat
ionofmechani
calener
gyst
atest
hati
ftheonl
yfor
ceact
ingona
mechani
calsy
stem i
sconser
vat
ive,
thet
otalmechani
calener
gyi
sconser
vedKi+Ui=Kf
+Uf.Thet
otalmechani
calener
gyofasy
stem i
sdef
inedast
hesum oft
heK.
EandP.
E.
t
hati
s E ≡K+U

Thegr
avi
tat
ionalP.
Eofpar
ti
clesUgofmassm t
hati
sel
evat
edadi
stanceyneart
he
ear
th’
ssur
facei
sgi
ven

Ug=mgy

Thewor
kener
gyt
heor
em st
atest
hatt
hewor
kdonebyal
lnon-
conser
vat
ivef
orces
act
ingonasy
stem equal
sthechangeandt
het
otalmechani
calener
gyoft
hesy
stem.

Wnc =Ef-
Ei

Theel
ast
icP.
Est
oredi
naspr
ingoff
orceconst
antKi
s

Us =12Kx2

36
7.
0 CI
RCULARMOTI
ON

7.
1Ci
rcul
armot
ion

Consi
derar
igi
dbodywi
thaf
ixedaxi
s.I
faf
orcei
sappl
i
edt
othi
sbody
,thebodywi
l
lnot
mov
einast
rai
ghtl
i
newi
thr
espectt
otheaxi
sthati
snot
ransi
tor
ymot
ioni
spossi
ble.
Howev
er,
thebodymaybeseti
nrot
ati
onaboutt
heaxi
s.Ther
otat
orymot
ionofabody
i
sgener
all
ydescr
ibedwi
thr
efer
encet
oanaxi
saboutwhi
chi
trev
olv
es(
cal
ledaxi
sof
r
otat
ion)
.Theaxi
sofr
otat
ionmaybef
ixedwi
thi
nthebodyorsomet
imesbey
ondi
ts
out
ermostboundar
y.Theexampl
eoff
ir
stt
ypei
s“wheelofamachi
ner
y”i
nwhi
cht
he
axi
sofr
otat
ionar
eli
nest
hrought
hegeomet
ri
calcent
reper
pendi
cul
art
othepl
anesof
r
otat
ion.Formot
ionofast
onet
iedwi
tht
heendofast
ri
ng,
theaxi
sofr
otat
ioni
satt
he
ot
herendoft
hest
ri
ngf
arawayf
rom t
hest
onei
tsel
fandt
hisi
sanexampl
eoft
he
secondt
ype.Abodydescr
ibi
ngaci
rcul
arpat
horr
otat
ingaboutaf
ixedaxi
sissai
dto
hav
erot
ator
yorci
rcul
armot
ion.

7.
2 Angul
arv
eloci
ty
Theangl
edescr
ibedbyar
otat
ingbodyperuni
tti
mei
scal
l
edi
tsangul
arv
eloci
tyandi
s
denot
edbyt
heGr
eekl
ett
erω.Consi
derabodyr
otat
ingaboutaf
ixedaxi
spassi
ng
t
hrought
hecent
re.Assumet
hisbodyt
obeconsi
sti
ngofsmal
lpar
ti
clessuchasatA,
B
andCet
c.(
Figur
e1.
1).

37
 ω

C
A B
ω ϴ
AB
C

ω
Fi
gur
e1.
1

Al
lthepar
ti
cleswi
l
lcompl
eteoner
otat
ionatt
hesamet
ime.Thati
stheangul
arv
eloci
ty
ofal
lsuchpar
ti
cl
esi
sthesame.Howev
er,i
tmaybenot
edt
hatt
hel
i
nearv
eloci
tywi
l
l
di
ff
erf
rom par
ti
clet
opar
ti
clebutwi
l
lremai
nthesamef
orachosenpar
ti
cleorbody
t
hroughoutt
hemot
ional
ongt
heci
rcl
e.

Consi
deranobj
ectmov
ingaboutanaxi
sYY’
passi
ngt
hroughapoi
ntO,
ift
hecent
reof
t
hebodyi
satAasshowni
nFi
gur
e1.
2andi
ntseconds,t
hebodymov
esf
rom At
oB
anddescr
ibesanangl
eϴ,
wehav
e:

B
ω S
C ϴ

Y1

Fi
gur
e1.
2

Angul
arv
eloci
tyoft
hebody

ω=ϴ(r
ad/
s) (
1)
t

38
t
heangl
eismeasur
edi
nradi
anst
hati
s

ϴ= ( ar
cAB) =s( r
adi
an) (
2)
r
adi
usofci
rcl
e r

I
nonecompl
eter
evol
uti
ont
heangl
edescr
i s2πr
bedi adi
ans.Not
ethat3600=2πr
adi
an.
I
fabodymakesN r
evol
uti
onspersecond,t
hiswi
l
lmeant
hebodydescr
ibes2πN
r
adi
ansi
nonesecond.Thus

ω=2πN(
radi
anspersecond)
(
3)

