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Directorate of Distance Education

MA [History]
IV - Semester
321 43

ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY
Authors:
Prof. Sateeshchandra Joshi, Ex-Faculty BVP(Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed University), New Delhi
Unit (1, 2.3.2, 2.4, 3.2.1-3.2.2, 3.3, 9.2, 9.3, 10.3, 11.2)
Dr Gourkrishna Dasmohapatra, Faculty-Science and Humanities, Netaji Subhash Engineering College, Kolkata
Unit (2.2, 3.3.1-3.3.2, 9.2.1, 9.3.1, 10.2, 10.3.1)
Dr Huma Hassan, Guest Faculty, Department of Sociology, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
Unit (2.2.1, 6, 7.3, 12.4, 13.2, 13.4, 14.3-14.4)
Dr. GN Pandey, Director- IET, Lucknow
Unit (2.3.1, 11.4)
Uday Singh, General Manager-HSE Reliance Industries Limited
Unit (2.3.3, 3.2.3, 3.3.3, 3.4, 7.4, 8.2.1-8.2.3, 8.4.1, 8.4.2, 14.2)
Dr Manorama Mathur, Principal, Associate Professor Education, Aravali College of Advance Studies in Education, Faridabad
Unit (7.2)
Chudasama Dharmendra (HSES), Indian Institute of Environment Health and Safety Management, New Delhi
Unit (9.2.2, 9.3.2, 11.3)
Vikas®Publishing House, Units (2.0-2.1, 2.3, 2.5-2.9, 3.0-3.1, 3.2, 3.5-3.9, 4-5, 7.0-7.1, 7.5-7.9, 8.0-8.1, 8.2, 8.4, 8.5-8.9, 9.0-9.1,
9.4-9.8, 10.0-10.1, 10.4-10.8, 11.0-11.1, 11.5-11.9, 12.0-12.2, 12.3, 12.5-12.9, 13.0-13.1, 13.3, 13.5-13.9, 14.0-14.1, 14.4.1,
14.5-14.9)
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 SYLLABUS
Environmental History

BLOCK I: DEFINITION OF ECOAND ITS ROLE

Unit-1: Definition - Scope - Eco - system - Bodage between civilization and Unit 1: Introduction to
Ecology. Ecosystem and Ecology
Unit-2: Natures Balance - Environment and Culture - conservation - Green (Pages 1-23);
House Effect. Unit 2: Ecological Balance
Unit-3: Global warming - Ozone Depletion - Bio-Diversity. (Pages 24-51);
Unit-4: Environment in the Indian Cultural Tradition - Colonial Environment Unit 3: Global Warming, Ozone
policy. Depletion and Bio Diversity
(Pages 52-80);
Unit 4: Environment
Culture and India
(Pages 81-101)

BLOCK II: FORESTAND ITS IMPORTANCE

Unit-5: Forest Land and Forest Management - Resistance system to forest Unit 5: Management of Forests
Management. (Pages 102-118);
Unit-6: Forest movements from 1921 - 42 - Effects of Urabanisation and Unit 6: Forest Movements and Effects
Industrialization - Impact on Nationalism. of Urbanization, Industrialization
Unit-7: Environmental education - Formal and informal education - and Nationalism
organization for environmental protection. (Pages 119-136);
Unit-8: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) - Earth summit of Unit 7: Environment Education
1992. and Protection
(Pages 137-156);
Unit 8: UNEP and Earth Summit
(Pages 157-170)

BLOCK III: ENVIRONMENTALTHREATSAND THE REASON

Unit-9: Environmental Threats - Water Pollution - Air pollution. Unit 9: Environment Threats-I
(Pages 171-206);
Unit-10: Noise Pollution - Land Degradation.
Unit 10: Environment Threats-II
Unit-11: Deforestation- Hazardous Waste - Industrial pollution.
(Pages 207-229);
Unit 11: Environmental Threats-III
(Pages 230-260)
BLOCK IV: PROTECTION OFENVIRONMENT MOVEMENT
Unit-12: Environmental Movements - Chipco Movement -Silent valley Unit 12: Major Environment Movements
movement. in India-I
Unit-13: Appiko movement - Protest against Narmatha project - Protective (Pages 261-277);
measures. Unit 13: Major Environment Movements
Unit-14: Government Legislations - Court Decisions - Role of NGOS - in India-II
Role of Environmental Activities. (Pages 278-292);
Unit 14: Government Legislations, NGOs
and Environmental Activities
(Pages 293-318)
 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
BLOCK I: DEFINITION OF ECO AND ITS ROLE
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO ECOSYSTEM AND ECOLOGY 1-23
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Eco-System: Definition and Scope
1.3 Bondage between Civilization and Ecology
1.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
1.5 Summary
1.6 Key Words
1.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.8 Further Readings
UNIT 2 ECOLOGICAL BALANCE 24-51
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Nature’s Balance
2.2.1 Environment and Culture
2.3 Conservation
2.3.1 Individual Measures
2.3.2 Reduce, Reuse and Recycle
2.3.3 Global Conventions for Environmental Conservation
2.4 Green House Effect
2.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Words
2.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
2.9 Further Readings
UNIT 3 GLOBAL WARMING, OZONE DEPLETION AND BIO DIVERSITY 52-80
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Global Warming
3.2.1 Meaning of Climate Change and Global Warming
3.2.2 Measures to Control Global Warming
3.2.3 Climate Change and its Costs
3.3 Ozone Depletion
3.3.1 How it Happens
3.3.2 Halocarbons
3.3.3 International Conventions for Protection of Ozone Layer
 3.4 Biodiversity
3.4.1 Threats to Biodiversity
3.4.2 Conservation of Biodiversity
3.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
3.6 Summary
3.7 Key Words
3.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
3.9 Further Readings
UNIT 4 ENVIRONMENT CULTURE AND INDIA 81-101
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Environment in the Indian Cultural Tradition
4.3 Colonial Environment Policy
4.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
4.5 Summary
4.6 Key Words
4.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
4.8 Further Readings

