Topics covered in this summary copy: Note: check first summery to find

1. Guiding questions ------------(page 1-3) 9. Genetics, evolution, Mitosis and

2. Transport* ---------------------(page 4-9) meiosis [$*]
3. Nutrition* -------------------(page 10-15 ) 10. Classification [$]
4. Gaseous exchange ,respiration* (16-22) By Foozi Silagi 11. Flowering plants [$]
5. Excretion ---------------------(page 23-26) (0703236651/0789370235) Check you bigger notes 4:
6. Germination/growth ** (27-30) 12. Introduction to biology [$]
7. Coordination* ---------(31-37) 13. Locomotion [$]
8. Reproduction $ ------- (page 38-44) 14. Soil
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9. Ecology ---------------- (page 45-48)
TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS
DISCUSSION QNS ON NUTRITION: 1. (a) Giving example, differentiate btn
1 (a) Define an enzyme (02marks) (i) Open circulatory system and closed
(b) State 6 properties of enzymes (06marks) circulatory system
(c) State 6 factors that affect enzyme action (06marks) (ii) Single circulation and double circulation
(d) Name the enzymes found in mouth, stomach, duodenum and ileum and living 2. Make labelled diagram showing blood vessels of
tissue like Irish potato describing each enzyme’s role (15marks) the general mammalian circulation.
(e) Describe an experiment to show that temperature affects the rate of enzyme 3. What is the difference btn blood flowing
action (15 Marks) i) Hepatic portal vein and hepatic vein
(f) Describe an experiment to show the effect of pH on the activity of pepsin ii) Renal vein and renal artery
(15marks) 2. Name the parts of the mammalian heart
(f)Explain how temperature affects the activity of enzymes. Use sketch graph (04) (b) Explain what happens to valves when atria and
2. (a) Define photosynthesis, symbiosis, parasitism, commensalism mutualism, ventricles contract.
Saprophytism giving examples. 3. (a) Define the terms artery and vein.
3. (a) Explain four factors which affect the rate of photosynthesis (b) State four structural differences between
(b) Describe the following experiments: an experiment to arteries and veins.
(i) Test a leaf for starch (15) (c) Explain how arteries and veins are each
(ii) Show that plants need Co2 during photosynthesis (13) adapted to its functions.
(iii) How that plants produce oxygen during photosynthesis (13) 4. (a) Mention the major components of blood.
(iv) Show that plants need light during photosynthesis (13) (b) Describe the transport functions of blood
(C) Describe the adaptions of leaf to photosynthesis (12) (c) Describe the defense functions of blood.
(f) Describe the fate of oxygen and carbohydrates produced in photosynthesis 5. (a) Describe how oxygen is transported from
4. (a) Give the importance each of the following nutrients in living organisms: (i) water the alveoli to body tissues.
(ii) lipids (iii) proteins (iv) Carbohydrates. 6. Describe how carbon dioxide is moved from
5. Describe an experiment to test for reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars, starch, body tissues to the atmosphere in mammals.
proteins, lipids and vitamin C. (b) Explain how the red blood cells are adapted to
6. (a) Explain how parasites are adapted to their mode of life. their functions.
(c) Explain how tapeworms are adapted to their lifestyle. 7. (a) Describe the process of blood clotting.
(d) Explain how mosquitoes are adapted to transmission of plasmodium parasites (b) Describe how blood transfusion can be done
7. (a) Describe activities of digestion which occur in the following parts of the digestive correctly. Use a table
system (a) Mouth (b) stomach (c) duodenum (d) ileum 8 Explain the changes that occur to blood as it
(b) Explain how the following parts are adapted to their functions goes through
(i) Ileum (ii) Villi (a) lungs (b) liver (c) kidney (d) skin
8. Describe the digestion of (a) proteins (b) starch (c) lipids in humans 8. In humans, blood circulatory system transport