7.
3 Rel
ati
onbet
weenAngul
arandLi
nearVel
oci
ty

Letusassumet
hatt
hebodyasshowni
nFi
gur
e1.
2tr
avel
sroundt
heci
rcl
ewi
thuni
for
m
speedV.I
ftheangl
edescr
ibedi
sϴandt
hedi
stancet
ransv
ersei
sSi
nti
met
.thati
s,i
f
t
hebodyt
akestsecondsf
orgoi
ngf
rom At
oB,
wehav
e

di
stance s
SpeedV = = (
4)
ti
me t

Subst
it
uti
ngt
hev
aluesofSf
rom equat
ion(
2)t
hati
sS=rϴ;
wehav
ethatV=rϴ/
t

butbydef
ini
ti
onϴ/
t=w,
ther
efor
e

V =r
w (
5)

I
ntheabov
eequat
ionwi
stheangul
arv
eloci
tyi
nradi
ansperseconds

7.
4 Angul
araccel
erat
ion

I
fabodyi
snotr
otat
ingwi
thauni
for
m angul
arv
eloci
ty,i
tissai
dtopossessangul
ar
accel
erat
ion.Theangul
araccel
erat
ionofar
otat
ingbodyi
sdef
inedast
her
ateof
changeofangul
arv
eloci
ty.Thus,i
fabodyi
smov
ingwi
thanangul
arv
eloci
tyw1 and
changesi
tsv
eloci
tyf
rom w1t
ow2i
ntseconds,
wehav
eangul
araccel
erat
ion

dw w2-
w1
= (r
ad/
s2) (
6)
dt t

39
Nowi
fthedi
stanceoft
hebodyf
rom t
heaxi
sofr
otat
ioni
sr,
thel
i
nearv
eloci
tyf
rom t
he
begi
nni
ng wi
l
lbe r
w1 and wi
l
lbe changed t
o ϴw2 i
n tseconds.Then t
he l
i
near
accel
erat
ionoft
hebodywi
l
lbe

rw2-
rw1 r(
w2-w1)
a= = (
7)
t t

t
hati
sli
nearaccel
erat
ion=di
stancef
rom t
heaxi
sofr
otat
ion(
r)*angul
araccel
erat
ion
(
α)

7.
5 Uni
for
m Ci
rcul
arMot
ion
Consi
derabodyofmassm mov
ingi
nahor
izont
alci
rcl
eofr
adi
usr
.Theaccel
erat
ionof
t
hebodycanbef
oundasf
oll
ows:

I
fthebodymov
eswi
thav
eloci
tyV,
thedi
rect
ionoft
hel
i
nearv
eloci
tyatev
erypoi
ntwi
l
l
bet
angent
ialt
otheci
rcl
eatt
hatpoi
nt.Lett
hebodymov
efr
om At
oBi
ntsecondsand
descr
ibeasmal
langl
e0dur
ingt
heper
iod.Thel
i
nearv
eloci
tywi
l
lnotchangei
n
magni
tudebuti
tsdi
rect
ionwi
l
lkeeponchangi
ngast
hebodydescr
ibest
heci
rcl
eatt
he
poi
ntA.I
tsv
eloci
tyi
srepr
esent
edbyACandatBbyt
het
angent(
Figur
e1.
3).The
dθ
angul
arv
eloci
tyw = =θ
dt t

VCosϴ

ϴ
nϴ
VSi
B

ϴ
A

Y1

40
 Fi
gur
e1.
3

Now atpoi
ntA,t
hehor
izont
alcomponentoft
hev
eloci
tyi
szer
oandt
heent
ir
eli
near
v
eloci
tyi
sal
ongAC.Atpoi
ntB,
thel
i
nearv
eloci
tycanber
esol
vedi
ntot
wocomponent
s
– hor
izont
aland v
ert
icalcomponent(
along AC and per
pendi
cul
art
o AC)
.The
componentofv
eloci
tyatBpar
all
elt
oAC=Vcosθandper
pendi
cul
art
oAC=Vsi
nθand
r
epr
esent
edbyBLandBM r
espect
ivel
yasshowni
nfi
g1.
3.Nowi
fθi
sver
ysmal
l
,si
nθ=
0andcosθ =1.Hence,t
hecomponentpar
all
elt
oA0=Vθ andt
hecomponent
per
pendi
cul
art
oA0=V.

Fr
om t
heabov
eequat
ion,wef
indt
hatt
hev
ert
icalcomponentoft
hev
eloci
tydoesnot
changewhenmov
esneart
oA.Whi
l
ethehor
izont
alcomponentoft
hev
eloci
tychanges
f
rom zer
oto V*θt
hati
sanaddedv
eloci
tyV*θi
sacqui
redbyt
hebodyal
ongA0i
n
t
imethencet
heaccel
erat
ionaacqui
redbyt
hebodybecomes

changei
nvel
oci
ty Vθ
a= =
ti
me t

Or

θ )=V.
a=V.( w
t

Ther
efor
e

V2 V
accel
erat
ion= asw = )
( (
8)
r r

Thi
saccel
erat
ioni
sdi
rect
edsucht
hati
tsdi
rect
ioni
sal
way
sper
pendi
cul
art
othe
di
rect
ionofv
eloci
tyatt
hatpoi
ntt
hati
siti
sal
way
sdi
rect
edt
owar
dst
hecent
reandact
s
al
ong t
he r
adi
usoft
he ci
rcl
e and i
scal
l
ed r
adi
alorcent
ri
pet
al(
cent
re seeki
ng)
accel
erat
ion.