BLOCK II: FOREST AND ITS IMPORTANCE

UNIT 5 MANAGEMENT OF FORESTS 102-118
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Forest Land and Forest Management
5.3 Resistance System to Forest Management
5.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
5.5 Summary
5.6 Key Words
5.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
5.8 Further Readings
UNIT 6 FOREST MOVEMENTS AND EFFECTS OF URBANIZATION,
INDUSTRIALIZATION AND NATIONALISM 119-136
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Forest and Environment Movements From 1921-42
6.3 Effects of Urbanization and Industrialization
6.4 Impact of Nationalism on Environment In India
6.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
6.6 Summary
6.7 Key Words
6.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
6.9 Further Readings
UNIT 7 ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION AND PROTECTION 137-156
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Environmental Education
7.3 Formal and Informal Education in India
7.4 Organization for Environmental Protection
7.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
7.6 Summary
7.7 Key Words
7.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
7.9 Further Readings
UNIT 8 UNEP AND EARTH SUMMIT 157-170
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 International Conferences and Agreements on Environment
8.2.1 Antarctic Treaty
8.2.2 The Basel Convention on Minimizing Hazardous Wastes
8.2.3 Stockholm Conference
8.3 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
8.4 Earth Summit of 1992
8.4.1 Agenda 21
8.4.2 Convention on Biological Diversity
8.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
8.6 Summary
8.7 Key Words
8.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
8.9 Further Readings

BLOCK III: ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS AND THE REASON

UNIT 9 ENVIRONMENT THREATS-I 171-206
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Water Pollution
9.2.1 Nature
9.2.2 Wastewater Management
9.3 Air Pollution
9.3.1 Nature
9.3.2 Management
9.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
9.5 Summary
9.6 Key Words
9.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
9.8 Further Readings
UNIT 10 ENVIRONMENT THREATS-II 207-229
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Noise Pollution
10.2.1 Effects of Noise Pollution
10.2.2 Noise Control
10.3 Land Degradation
10.3.1 Land Pollution Due to Solid Waste Problem
10.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
10.5 Summary
10.6 Key Words
10.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
10.8 Further Readings
UNIT 11 ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS-III 230-260
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Deforestation
11.3 Hazardous Waste
11.4 Industrial Pollution
11.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
11.6 Summary
11.7 Key Words
11.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
11.9 Further Readings

BLOCK IV: PROTECTION OF ENVIRONMENT MOVEMENT

UNIT 12 MAJOR ENVIRONMENT MOVEMENTS IN INDIA-I 261-277
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Introduction to Environment Movements
12.3 Chipko Movement
12.4 Silent Valley Movement
12.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
12.6 Summary
12.7 Key Words
12.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
12.9 Further Readings
UNIT 13 MAJOR ENVIRONMENT MOVEMENTS IN INDIA-II 278-292
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Appiko Movement
13.3 Protest Against Narmada Project
 13.4 Protective Measures
13.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
13.6 Summary
13.7 Key Words
13.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
13.9 Further Readings
UNIT 14 GOVERNMENT LEGISLATIONS, NGOS AND
ENVIRONMENTAL ACTIVITIES 293-318
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Government Legislations
14.2.1 Common and Criminal Laws
14.2.2 Land Laws
14.3 Court Decisions
14.4 Role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in Environment Protection
14.4.1 Role of Environmental Activities
14.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
14.6 Summary
14.7 Key Words
14.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
14.9 Further Readings
Introduction
INTRODUCTION

