CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of Problem
A verb is an important part of an English sentence. It is likely that all
sentences have a verb in it. This highlights how important verbs can be. It
signals an occurrence, an action or a state of being in the sentence. More
importantly, it determines the sentence meaning. Meaning is property which is
affected by the constructions the verb appears in. Especially with causative
verb, the array of arguments in a sentence can influence the way the meaning
of a verb is understood. The term of argument is used to cover all kinds of
constituent that verb require. A verb with its arguments is also indicates how
situation is structure in time.
It describes 'situations' which is contains of states of affairs, events,
actions, etc. It is Vendler’s (1967) who classifies four-way classification of
verb-based situation. The four-way classification is into states, activities,
achievements, and accomplishments. Crudely, states are non-dynamic
situations, such as be happy or believe. Activities are open-ended processes,
such as run. Achievements are near-instantaneous events which are over as
soon as they have begun, such as notice. Accomplishments are processes
which have a natural endpoint, such as read the book. Those situation types
can be classifies according to goal-directness and whether or not there is an
instigator. The terms of those classifications are goals and agents.
Thus, this paper focuses on verb meaning especially with causative verb
with or without imbedded clause which is indicates caused situation and the
four situation types including agent and goal that will be discussed later one
by one.

B. Formulation of the Problem

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C. Purpose

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 CHAPTER II
DISSCUSION

A. Causative Verb
1. Definition
In English, the causative form is used when we don't do someting
ourselves, instead we arrange for someone else to do it for us. Causative
verbs express an action which is caused to happen. In other words, when
you have something done for you, you cause it to happen. In other words,
you do not actually do anything, but ask someone else to do it for you.
This is the sense of causative verbs. They express the idea of someone
causing something to take place. For example:
a. Jack had his house painted.
This sentence is similar in meaning to: Someone painted Jack's
house or Jack's house was painted by someone.
Based on Griffith (2006, page 61), the meaning expressed by
causative sentence indicates situation caused brought by whatever the
subject noun phrase refers to and the caused situation is described by
embedded clause.
Example of causative sentences with an entailment
Causatives Entailments
1. The thought made her gleeful. 1. She was gleeful.
2. The children got the kite to fly. 2. The kite flew.
3. Bad weather forces us to cancel the
3. We are cancelling the picnic.
picnic.
4. His inexperience is causing the decisions 4. The decisions are going
to go unactioned. unactioned.
5. I had the students read this article. 5. The students read this article.
6. The lock prevented him from opening the 6. He did not open the door (that
door. time)
7. Bad weather forces us to cancel the
7. She was gleeful.
picnic.
8. His inexperience is causing the decisions 8. The kite flew.
to go unactioned.

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 The causative on the left differ from corresponding sentences on
the right in several ways:
1) They include a causative verb (make, get, force, cause, have,
prevent in these examples).
2) The subject of the causative sentence is used to refer to whatever
human, abstract or concrete – brings about the situation described
by the sentence on the right
3) The causative has an embedded clause carrying the same
proposition as the sentence to its right in the table. This is most
clearly seen in I had (the students read this article), where the
embedded clause is in parentheses. (Even here there has been a
change. Think of how read is pronounced: in the causative as /ri:d/,
the untensed base form of the verb, but as a past tense verb /rεd/ in
the entailed free-standing clause.)
The verb in the main clause of a causative sentence is a causative
verb and as stated above, the caused situation is described by the
embedded clause. For example, the person referred to as I caused the
situation ‘the students read this article’ to come about. Cause is
arguably a superordinate for the other causative verbs in table above.
For example the causative verb force can be taken to mean ‘cause an
unwanted consequence’.
2. Form of Causative Verb
Generally, causative verbs consist of let, make, have, and get. It
will be discussed one by one.
a. Let
Let can be taken to mean ‘let someone else to do something’. For
example:
(1) My father lets me choose my own future career.
(2) The shepherd lets his sheep graze in the meadow
b. Make

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 'Make' as a causative verb expresses the idea that the person requires
another person to do something. It can also be taken to mean force
someone to do something. For example:
(1) Peter made her do her homework.
(2) The teacher made the students stay after class.
c. Have
'Have' as a causative verb expresses the idea that the person wants
something to be done for them. This causative verb is often used when
speaking about various services. There are two forms of the causative
verb 'have'. For examples:
(1) They had John arrive early.
(2) She had her children cook dinner for her.
(3) I had my hair cut last Saturday.
(4) She had the car washed at the weekend.
d. Got
'Get' is used as a causative verb in a similar way as 'have' is used
with the participle. This expresses the idea that the person wants
something to be done for them. The causative verb is often used in a
more idiomatic manner than 'have'. For examples:
(1) They got their house painted last week.
(2) Tom got his car washed yesterday.