9. Describe the fate of digested food once it is absorbed. body fluids.
10. Explain how plants and animals use water. (a) Outline the functions of the lymphatic system
11. Describe role of (a) pancreas (ii) Bile (iii) salivary glands in digestion of food. (b) outline the difference between lymphatic
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS system and blood circulatory system
1. (a) Make a longitudinal section of a root, giving function of each part. 9 Mention 10 function of liver
(b) On your diagram in (a) above, show regions of: cell division cell elongation, cell 10 (a) Describe the various types of immunity
differentiation and region of permeant tissue (b) state the factors that can weaken ones
(b) Give adaptations of root hairs to their functions. immune system
2. Describe how water moves from soil up to the leaves. (c) state factors that can be used to strengthen
3. (a) Define the term transpiration our immune system
(b) Explain benefit from transpiration? OSMOSIS, DIFFUSION AND ACTIVE
4. (a) Describe an experiment to TRANSPORT
(a) show that transpiration occurs in plants through leaves 1. Define diffusion, osmosis and active transport
(b) Show that more transpiration occurs on lower leaf surface than the upper leaf 2. Describe an experiment to show that osmosis
surface occur in living tissues
5. Explain how xerophytes are adapted to survive arid areas (15) 3. Give the difference btn diffusion and osmosis
6. Describe how plants lose water 4. Outline the biological significance of (a)
6. (a) Define wilting diffusion (b) active transport (c) osmosis
(b) Explain how wilting occurs on hot sunny and windy day. 5. define crenation, haemolysis and plasmolysis
(c) Explain how recovery from wilting occurs at night 6. explain how animal and plants cells behave in
(d) Explain the importance of wilting to plants different solutions
(e) Explain why plant in water logged soils lack nitrates and wilt.

Page 1
 GASEOUS EXCHANGE AND RESPIRATION: (a) Briefly describe the homeostatic events that
1 (a) Define (i) gaseous exchange (ii) Gas exchange surface (ii) Respiration take place;
(b) Outline 6 differences between respiration and photosynthesis (i) After eating a heavy meal of posho and beans.
(c) Describe an experiment to show that germinating seeds produce heat. (ii) During a prolonged period of fasting
(b) Explain the importance of gaseous exchange in animals (b) A Patient of diabetes mellitus faces a problem
(b) Explain adaption of an excellent respiratory surface (06) of blood sugar balance, his/her body is unable to
produce insulin. Externally made Insulin is
2 Explain how lungs are adapted for gaseous exchange in mammals (08)
normally given to him/her in form of injections.
3. (a) Explain why amoeba lacks a specialsed respiratory organ
(i) Which organ in the body is likely to malfunction
(b) Explain how amoeba obtain its oxygen supply and gets rid of carbon dioxide as a result into diabetes mellitus?
4 (b) Describe the process of breathing/gaseous exchange in insects (ii) Explain to a patient of diabetes mellitus why
(c) Explain how the tracheole is adapted to its function he/she needs to take the insulin injection 15 to 30
(d) Mention the components of gas exchange system of an insect minutes before eating a meal.
5 (a) Describe the process of breathing/gaseous exchange in bony fill 13. (a) Describe how the skin is suited to perform
(b) Make a labelled diagram of a gill of fish its functions
(c) Explain how gills are adapted for gaseous exchange. (b) The figure below shows a section through the
(d) Compare gaseous exchange in fish and insects mammalian skin,
6. Explain the process of gaseous exchange in young and adult amphibians (15)
7. (a) Describe the process of inhalation and exhalation in mammals
(b)Explain how the alveoli is adapted for gaseous exchange
8. (a) Account for the differences between inhaled and exhaled air in mammals.