The environment is very important to people because it directly influences their

NOTES lives. People depend largely on the environment for survival. The environment
comprises the relationship between people, animals, plants, and even non-living
things. It is important to study the environment and learn how to conserve it
especially now that technology is beginning to ruin the natural resources and the
ecosystem.
Awareness about global issues is now being spread through international
conferences so that immediate solutions can be applied. The issues may range
from dynamite fishing to global warming, and forest denudation to mining. With
rapid urbanization and technological advancement, there is a need to study each
step that may alter the environment so that the natural ecosystem may still be
protected or replaced by a better one.
The subject of environmental history covers a gamut of topics including the
study of meaning and role of eco-system, the importance of forests and
environmental education, the evaluation of different kinds of environmental threats
and the environmental protection measures in the form of legislations as well as
movements.
This book, Environmental History, has been designed keeping in mind the
self-instruction mode (SIM) format and follows a simple pattern, wherein each
unit of the book begins with the Introduction followed by the Objectives for the
topic. The content is then presented in a simple and easy-to-understand manner
and is interspersed with Check Your Progress questions to reinforce the student’s
understanding of the topic. A list of Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises is
also provided at the end of each unit. The Summary and Key Words further act as
useful tools for students and are meant for effective recapitulation of the text.

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 Introduction to
Ecosystem
BLOCK I and Ecology
DEFINITION OF ECO AND ITS ROLE
NOTES
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO
ECOSYSTEM AND
ECOLOGY
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Eco-System: Definition and Scope
1.3 Bondage between Civilization and Ecology
1.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
1.5 Summary
1.6 Key Words
1.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.8 Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The biological community that occurs in some locale, and the physical and chemical
factors that make up its non-living or abiotic environment make an ecosystem.
Pond, forest, grassland, estuary are some of the examples of ecosystem. Though
the boundaries such as in case of a pond appear, they are actually not marked in
any objective way. We define the boundaries of an ecosystem in order to carry
out a thorough study of it. The study of ecosystems chiefly include the study of
some processes that connect the biotic or living components to the abiotic or non-
living ones. Basically, ecosystems are categorised under two categories, natural
and artificial ecosystems. Air, water, land, energy, etc., are ecosystem resources.
Humans have managed to practice agriculture, build means of transportation, keep
animals, set up industries, etc. Nonetheless, the hunger to use and explore the
natural ecosystem seems endless. This calls for sustainable development, i.e.,
making progress keeping in mind the welfare of the future generation. Ecologists
are always eager in studying the flow of energy in an ecosystem. Energy enters
ecosystems in the form of light from sun and is then used in the process of
photosynthesis by plants. It passes through the ecosystem with changing forms as
organisms metabolize, produce waste, eat one another and finally die and
decompose. In this unit, you will learn about the definition and scope of ecosystem,
further, in this unit we will study about the ecological succession which is the process
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Introduction to of changing of ecosystems over a period of time. Also the inter-relationship between
Ecosystem
and Ecology civilization and ecology has been discussed later in the unit.

NOTES
1.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Describe the meaning, types and resources of ecosystem
 Explain the bondage between civilization and ecology
 Discuss the concept of environment

1.2 ECO-SYSTEM: DEFINITION AND SCOPE

Before, learning about the eco-system, it is important to learn some basic terms.
An organism is a form of life. A wide range and variety of organisms are present
on earth from the single-celled amoeba to huge sharks, from microscopic blue-
green algae to massive banyan trees. It includes all plants and animals.
Species
Group of organisms that resemble one another in appearance, behaviour, chemistry
and genetic structure form a species. Organisms of the same species can breed
with one another and produce fertile offspring under natural conditions. For instance,
all human beings (Homo sapiens) resemble one another in their body structure,
body systems and they all have similar genetic structure. They are thus grouped
together under the species and sapiens.
Population
Population is a group of individuals of the same species occupying a given area at
a given time. For example, the Asiatic lions in the Gir National Park, Gujarat,
make a population. Group of individual organisms of the same species living within
an area is called population.
Communities
Groups of various species occupying a particular area and interacting with each
other make up a community. For instance, when we say ‘the community of the Gir
National Park’, we refer to the lion population, the deer population, the cattle
population, the grass population and populations of all kinds of life forms present
there. Thus, community comprises several species interacting with each other.
Any assemblage of populations living in a prescribed area or physical habitat that
has characteristics in addition to its individual and population components can be
called a community.

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Cycles Introduction to
Ecosystem
and Ecology
The circulation of the chemical elements in the biosphere, from the environment to
organisms and back to the environment, is called cycle.
Food Chain NOTES