B. Diagnostics Verb

C. Type Of Situations Are There To Explain Semantics And Pragmatics

1. Classification Of Situation
We can identify three important dimensions for classifying
situations. These dimensions are the type of situation, tense / tense and
aspect. Situation types, as we shall see in section 5.2.2, are labels for
typologies of situations characterized in language semantics. For example,

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most languages allow a speaker to describe a situation as static or of
unchanging duration. Such a state is described in the following example:
5.3 Robert loves pizza.
5.4 Mary knows the way to San Jose.
In describing the state the speaker does not provide information
about the internal structure of that state (state): only valid for a certain
time, which is specified in the example above. We can compare it by
looking at the situation during a change, for example:
5.5 Robert grew very quickly
5.6 Mary is driving to San Jose.
This sentence describes a dynamic situation. They imply that
actions have parts: Robert crosses several sizes and Maria drives through
various places on her way to San Jose.
The difference between static and dynamic situations is reflected in
the choice of lexical items. In English, for example, adjectives are usually
used for states and verbs in dynamic situations. Compare some examples
of states in sentence a below with dynamic situations in sentence b:
5.7 a. The pears are ripe.
b. The pears are ripened.
This is not an exact correlation, however: as we saw above there
are stative verbs such as be, have, remain, know, love which can be used
to describe situations. , for example:
5.9 The file is in the computer.
We would say that adjectives and stative verbs are essentially
static, that is, they are part of lexical semantics to describe types of static
situations.
Aspect is a grammatical system related to time, but here the
speaker can choose how to describe the temporal internal nature of the
situation. If this situation is in the past, for example, is the speaker
describing a hidden event, as in 5.14 below, or an ongoing process,
perhaps not finished, as in 5.15?

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 5.14 David wrote a pornographic novel. (process)
5.15 David was writing a pornographic novel. (event)
2. Verbs And Situation Type
Some describe state, process and events. In this section we will
describe the elements of verb meanings that correlate with different types
of situations.
Stative verbs, be, have, remain, know, love. This verb allows the
speaker to view the situation as a powerful statement, with no internal
phase change. Moreover, the speaker does not immediately focus on the
initial or final state. Even if the speaker has used statives in the past, for
example:
5.16 Mary loved to drive sports cars.
There is no immediate attention to the end of the situation. We
don't know from 5.16 if or how things ended: whether Mary's tastes
changed, or she herself lost her appetite. All were told that the connection
between Maria and the sports car existed for a while. We can contrast this
with sentence 5.17, which contains dynamic verbs such as (learn) learn:
5.17 Mary learned to drive sports cars.
Here describes the process and focuses on the end-point: at the
beginning Mary did not know how to drive a sports car, and in the end she
had learned. This process has a conclusion.
Stative verbs display some grammatical differences from dynamic
verbs. For example, in the progressive form of English a dynamic situation
like 5.18a can be used but not a situation like 5.18b:
5.18 a. I am learning Swahili
b. * I am knowing Swahili.
According to Vlach (1981), this is because the progressive aspect,
which is marked with -ing, has the connotation of dynamism and change
which is appropriate for activities such as learning but not in accordance
with static verbs such as tofu.