(b) Describe how oxygen moves from the lungs to body tissues
9. Describe How carbon dioxides moves from body tissues to the atmosphere in mammals
10 (a) Describe how oxygen is moved from air to reach body tissue [03]
(b) Describe the adaptations (a) Red blood cells (b) white blood cells to their functions
11 (a) State the differences between respiration and photosynthesis [03]
(b) Outline the commercial uses of anaerobic respiration [06]
(d) Explain the importance of respiration to living things [06]
12. Describe and experiment to show germinating seeds respire and produce heat
13. Describe an experiment to show that anaerobic respiration of fruit juice leads to a). Name the parts labelled I to IX
production of carbon dioxide Check: UNEB Qns: 1998 Qn 32, 2018 Qn 35, 2016 Qn 33, b) Briefly describe what happens parts I and III
2014 Qn 36, 2012 Qn 36, 2011 Qn 32, 2010 Qn 35, 2009 34, 2008 Qn 32. during cold weather.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT (GERMINATION) c) Name the part that;
1. (a) Define the terms (i) Germination (ii) Growth (iii) Development (iv) primary/apical i). enables you to feel pain
growth (v) Secondary growth ii) Secretes sweat during hot weather
2. Explain the role of each condition necessary for germination
iv) Insulates the body to reduce heat losses
3. Using labelled diagrams, describe to show the necessity of each factors for UNEB qns: 2015 Qn 33, 2014 Qn 31, 2012 Qn
germination. 31, 2012 Qn 33, 2011 Qn 36, 2010 Qn 33 and
4. (a) define seed dormancy 37, 2007 Qn 31, 2005 Qn 37, 2003 Qn 38, 2001
(b) Explain why some seeds may not germinate when favourable conditions for Qn 31
germination are available COORDINATION IN PLANTS
(d) Explain the importance of seed remain dormant during favourable conditions of 1. (a) Define the terms (i) irritability (ii) stimulus
germination 2. (a) Define tropism, geotropism,
(e) Describe ways of breaking seeds dormancy chemotropism, Thigmotropism, hydrotropism
5. Describe an experiment to show the region of rapid cell elongation is just behind a (b) Explain the importance of the various
root cap in roots forms of tropism
3. (a) Give the differences btn tropism and
6. (a) sketch a growth curve of an insect and explain its shape
reflex action
(b) Sketch a sigmoid growth curve and explain its shape
4. Describe an experiment to show how plant
UNEB 1993 (a) What is growth (b) name the regions responsible of producing growth in a shoots respond to light coming from single
shoot (c) Describe an experiment you would perform to determine the region of rapid direction
elongation in the root of a bean seedling 5. Describe an experiment to show geotropism
UNEB: 2017 34, 2014 Qn 32, 2001 Qn 31, 2008 31, 1998 Qn 33, UNEB 1 in roots
EXCRETION AND HOMEOSTATASIS 6. Explain the way plant shoots respond to
1. (a) Define excretion, homeostasis, secretion (a) unilateral light
(b) With the aid of a labelled diagram, describe the role played by mammalian kidney in (b) pull of gravity
excretion 7. Describe an experiment to show that tropism
(d) Define a nephron in shoots is controlled by uneven distribution
(e) What are the functions of the human urinary system, use a diagram of auxins produced at tips of shoots
2. Describe how endotherms respond to hotness and coldness 8. Define Nastic response giving examples
9. what is the importance of nastic response in
3. Describe how endotherms respond to extreme weather
plants
7. What are the advantages and disadvanges of (a) ectotherm (b) Endothermy?
10. what are the differences btn nastic and tropic
8. Describe how temperature of endotherms and ectotherms changes with increase in response
environmental temperature 11. State the effect of Gibberelins and abscisic
9. Describe the structural adaptation of endotherms in cold regions and hot regions acid in plants
10. Describe the role of the pancreas in sugar regulation RESPONSE IN AIMALS
10. Describe the control of water level in blood in humans 1. Define tactic response giving examples and
11. (a) Explain how the liver regulates blood sugar level in the human body. importance
(b) The term antagonistic hormones is used to describe two hormones having 2. define the terms response, stimulus, effector
opposite effects in the body, briefly explain why insulin and glucagon may be termed as and receptor
antagonistic hormones
Page 2
3. Define a neuron, sensory neuron, relay neuron and motor neuron.
4. Describe the structure of each neuron name in 2 above
Reproduction
5. Explain the adaptions of a motor neuron 1. What are the differences between sexual and
6. State the difference btn motor neuron and sensory neuron asexual reproduction.
7. Define reflex action, voluntary action, conditioned reflex action and 2. Describe the various modes of asexual
reflex arc reproduction.