The transfer of food energy from its source in plants through a series of organisms
where eating and being eaten is repeated a number of times is called food chain.
Carrying Capacity
The maximum population of a particular species that a given habitat can support
over a given period of time is known as the carrying capacity of the habitat.
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a community of organisms involved in a dynamic network of
biological, chemical and physical interactions among themselves and with the non-
living components. Such interactions sustain the system and allow it to respond to
changing conditions. Thus, an ecosystem includes the communities, the non-living
components and their interactions. The Gir ecosystem will thus include the various
life forms found in the park (the community) and also the non-living components of
the park like the soil, rocks and water and even the solar energy that is captured
by the plants.
The sum total of all the ecosystems on planet Earth is called the biosphere,
which includes all living organisms on earth, interacting with the physical environment
as a whole, to maintain a steady-state ecosystem.
The community of organisms and populations that are interacting with one
another and with the chemical and physical components of their environment is
called ‘ecosystem’.
The term ecosystem was first proposed by A.G. Tansley (1935) who defined
ecosystem as follows: ‘Ecosystem is defined as a self-sustained community of
plants and animals existing in its own environment.’
Odum (1971) defined ecosystem as any unit that includes all the organisms
in a given area interacting with the physical environment, so that a flow of energy
gives rise to a clearly defined tropic structure, biotic diversity and material cycles
within the system.
Michael Allaby (1983) defined ecosystem as a community of interdependent
organisms together with the environment.
The term ecosystem is made up of two words: eco and system. Eco means
ecological sphere or a region of space where living things can exist, while system
mean interacting organisms living in a particular habitat (living space). Thus, the
system resulting from the integration of all the living and non-living factors is called
ecosystem.
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Introduction to An ecosystem may be defined as a dynamic entity composed of a biological
Ecosystem
and Ecology community and its associated abiotic environment. Often, the dynamic interactions
that occur within an ecosystem are numerous and complex. Ecosystems are always
undergoing alterations in their biotic and abiotic components. Some of these
NOTES alterations first begin with a change in the state of one component of the ecosystem,
which then cascades and sometimes, amplifies into other components because of
relationships.
Thermodynamically, a system is any part of the universe separated from the
rest by a well-defined boundary. Likewise, a living organism has a boundary, the
skin.
Thermodynamically, systems can be of three types:
 Isolated system: There is neither an exchange of energy nor matter
with the environment.
 Closed system: There is an exchange of energy but not matter.
 Open system: There is an exchange of both energy and matter.
Open systems are not in thermodynamic equilibrium but in a dynamic steady
state. Living systems are considered to be open.
In case of an ecosystem, the boundary is not rigidly defined. The ecological
system or ecosystem is defined as a system where the biotic community (living
organisms) and the non-biotic (non-living organisms) environment function together
as one complete unit. Thus, an ecosystem includes both the living organisms and
their non-living counterparts, the environment, each influencing the characteristics
of the other and both are necessary for the survival and maintenance of life. An
ecosystem has both structure and function. The structure tells about the diversity
of species, as function involves the flow of energy and cycling of materials through
the structural components. The earth as a whole, is thus a vast ecosystem and the
portion of the earth in which the biotic components, i.e., the living matters are
present is called ‘biosphere’ or ‘ecosphere’. Relative to the volume of the earth,
the biosphere is only a very thin surface layer that extends from 11,000 metres
below sea level to 15,000 metres above.
Types of Ecosystem
Ecosystem is of two types: (1) Natural ecosystems (2) Artificial ecosystems.
Natural ecosystems: Ecosystems like ponds, lakes, oceans, forests, grasslands
and deserts, which are self-regulating systems, without much direct human
interferences or manipulations are called natural ecosystems. The natural ecosystem
is thus, of two types: (a) terrestrial ecosystem (land based ecosystem) (b) aquatic
ecosystem (water-based ecosystem).
Artificial ecosystems: The town, city and agricultural ecosystems are man-made
ecosystems and are therefore, called artificial ecosystems.

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Ecosystem Resources Introduction to
Ecosystem
and Ecology
For many years, Indian villagers have been dependent on forests for fuel-wood to
cook food. Deforestation was not vehement when the population was less.
However, with growing needs of the ever-increasing population, the situation has NOTES
changed over the last few decades. Forests and the animals they sheltered have
disappeared.
The disruption of this ecosystem has negatively affected the social system.
Increase in the human population, deforestation, fuel shortage, decreased food
production have adversely affected our ecosystem. Several human activities have
impacted the ecosystems and its components in a way that achieving sustainability
has become a distant reality.
Development is conventionally reconciled with the economists’ view of
maximizing wealth for better quality of life for the people. The notion of economic
development was challenged when the ill effects of overexploitation surfaced and
paved way for sustainable development as a cherished goal that rests on mutually
reinforcing relationship between ecology, economic development and social justice.
Sustainable development can be defined as meeting present needs without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. It is about
leaving a cleaner earth for the future generations. Ecologically sustainable
development is about keeping ecosystems healthy. It is about interacting with
ecosystems in ways that allow them to maintain sufficient functional integrity to
continue providing humans and all other creatures in the ecosystem the food, water,
shelter and other resources that they need.
The sustainability of our planet depends on the respect we show to the
ecological systems. On this rests the well-being of all organisms including the human
race. Of late, ecosystems have been affected by: climate change; large-scale shifts
in the ranges of species, timing of the seasons and animal migration; deeply stressed
coastal areas; threat to certain important benefits provided by ecosystems;
frequency and aggressiveness of disasters like tsunami. Natural ecosystems benefit
humans by providing clean drinking water, and processes that help decompose
dead plants and animals.
Land
The delineable part of the earth not covered by water is known as land. Land
resources provide various functions or services including provisioning, regulating
and supporting. However, the quality of the services reached its threshold as
communities started exploiting land resources in the name of meeting their own
needs. It is important to note that the renewal of land resources is a slow process.
The rate of degradation of land is much faster than the natural rate of
generation. This means that land that is lost due to degradation will not be naturally
replaced within a human time frame. This will lead to a loss of opportunities for the
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Introduction to future generations. Deforestation, farming, damming of rivers, industrialization,
Ecosystem
and Ecology mining, urbanization, etc., have seriously stressed land resources.
Recent studies conducted worldwide show that land resources have been
overexploited by man. The traditional land resource management is no longer
NOTES
appropriate and technology is not always available or affordable. Figure 1.1
provides a snapshot of the causes of land resource degradation of the world.
Overexploitation Industrialization
(7%) (1%)