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 Likewise it usually sounds odd to use imperatives with statives; we
can compare the following:
5.19 a Learn Swaili!
b. * Know Swahili!
Again, we can speculate that imperative implies action and
dynamism, and is therefore incompatible with the stative verb. Some verbs
may be stronger than others stative; fixed for example, a pattern like other
stative verbs in doesn't take progressive, as in 5.20b, but it can't possibly
be imperative 5.20c:
It is also important to remember that verbs may have a variety of
meanings, some of which may be more stative than others. We can
contrast the stative and non-stative uses of having, for example, by looking
at how the progressive element is:
5.21 a I have a car.
b. * I am having a car
c. I am having second thoughts about this.
Dynamic verb dynamic verbs can be classified into several types,
based on the semantic differences between durative / punctual and telic /
atelic which we will discuss below. These different types of verbs are
correlated with different types of dynamic situations. One difference may
be in a dynamic type of situation, for example, between events and
processes. In an event, the speaker looks at the situation as a whole, for
example
5.23. The mine blew up.
While in the process, we see, as it were, the internal structure of a
dynamic situation, for example
5.24 He walked to the shop.
Processes can be further divided into several types, for example
inchoatives and resultatives. Inchoatives is a process by which our
attention is directed to the start of a new state, or change of state, for
example

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5.25 The ice melted.
Resultatives are processes that are viewed as having an end point
of completion: our attention is directed towards achieving the goals of this
process, for example
5.27 Ardal baked a cake
In this section we look at two important semantic differences in
verbs that underlie these different types of dynamic situations.
The first difference is between duration and punctuality: duration is
applied to a verb that describes a situation or process that takes place over
a period of time, while being on time describes a seemingly instantaneous
event involving almost no time. A typical comparison would be between
on time 5.29 and 5.30 durative:
5.27 Ardal baked a cake
What is important, of course, is not how much time the cough actually
occurs but that the typical cough is so brief that conventional speakers do
not focus on the internal structure of the event.
Other semelfactive verbs in English would include flash, shoot, hit,
sneeze and blink. One interesting fact is that in English clashes between
semelfactive and adverbial verbs of duration can trigger repeated
interpretations. for example
5.32 The drunk knocked for ten minutes.
5.33 The cursor flashed until the battery ran down.
The second difference is between TELIC and telis. TELIC refers to
processes which are considered to have natural solutions. Compare for
example:
5.34 a. Harry builds a raft.
b. Harry looked up at the sea.
If we interrupt this process at any point then we can correctly say:
5.35 Harry looks at the sea
But we can't always say:
5.36 Harry built the raft.

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 As we saw earlier, the verb TELIC is also sometimes called resultatives.
Another way of looking at this difference is to say that the unspeakable
gaze can continue indefinitely, while having an implied boundary when
the process will end.
It is important to recognize that although verbs may be inherently TELIC
or untelical combining them with other elements in a sentence can produce
different aspects to the whole, as shown below:
5.37 a. Fred walked. (not telis)
b. Fred wa walks the London Marthon. (TELIC)
5.38 a. Harry sings the song (not telis)
b. Harry sings the song (TELIC)
TELIC / This non-telical distinction interacts with the Aspectual
difference: for example, a combination of either perfect English or simple
pastimes with the verb TELIC will have a settlement implication. Thus, as
we have seen, both 5.39 and 5.40 require 5.41
5.39 Mary painted my portrait
5.40 Maria has painted my portrait
5.41 This portrait is complete.
However, the combination of the progressive aspect and the verb TELIC,
as in 5.42 below, does not produce this implication: 5.42 does not mean
5.41 above:
5.42 Mary is painting my portrait
3. System Of Situation Type
The task for the semanticist is to show how the inherent semantic
distinction is carried out by verbs and verb phrases, types of situation
systems. One influential attempt to do this is Vendler (1967). Below are
the four types of situations he identifies, along with some of the English
verbs and the verb phares exemplifying each type (Vendler 1967: 97-121)
5.45 a. State
Desire, want, love, have, know, believe
b. Activities (unbounded processes)

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 run, walk, swim, push a cart, drive a car
c. Accomplishments (bounded processes)
run a mile, draw a cicrle, walk to school, paint a picture, grow up,
deliver a sermon, recover from illnes
d. Achievements (point events)
recognize, find, stop, start, reach the top, win the race, spot
someone
we can instantiate each type of situation: \
5.48 She hated ice cream (State)
5.49 Your cat watched those birds (Activity)
5.50 Her boss learned Japanese (Accomplishment)
5.51 The gate banged. (Semelfactive)
5.52 The cease-fire began at noon yesterday (Achievement)