8. By means of a diagram describe the path taken by an impulse during a
reflex action 3. With examples describe the various modes of
9. By means of a diagram, describe the events that lead to the following sexual reproduction.
reflex actions 4. What are the advantages and disadvanges of
(a) Knee jerk (b) withdrawal of hand from a hot object asexual reproduction?
(b) UNEB 1995 a child sees a fierce looking dog and gets frightened,
5. Describe the various modes of asexual
and runs. Describe the sequence of events leading to the Childs
reactions (15) reproduction in plants
10. Explain how impulses are transmitted at synapse 6. Describe how sexual reproduction in
11. Define an endocrine hormone, Antagonistic hormones (a) Fungi/mucor/rhizopus (b) Spirogyra occurs
12. Make a labelled diagram showing location of a human hormones 4. What are the difference btn sexual reproduction in
13. State the effect/function the hormones secreted by each gland shown on
the diagram above spirogyra and asexual reproduction in the same
14. Distinguish btn endocrine/hormonal and nervous coordination in animals organism?
15. Disguise tropism and reflex actions 4. (a) Define vegetative propagation
16. Make a labelled diagram of the human eye and give the functions of the (b) Describe the various forms of vegetative
parts labelled
17. Describe accommodation in mammalian eyes
reproduction in plants
18. Describe event that occur in one’s eyes while observing objects in dim (c) What are the advantages and disadvanges of
and bright light vegetative reproduction in plants?
19. What the adaptions of the following parts of the human eye 5 Define cross pollination and self-pollination
(a) Retina, (b) sclera, (c) choroid (d) conjunctiva (d) lens 6. Describe the events which prevent cross
(b) Define short sightedness
(c) With aid of labelled diagram explain the cause of short sightedness pollination in plants
(d) Explain how myopia can be corrected using illustration, 7. Describe double fertilisation using an illustrative
Check UNEB 2002 32, 2001 Qn 34, 2011 Qn 37, Uneb 1999 Qn 38, 1996 diagram
Qn 32, UNEB 1993 Qn 36. 8. Explain events which occur in flowering plants
ECOLOGY QUESTIONS: after fertilisation’
1. Know how to define: Habitat, Niche, ecosystem, population, community 9. What are the differences between a wind
food chain, Food web, predator, pray, predation, competition,
conservation, environmental degradation. pollinated and insect pollinated flowers?
2. Draw food chain using domestic organisms (fish, algae, mosquito larva, 8. State the advantages and disadvanges of sexual
small fish, big fish) reproduction
(c) Explain what would happen if all small fish are removed from the 9. Draw and name parts of human male reproductive
food chain.
system giving functions of the parts
3. Construct food web using organism below
(a) Chameleon, praying mantis, moth, herbaceous bugs, predatory bugs, 10. Draw and name parts of human female
grasshopper, plants, reproductive system giving functions of each part
(b) Green algae, mosquito, Heron, Big fish, small fish, mosquito larva, 11. State of some of secondary sexual
saprophytic bacteria, characteristics in males and females
(c) grass, praying mantis, lizard, herbivorous bug, butterfly,
(d) Uganda kob, grass, grass hopper, Guinea fowl, Hawk, Bush rat. 12. Describe the following processes in humans
4. Explain how energy is lost from trophic levels/why top consumers earn a) Menstruation
less energy in nature/why number of trophic levels never exceed five b) Corporation
5. Describe human activities that cause (a) Air pollution (b) water pollution, c) Fertilisation
(e) soil degradation
d) implantation
6. Mention some of the ways of controlling water pollution, air pollution
7. Mention some of the ways of conserving soils, forests
13. What are the differences btn internal and
8. Describe and explain a predator prey curve external fertilisation?
9. Describe and explain a sigmoid population growth curve 14. Describe the various methods of family planning
10. Explain the factors which increase and reduce population size
11. Explain the importance of wildlife, problems they face and ways of
protecting wild life
12. Describe the nitrogen cycle by use of illustrations
13. Describe methods of deterring population size of animals (capture-mark-
recapture method, direct counting, aerial photography) and plant
(quadrat method, line transect and belt transect method)
Check UNEB 2018 Qn 32, 2017 Qn 33, 2016 Qn 31, 2011 Qn 33 2009 Qn
32, Uneb 2013 Qn 34, 36, 37, 2009 Qn 37, 2008 Qn 35, 1993 Qn 33.