Overgrazing
Agricultural (35%)
activities
(28%)

Deforestation
(30%)

Fig 1.1 Causes of Land Resource Degradation

Source: http://www.env.go.jp/en/wpaper/1996/eae250008000002.gif
Degradation of land resources has resulted in serious variance in the energy
balance. The aftermath of this has been made evident through the erratic change in
the climate patterns and has posed an alarming threat of food insecurity for the
growing population. The need of the hour is to promote the role of ecosystem
facilitators rather than exploiters, charged with the responsibility of safeguarding
the rights of unborn generations and of conserving land as the basis of the global
ecosystem.
Water
After air, no other ecosystem resource holds greater significance than water. Water
is a fundamental resource for development and is vital for the survival, health and
dignity of human population. About 97.5 per cent of global water resource is
saline in nature and found in the seas and oceans. The other 2.5 per cent of water
resources provide fresh water to support 86 per cent of the world’s population
through glaciers, groundwater, permafrost and surface and atmospheric water.
Figure 1.2 provides a comparison of worldwide water resource availability over a
range of thirty years.

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 Introduction to
Ecosystem
and Ecology

NOTES

Fig 1.2 Comparison of Water Availability

Source: http://www.mlit.go.jp/english/2006/c_l_and_w_bureau/01_worldwater/
images/c_001_2_zu.gif
The freshwater reserves throughout the world are rapidly declining. An
estimated 3 billion people will be living in water poverty by 2025. Urbanization,
overpopulation and wastage of groundwater, contribute towards an increase in
per capita domestic consumption. As a result, India, China, Africa and Europe will
face acute shortage of freshwater by 2025. India will face acute scarcity of water
by 2050.
Sustainability of water resources in India is fast becoming a necessity. The
increasing population and the high rate of development have led to an increase in
pollution, over-exploitation and degradation of the environment. Weak government
policies and economic incentives have led to inappropriate use of water resources
in the last few years. Management of water resources should be carried out using
a holistic approach that addresses the pressures arising from various sources such
as the agricultural, industrial and domestic sectors.
Air
Understanding the relationship between air pollution and ecosystem services is
vital for achieving sustainable development of the communities. Air is a precious
resource that supplies us with oxygen, which is essential for us. Air quality primarily
influences the atmosphere in which people live and breathe.
Several researches conducted globally on air pollution suggest that
developing nations are the most affected by it. Air pollutants such as nitrogen
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Introduction to oxides (NOx), ammonia (NH3) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) have major effect on
Ecosystem
and Ecology the ecosystem services. These range from substantial reductions in food provisioning
due to crop yield impacts to changes in the ecosystem functioning. It is likely that
these impacts represent a barrier to providing sufficient crop growth to reduce
NOTES hunger and maintaining diverse natural ecosystems.
Energy
Understanding the links between energy, poverty and ecosystem services is
important for attaining sustainable development. Increased access to energy for
the poorest part of the world’s population will help in holistic, sustainable
development. The current energy use of the poor is neither sufficient to attain the
sustainable development nor is it sustainable in terms of maintaining important
ecosystem services that can facilitate a transition out of poverty. Meeting the basic
energy needs of the poor with minimized impacts on the ecosystem services needed
for other aspects of sustainable development attainment such as food production
and livelihood support is thus vital.
Other Resources
Another important ecosystem resource which is important to discuss in the present
scenario is biodiversity. Biodiversity provides both tangible and intangible benefits
like food, fodder, fiber, fuel, climate regulation, flood and drought control, nutrient
recycling, cultural and recreational benefits.
Development processes like industrialization and urbanization have brought
about loss and degradation of biodiversity throughout the world. Today, several
species of organisms, plants and animals are at the threshold of extinction and
their conservation is the need of the hour. Identifying the importance of biodiversity,
attempts are being made through following various approaches and different
strategies, to conserve it. One of the prominent organizations in this area is
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) which has been doing
remarkable work in conservation of endangered species.
A system is an arrangement of matter related to form a whole (unit). The
living organisms (biotic community) of an area and their non-living environment
function together as one unit called ecological system or ecosystem. The term
ecosystem was first introduced in 1935. In the ecosystem, the living organisms
and its environment each influences the properties of the other and both are
necessary for the survival and maintenance of life. Some examples of natural
ecosystems are ponds, lakes, oceans, grasslands, forests, deserts, and so on. The
largest ecosystem of the earth is the biosphere, which is self-sufficient and balanced.
Each ecosystem has two components, i.e., biotic and abiotic substances. In short,
ecosystem can be described as ‘Life Support System’.
Components of Ecosystem
Given below are the components of an ecosystem:
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Biosphere—The biosphere is the biological component of earth systems. It consists Introduction to
Ecosystem
of all the living organisms on earth, along with the dead organic matter produced and Ecology
by them. The concept was introduced by geologist Eduard Suess in 1875 and is
central to many significant disciplines. According to him it meant ‘the place on
Earth’s surface where life dwells’. NOTES
Biome—Another important concept that finds place in this context is that of a
biome. A biome is nothing but a large area comprising similar flora, fauna and
microorganisms. Biomes categorize the biological communities on the earth
according to similarities found in the dominant vegetation, climate, geographic
location and various other characteristics. Each of these categories contains species,
which have adapted to varying conditions of water, heat and soil. A biome consists
of many similar ecosystems throughout the world grouped together. Ecologists
have identified at least five major categories of biomes namely, aquatic, desert,
forests, grasslands and tundra. A biome is characterized by a unique set of abiotic
factors, particularly climate, and encompasses an ecological community.
Regional ecosystems are referred as biomes, while the largest of all the possible
ecosystems is called a biosphere. Figure 1.3 provides the levels of organization
in ecology.