D. Analyze Verb And Situation And Pragmatics

1. Analyze Verb
Muslich (2010: 37) states that verbs or verbs are different from
other words, because they have properties such as they can function
primarily as a predicate or as the core of a predicate or can also have other
functions. It means basic actions, processes, conditions that are not
qualities or qualities, especially verbs in which the state cannot be given
the prefix ter- which has the most meaning. According to Kridalaksana
(1994) in (Putrayasa 2010: 45) verbs or verbs are subcategories that have
the characteristic of being able to join particles not, but not being able to
join particles in, to, from, very, more, or somewhat and also Mess ( 1992:
4) says: according to the name, the verb generally expresses a job, action
or movement. Another physical feature traditionally displayed is the
possibility of occupying a predicate function by a verb sentence. The most
prominent physical characteristic is the ability to occupy positions of
command (imperative) directly. Meanwhile, Tarigan (1985: 59) says: all

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 words that can be used as commands, both those that can and those that
cannot be combined with affixes are called verbs.
From his description above, it can be concluded that: a verb is a sub-
category that has the characteristic of being able to join the particle not,
the verb generally states a job, action or motion that can be used as a
command, whether or not it can be combined with an affix. .
2. Analyze Situation
Situation categories, incorporating semantic differences. Such
as static / dynamic, durative / timely and TELIC / untelical, allowing the
basic classification of situations into achievement activities, etc.
Categories and aspects interact with the kinds of situations that allow the
speaker to relate to the situation, in two ways: to discover it relative to the
speaker's actions and to describe the temporary internal form. We look at
how these choices are reflected in grammar. We also see a difference for
possible subtle speakers and certain languages.
We also looked at the semantic categories of modality and
evidentiality, which allow the speaker to assume a variety of attitudes
toward propositions. Epistemic modalities reflect various judgments from
factuality and deontist modalities, to the communication of moral and
legal judgments. Both can be seen as implying a comparison between the
real world and that hypothetical version. Evidentiality is a term for the
manner in which a speaker qualifies a statement by reference to the source
of the information. We see that in some languages this information must
be grammatical, to imply in a community, the computation of evidence,
assumed by the reader by the listener. We saw the role of the same
listener's assumptions, for example that the speaker predicted and updated
the audience's knowledge.
3. Analyze Pragmatics
Pragmatic analysis refers to a set of linguistic and logical tools
with which analysts develop systematic accounts of discursive political
interactions. They endeavor to identify the full range of inferences that a

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reader or a hearer would make when encountering the locutions of an
author or a speaker, considered in context. Consequently, pragmatic
analysis is suited to the practice of inquiry that Hall (1999: 210–16) terms
‘specific history,’ in which analysts reconstruct, through emplotment,
historical episodes that were meaningful to historical actors before they
became meaningful as objects of analysis. Analysts endeavor to recover
this meaning in order to understand agents’ actions and thereby to
understand why events turned out the way they did rather than some other
way.

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 CHAPTER III
CLOSING

A. Conclusion
Semantics is a branch of linguistics dealing with the meaning of words,
phrases and sentences, however, contrary to pragmatics it does not analyze the
intended speaker meaning, or what words denote on a given occasion, but the
objective, conventional meaning.
A sentence is a group of words that are put together to mean something. A
sentence is the basic unit of language which expresses a complete thought. It
does this by following the grammatical rules of syntax. An Utterance is any
sound of talk, that human produce. To differentiate utterance and sentence, we
usually use quotation mark (“….“) in written form of utterance. A Proposition
is that part of the meaning of the utterance of a declarative sentence which
describes some state of affairs. Besides declarative sentence, proposition also
clearly involved in the meaning of interrogatives and imperative sentences.
Reference is relation between piece of language and the things in the
world. A referent is concrete object or concept that is designated by a word or
expression. Sense : its place in a system of semantic relationships with other
expressions in the language. Sense consists of 'semantic properties'.

B. Suggest
We are as the wrriter want to to apology for the shortage of this paper. We
know that this paper is still far from perfect. So that we need the suggest from
the reader the perfection of this paper. Thank you very much for the reader.

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Langacker, Ronald W. (1999). Grammar and Conceptualization. Berlin/New

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Peregrin, Jaroslav (2003). Meaning: The Dynamic Turn. Current Research in the

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