page 3
 EXCRETION AND HOMEOSATSIS THE PROCESS OF URINE FORMATION/
EXCRETION IN KIDNEYS
1. Excretion: is the removal of waste products of metabolism The kidney excretes urea, excess water and excess
from the body of an organism. salts in urine. This is done through ultrafiltration
2. Homeostasis: is the maintenance of a constant internal followed by selective reabsorption. This occurs in the
environment of the body. nephron. A nephron is the structural and functional
3. Tissue fluid: colourless fluid which surrounds cells unit of kidney.
4. Internal environment: is the immediate surrounding outside The structure of a nephron
body cells.
5. Secretion: Release of substance by body cell
EXCRETORY ORGANS
Excretory organ Excretory products
Liver Bile
Skin Excess water, excess salts and
some urea
Kidney Excess water, excess salts and
alot of urea,
Lungs Carbon dioxide and water Ultrafiltration:
Malpighian tubule Uric acid -This is a form of filtration which is aided by pressure.
(found in insects) In the kidney, ultrafiltration occurs in the glomerulus.
-Blood containing excretory products such as excess
EXCRETION IN ANIMALS
water, excess salts and urine enters the Bowman’s
STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY capsule of the kidney through the afferent vessel.
-High blood pressure in the glomerulus cause part of
blood plasma containing small molecules like water,
amino acids, glucose, urea and mineral salts to leak
through capillary walls forming glomerular filtrate.
-High blood pressure is created because of the
pumping action of the heart, afferent vessel having a
wider lumen than the efferent vessel, and the renal
artery being short.
-Glomerular filtrate lacks red blood cells and proteins
because red blood cells and plasma proteins are too
big to leak through the capillary walls.
-The filtrate from the glomerulus (glomerular filtrate)
collects in the renal capsule and moves down the
renal tubule for selective reabsorption occurs.
Selective reabsorption:
-This is a process of absorbing back some substances
which needed by the body. In the kidney, it occurs in
Functions of the parts: the renal tubule.
Kidney: as glomerular filtrate goes through the renal tubule,
 Filters blood to remove wastes such excess water, excess the blood capillaries that surround he renal tubule
salts and urea excreted in urine. absorb those substance needed by the body such as
 Enhances osmoregulation by removing urine and by glucose, amino acid, water and some of the salts back
selective reabsorption. into the blood stream. These are reabsorbed by active
Renal artery: Blood vessel which carries oxygenated blood and transport, osmosis and diffusion
-In the proximal convoluted tubule, all the glucose,
food nutrients to the kidney. some amino acids, water and salts are reabsorbed
Renal vein: carries filtered blood from the kidney. into blood capillaries.
Ureter: Tube which transports urine from the kidney to the urinary
bladder -In the descending limb of the loop of Henle some
Urinary bladder: collects and temporarily stores urine water is reabsorbed by osmosis and in the ascending
Urethra: is passage for urine to the outside of the body limb, most ions are reabsorbed by active transport.
Internal structure of a kidney -In the distal convoluted tubule, some ions and
remaining nutrients are reabsorbed by diffusion or
active transport depending on their concentration

-The remaining renal fluid flows down the collecting

duct where more water is reabsorbed by osmosis. So
the urea, excess salts and excess water that is left
continues down into the pelvis.