Fig 1.3 Levels of Organization in Ecology

Source: http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/~cfruf/images/bio3002/els_le2.jpg
Structure of an Ecosystem
However, all ecosystems consist of components that can be categorized into two
main types, namely, abiotic components, consisting of chemical substances and
physical conditions that support life in the ecosystem, and biotic components,
which include all living organisms. There is also some source of energy and
interaction that takes place in all ecosystems. Figure 1.4 illustrates the components
of an ecosystem.
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Introduction to
Ecosystem
Ecosystem
and Ecology Components

NOTES
Abiotic Biotic
Components Components

Climatic Decomposers
Edafic Factors Producers Consumers
Factors

Fig 1.4 Components of an Ecosystem

1. Abiotic components: Abiotic components that are responsible for creating

the physical environment of an ecosystem consist mainly of elements like
energy, inorganic elements and compounds, dead organic matter and climate.
2. Biotic components: The biotic components of an ecosystem include plants,
animals and microbes, i.e., the complete living community. The biotic
components can be further classified to include autotrophs or producers,
heterotrophs or consumers and saptotrophs or reducers. Heterotrophs
or consumers obtain energy and nutrients by feeding directly or indirectly
on the autotrophs. Animals are the primary heterotrophs. Plants and animals
provide organic matter to the soil by shedding skins as well as through
death.
Saprotrophs or decomposers are those organisms that consume this organic matter,
which is called detritus. The organic matter that is consumed by these organisms
ultimately transforms back into inorganic nutrients in the soil. The plants can utilize
these nutrients to produce organic compounds.
Autotrophs: Green plants are generally considered as the autotrophs.
The autotrophic components include green plants, photosynthetic bacteria,
chemosynthetic microbes, etc. The autotrophic components are known as
producers.
The main function of these is to absorb energy from non-living organisms
and make it available to all living organisms. The main producers are, of course
green plants. These plants possess a green pigment called ‘chlorophyll’, which
transduces solar energy. Such producers absorb solar energy through the light
trapping pigments, chlorophylls and convert it to chemical energy with the help of
inorganic substances such as water and carbon dioxide, as well as organic
substances such as enzymes.
Such a process is known as ‘photosynthesis’, carbon assimilation or primary
biological productivity. These autotrophs are known as ‘photo-autotrophs’, as
they utilize light energy. The biochemical formula that describes photosynthesis is:
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 Introduction to
6CO2 + 6H2O + Solar Energy C6H12O6 + O2 Ecosystem
Lower Energy Higher Energy and Ecology

The oxygen thus evolved, is used for respiration by the living organisms.
The other type of autotrophs called ‘chemo-autotrophs’, use the energy NOTES
generated in an oxidation–reduction process. The microorganisms like beggiatoa
and sulphur bacteria are some examples of chemo-autotrophs. However, the
importance of chemo-autotrophs as producers is minimal in an eco-system.
Heterotrophs
(Hetero means ‘different’, trophic means ‘nourishing’)
Heterotrophic components are the living organisms that are unable to prepare
their own food like autotrophs, but consume or decompose the complex food
material prepared by the autotrophs or producers. Heterotrophs, are thus of two
types:
(a) Consumers
(b) Decomposers and transformers
(a) Consumers
Consumers are the living organisms that consume food prepared by producers.
On the basis of dependency on food habits, consumers can be of four types:
(i) Primary consumers, (ii) Secondary consumers, (iii) Tertiary consumers,
(iv) Decomposes and transformers.
(i) Primary consumers: Those that feed directly on green plants and are
purely herbivorous animals, e.g., cow, dove, buffalo, deer, elephants, and insects
like butterfly.
(ii) Secondary consumers: Those that feed on primary consumers and can
be purely carnivorous (flesh eating) as well as omnivorous (plants and flesh eating),
e.g., small birds, toad, lizard, small fish.
(iii) Tertiary consumers: Those that feed on secondary consumers and are
the top carnivores. They can feed on primary consumers also. Thus, the tertiary
consumers feed on other carnivores, omnivorous as well as herbivorous animals,
e.g., lion, tiger, hawk, vulture, snake, peacock, large fish, etc.
(b) Decomposers and Transformers
Decomposers are also heterotrophic organisms, but they depend upon dead
organisms for their food. They are chiefly microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, etc.
Some invertebrate animals like protozoa (amoeba, entamoeba, euglena), as
well as earthworms, decompose dead organisms to derive food from them and
can therefore, be classified as decomposers. The decomposers attack the dead
bodies of producers and consumers, degrading the complex organic substances
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Introduction to like cellulose, semicellulose, proteins and fats into simple substances. The
Ecosystem
and Ecology transformers then convert these simple organic substances into the inorganic form,
suitable for reuse by the producers. The decomposers and transformers are very
important microorganisms which maintain the dynamic equilibrium in the eco-system.
NOTES
Functions of an Ecosystem
An ecosystem has got two main functions, which are as follows:
(1) Productive
(2) Distributive
In its productive function, it produces energy, which in its distributive function is
further passed on to the members in the ecosystem. Autotrophs (producer) produce
energy through chlorophyll by trapping solar energy through a process called
photosynthesis. These autotrophs are then consumed by heterotrophs (consumer)
and hence energy is passed on from producer to consumer.
Energy Flow in the Ecosystem
The transformation of energy between the different components of an ecosystem
is known as ‘energy flow’. This is very important, as it determines the density and
diversity of organisms as well as their development and functional status. The
energy flow in an ecosystem is always uni-directional in nature.
To prepare food and to store it in the form of chemical energy, green plants,
with the help of their green pigments known as ‘chlorophyll’, trap solar energy
and convert carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) into complex food materials
with the help of other nutrients. This is done through the process of photosynthesis
and is referred to as primary production.
The total amount of solar energy converted into chemical energy by green
plants is called Gross Primary Production (GPP). Some part of the gross primary
production (GPP) is utilized by plants for their various metabolic activities, (mainly
respiration [MA]) and the remainder is called the Net Primary Production (NPP).
Thus,
GPP = NPP + MA
When,
(i) GPP = MA, there is no change in energy content (NPP = 0).
(ii) GPP < MA, NPP becomes negative, i.e., bio-mass undergoes
degradation.
(iii) GPP > MA, NPP becomes positive, i.e., accumulation of biomass.
The grains, straws and roots, harvested after a growing season, comprise
the NPP. Primary production is of special importance in ecology, since it is the
energy fixed by plants by converting solar energy into chemical energy of food
stuff that support life in other trophic levels.
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 When herbivores consume autotrophic plants as food, part of the food is Introduction to
Ecosystem
assimilated and the rest is ingested. Some parts of the assimilated food, the potential and Ecology
energy stored as chemical energy of food, get oxidized through respiration, the
carbon-carbon bonds are broken and carbon combines with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide, releasing kinetic energy. Some parts of the energy is used by the organism NOTES
to do work and the rest dissipates as heat.
C6H12O6 + O2  CO2 + H2O + Kinetic energy
The efficiency of energy utilization varies from organism to organism and
within similar organisms it varies with the physical structure of the organism and its
age. The remaining part of the assimilated food (energy) is stored in somatic and
reproductive tissues for growth and reproduction.
The production of organic matter by heterotrophic organisms is known as
‘Secondary Production’. The total quantity of plant material ingested and stored
(assimilated) in the body of heterotrophic organisms (herbivore) is known as ‘Gross
Secondary Production’ and the remaining part of the assimilated food (energy)
after metabolic processes (mainly respiration), is known as ‘Net Secondary
Production’. When herbivores are consumed by carnivores (secondary
consumers), further degradation of energy occurs.
Similarly, when carnivores (secondary consumers) are consumed by top
carnivores (tertiary consumers) again, energy is degraded further. Thus, at each
level of the system there is degradation of energy.
The decomposers ultimately, get food and energy by decomposing the dead
organisms of all the trophic levels. The energy flow through various components of
ecosystem can be depicted through Figures 1.5 and 1.6

Fig 1.5 Passage of Energy in Ecosystem Ecosystems

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Introduction to
Ecosystem
and Ecology