-From here, the fluid now called urine passes down

the ureter to the urinary bladder.
pg. 23
The table below shows the concentration of different
substances in glomerular filtrate and urine. Study the table and Blood sugar regulation
answer question that follow. How the body respond to high sugar level
Substance Concentration When blood glucose level is high, for example after eating
Glomerular filtrate Urine heavy carbohydrate meal, the pancreas releases a
Water 93 95 hormone called insulin into blood.
Proteins 0 0 When the hormone reaches the liver, it stimulates liver cells
Glucose 0.1 0 to convert the excess glucose into fats and glycogen which
Sodium 0.3 0.35 are both stores. It also increase uptake of glucose in all
Urea 0.003 2.5 tissue cells to be used in respiration hence reducing and
(a) Give one reason for the difference in concentration of restoring the glucose level back to its normal.
water in glomerular filtrate and urine How the body responds low sugar level
- When blood glucose level is low, for example during fasting,
the pancreas releases a hormone called glucagon into
blood.
(b) Explain the absence of proteins from glomerular When the hormone reaches the liver, it stimulates liver cells
filtrate and urine to convert the some of the stored fats and glycogen into
glucose. This raises the blood sugar level thus restoring it
back to normal levels.
(c) which substance is reabsorbed with: Why regulation of blood glucose is important:
(i) highest efficiency – Prevents cells from running short of glucose in case its level
(ii) lower efficiency- drops.
(d) Which substance is not reabsorbed at all? Urea Prevents excess loss of water from cells in case its level is
(e) By what factor is urea more concentrated in urine than becomes high.
glomeruli filtrate MAMMALIAN SKIN
Factor= 2.0/0.003 =667
(f) Under what condition does glucose appear in urine?

OSMOREGUALTION
Osmoregulation is process by which the blood concentration is
kept concentration. It is an example of homeostasis and is
done by the kidney. The kidney carries out osmoregulation by
controlling water reabsorption from the glomerular filtrate; but
the whole mechanism of osmoregulation in the human body
involves three centres: hypothalamus, the pituitary gland and Structure of the skin
kidney nephron. The skin consist of two main layers.
When blood has a less water/high osmotic pressure/low Epidermis: thin outer layer
water potential: Dermis: thick inner layer
Less water in blood is detected by the osmo receptors of the The epidermis is made up of three sublayers: Malpighian
hypothalamus; which stimulates the posterior lobe of the layer, granular layer and cornified layer.
pituitary gland; to release more anti-diuretic hormone (ADH or Functions of the skin:
vasopressin) into blood stream. 1. Protect tissue below it from mechanical damage,
ADH is taken to the kidney where it increases the permeability bacterial and viral infection.
of the renal tubules to water 2. Prevents excess water loss from the body
As a result, more water is reabsorbed from the renal tubule 3. Act as a sense organ sensitive to pain, touch and heat
back into tissues by osmosis. The person produces little and this helps the organism to be aware of the
concentrated urine and the water level of blood is raised. environment
When blood has much water/low osmotic pressure/high 4. Synthesizes vitamin D in the presence of sunlight
water potential: 5. Act as an excretory organ which excretes excess water,
Much water in blood is detected by the osmo receptors in the
excess salts and some urea in sweat.
hypothalamus; the pituitary gland becomes less stimulated;
6. Acts as an organ of thermo regulation n endotherms
releasing less or no ADH; reducing permeability of the renal
tubule to water.
As a result, less water is reabsorbed from the tubule back into
blood; hence large volumes of dilute urine (hypotonic) is
produced.
The amount of water in blood must be regulated within narrow
limits in order to prevent cells from absorbing or losing too
much water which are dangerous as they may be damaged.
The body gains water through direct drinking, eating food
which contain water and metabolism.
The body loses water through sweating, urinating,
Defecation, exhalation, and evaporation from the mouth. These
gains and losses must be balanced to maintainPagethe24osmotic
presspressure of the body’s fluids
Adaptation of the skin to its function/functions of the (b) Response of endotherms to hot weather:
skin parts Physiological responses
1. Has cornified layer composed of dead cells to protect 1. Erector hair muscle relax causing the hair lies flat to trap
the tissue below it from mechanical damage, bacterial little or no air reducing insulation and increase heat loss
and viral infection. to the surrounding.
2. Has granular layer: divides by mitosis to form new 2. The metabolic rate of the body reduces to reduce on
cells. the amount of heat produced.
3. Has Malpighian layer with pigment called melanin 3. Vessels dilate (vasodilation) and allow more blood to
which absorbs sunlight. It also divides actively by reach the skin surface in order to lose heat to the
surroundings by radiation.
mitosis to produce new cells that replace the
4. Vasodilation (blood vessels dilate) occurs to allow more
epidermis.
blood reach the skin and allow more heat loss by
4. Has nerve endings perceive external stimuli and radiation.
transport nerve impulse to the central nervous system 5. Sweat glands become more active and secrete more
-Hair plexus: detect touch and pain. sweat increasing heat loss through evaporation from the
-Free nerve endings: detect coldness skin.
-Meissner’s corpuscle: detect touch in non-hairy skin Behavourable response
-Panician corpuscle: detect pressure 6. Dressing in light clothes to reduce insulation and
5. Has sebaceous gland which secretes an oily increase heat loss by radiation
substance called sebum which softens the skin and 7. moving to the shade to allow heat loss by evaporation
prevents it from cracking and provides water proofing 8. panting in dogs to allow heat loss by evaporation from
to the skin. the tongue and lungs
6. Has sweat glands which secrete sweat from the body 9. Aestivation in small mammals where they go deep into
by absorbing water, salts and urea from neighboring burrows and become inactive to escape extreme
cells. hotness.
7. Has sweat pores which act as openings through How heat is lost in animals:
which seat leaves the skin.  Radiation where heat is lost from warmer to cooler
8. Has hair for body temperature regulation. body through cold air.
9. Blood capillary for temperature regulation through  Convection where heat is lost from the body through air
vasodilation and vasoconstriction. It also supply currents.
nutrients and oxygen to the skin  Conduction where heat is lost from warmer to colder
10. Has subcutaneous fat which insulates the body to objects in contact.
reduce heat loss in cold weather  Evaporation during sweating where heat is lost when
11. has erector pili muscle which contract or relax to water turns into water vapour due to it high latent heat
adjust the position of hairs so as to enhance thermal of vaporization
regulation  Excretion when wastes that leave the body escape with
Role of the skin in temperature regulation in heat during breathing out, urination and defecation.
How heat is gained in animals:
mammalian (endotherms)
 Through metabolism like respiration.
Response of endotherms to cold weather:
Physiological/structural response  Gain heat from the environment through, radiation,
conduction, convection and taking hot food or drink.
1. Erector hair muscle contract causing the hair to stand
TEMPERATURE REGULATION IN ECTOTHERMS
upright and trap a layer of air which insulates the
Ectotherms like reptiles, amphibians and fish depend on
body thus reducing heat loses to the surrounding. behavior for their regulation of body temperature.
2. Vasocontraction (constriction of blood vessels) In cold weather: they
occurs to reduce blood reaching the skin and reduce 1. Basking in the sun gain heat by radiation.
heat loss by radiation 2. Migration to warmer areas.
3. sweat glands become inactive and secrete little or no 3. Burrowing into cracks in walls.
sweat reducing heat loss through evaporation In hot weather:
4. Metabolic activity of the liver increases to produce more 1. Moving away from direct sunlight into shade.
energy in form of heat. 2. Salivation over the body e.g in tortoises to allow heat
5. Shivering (rhythmic contraction of skeletal muscle) to loss through evaporation.
produce heat. 3. Thermal gasping/opening the mouth and panting to
Behavourable responses allow heat loss by evaporation of water from the mouth
6. Hibernation (in small mammals like mouse) where they e.g in large reptiles/crocodiles.
live deep in holes and become inactive in coldness to
reduce heat loss.
7. Dressing in thick clothes to increase insulation against
heat loss
8. Basking in the sun to gain some heat by radiation and
convection
9. Taking hot food and hot drinks to absorb some heat
from them page 25
 Structural Adaptations shown by mammals in cold Structural adaptation of mammals living in hot areas
areas 1. Small body size increases surface area to volume ratio
1. Big body size reduces surface area to volume ratio thereby increasing heat loss by radiation.
thereby reducing heat loss 2. Have less or no hair on the skin to trap little or no layer of
air reducing insulation and promoting heat loss
2. Have thick fur to trap thick layer of air increasing
3. large ear flaps increase surface area of body extremities
insulation against heat loss over which heat loss occurs
3. Small ears /body extremities reduce surface area 4. Have less layer of fat under the skin to reduce insulation
reducing heat loss. hence and promote heat loss
4. Have thick layer of fat under the skin to increase 5. Nocturnal behavour where the animal is inactive during
insulation hence reducing heat loss day when it hot and active at night when it is cold there
5. Diurnal behavour allows the animals to gain heat reducing heat gain and promoting heat loss
from sun by radiation and convection EXAMPLES OF EXCRETORY WASTES
ECOTERM AND ENDOTHERMS 1. Non-nitrogenous wastes: oxygen, carbon dioxide, excess
Vertebrates can be divided into ectotherms and water, excess salts
2. Nitrogenous waste: ammonia, uric acid and urea
endotherms depending on how they regulate their body
SIGNIFICANCY OF THE EXCRETING EXCESS NITROGEN
temperature. IN FORM OF UREA, AMMONIA, AND URIC ACID
Ectotherm: Animal whose body temperature changes Uric acid (excreted by birds and reptiles) is less toxic and
according to temperature of the external environment e.g insoluble in water hence it needs little water and energy to be
reptiles, fish and amphibians. excreted. This enables animal to conserve waste
Endotherm: Animal that can maintain constant body Ammonia (excreted by animals in fresh water) is highly toxic
temperature regardless of changes in external and highly soluble in water hence it requires a lot of water to
temperature e.g birds and mammal. They are sometimes excrete it. So it provides means for removing excess water
described as homoiotherms (warm blooded animals) from fresh water animals.
Urea: is slightly soluble and slightly toxic which enables
animals in marine water and mammals on land to maintain it
osmotic pressure through
EXCRETION IN PLANTS:
Why plants do not have complex excretory organs
because
1. Most plant wastes are formed slowly and are less harmful,
2. Most wastes can be used in other reactions, are insoluble
and can be stored without negative effect.
3. Excretion occurs effectively by diffusion, transpiration,
guttation, exudation:, deposition
HOW TO CALCULATE SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME
RATIO
THE EFFECT OF SURFACE AREA ON HEAT LOSS
For endotherms: As environmental temperature Small sized animals have relatively larger surface are to
increases, body temperature of endotherm remains volume ratio than large animals. Due to this, small animals lose
constant. heat more rapidly to their surrounding than large animals.
For ectotherms: As environmental increases body SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO
Small organism have a larger surface area to volume ratio than
temperature of ectotherms also increases. bigger organism and we can perform a mathematical proof for
Advantages of endothermy: this; using the following cubes:
-Animals are able to maintain optimum temperature,
efficient enzyme activity and high metabolism hence
can yield more energy needed for quick response to
stimuli active transport and other functions.
-Animal are able to colonise wide range of habitat,
can remain active regardless of the prevailing
temperature. Conclusion from the above calculations.
- Small organisms have large surface area to volume ratio;
Disadvantages endothermy: than large organisms.
-Animal needs: more food, physiological methods Why small/unicellular organisms lack a special excretory
system.
and structures like hair sweat glands, and fat layer This is because organism with small bodies:
to regulate their body temperature. - Have large surface area to volume ratio;
- their exterior surface is very close to the interior hence they
By common sense generate advantages and have a short diffusion distance
disadvantages of ectothermy. - so diffusion alone is enough for excretion of substance fully
permeable and moist cell membrane
Questions:
Check Uneb 1996 Qn 34, and UNEB 2011 Qn 36. Check UNEB page 26