NOTES

Fig 1.6 Energy Flow Chart

Ecological Succession
Ecological succession is the gradual process by which ecosystems change over
time. Habitats are constantly changing. To give you an example, a bare patch of
ground will not stay bare for long. It will be quickly colonized by a variety of
plants, ants, pests and other living creatures. In the process of succession, the
species present in an area will gradually change. Succession occurs because the
environmental conditions prevalent in a particular place change over time. Each
species is adapted to thrive and compete best against other species under a very
specific set of environmental conditions. If these conditions change, then the existing
species will be replaced by a new set of species which are better adapted to the
new conditions.
Ecological succession is the observed process of modification in the species
structure of an ecological community over time. Within a community, some species
may become less abundant over time, or they may even disappear from the
ecosystem altogether. Similarly, other species within the community may become
more abundant, or new species may invade to the community from adjacent
ecosystems.
There are specific environmental conditions under which species will grow
and reproduce most optimally. Given an ecosystem’s set of environmental conditions,
those species that can best survive and grow and produce the most viable offspring
will, in all probability, become the most abundant living things. As long as the
ecosystem’s set of environmental conditions remains unchanged, the species that
are most suited to those conditions will flourish. The cause behind changes in an
ecosystem is the impact that species have upon the environment. In the process of
living, organisms alter their environment over a period of time. While the original
environment may have been ideal for a certain species of plant or animal, the new

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environment is often optimal for some other species. Under the modified conditions, Introduction to
Ecosystem
the erstwhile dominant species are likely to dwindle and another species may and Ecology
become ascendant.
Ecological successions can be short-term, usually due to changes in season.
NOTES
For instance in summer, the open ground in your locality is dry and may be home
to rodents, ants and other small insects. But in the rainy season, it gets filled with
water and becomes home to another set of plants and animals—algae, mosquitoes,
small fish and so on. Once the rains end, the ground may again turn dry and the
original species may return to their habitat. Ecological succession may also take
place when conditions of an environment are altered suddenly and drastically.
Floods, forest fires, wind storms and human activities like agriculture all greatly
modify the conditions of an environment. These devastating forces may also
eradicate some species and thus introduce non-reversible changes in the dynamics
of the community, kick-starting a struggle for dominance among the species that
have survived.

Check Your Progress

1. What do you mean by species?
2. What is food chain?
3. What is an ecosystem?
4. Name the factors which have adversely affected our ecosystem.
5. What is sustainable development?
6. How do natural ecosystems benefit humans?

1.3 BONDAGE BETWEEN CIVILIZATION AND

ECOLOGY

Ecosystems are strongly affected by human activities which are a simple

manifestation of society where human beings live. In a simple human–ecosystem
interaction, the ecosystem provides services to the human social system by the
way of moving materials, energy and information to meet people’s needs. The
ecosystem resources, both natural and artificial, play a vital role in the discharge of
ecosystem services of provisioning, regulating, supporting and recreating. Like
ecosystems, human social system affects the ecosystem through use of ecosystem
resources for their survival needs. This relationship has been displayed in
Figure 1.7.

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Introduction to
Ecosystem
and Ecology

NOTES

Fig 1.7 Human–Ecosystem Interaction

Source: http://www.gerrymarten.com/human-ecology/images/01-1-english.jpg
Human-ecosystem interaction may be explained through the concepts of common
property resources, coexistence and adaptive development.
Common Property Resources
Common Property Resources (CPR) include all such resources which are meant
for common use of the villagers but not for individual possession. These resources
are an indispensable aspect of the social and institutional arrangements made to
meet the everyday requirements of village communities. They are particularly
important to the landless, the agricultural labours and rural artisans. Usually, common
property resources are identified by three factors—access, common use and
communal purpose. These two characteristics distinguish it from a private good,
which is subject to exclusive use and possession by individuals. These resources
are community pastures and forests, wastelands, common dumping and threshing
grounds, watershed drainages, village ponds, rivers and other common pool water
bodies.
CPRs perform a major role as a life support system. In developing countries
like India, CPRs are an important component of the resource base of both the
rural as well as urban communities. They contribute to the production and
consumption needs of the people in these communities, as well as beyond. When
properly managed, CPRs ensure the sustainability of agro-ecological systems
providing basic needs and sustenance for the poor.
Nearly everywhere, common property resources have been steadily reduced
in extent and importance in modern times. Activities like encroachment as well as
privatization and government appropriation are the main processes that have taken
resources out of communal control. Increasing pressures on what is left have
generally led to its progressive degradation, encouraging further expropriation.
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The need of the hour is therefore to resort to a more successful common property Introduction to
Ecosystem
resources management that has: and Ecology
 Social groups with rights to a clearly defined resource.
 Ability to exclude others from using the resource. NOTES
 Set of use rules that limit the seasonality, extent, or ways in which the
resource is extracted by individuals.
 Capacity to monitor use and enforce rules.
Coexistence
Coexistence is a common architectural feature of ecosystems where autotrophs
and heterotrophs exist together in a mutually interdependent, compulsory
relationship that ensures the flow of energy and the constant recycling of vital
chemical nutrients through the ecosystem. Constant energy and nutrient flows are
important if the system has to carry on as a self-sustaining collection of components
and relationships within a certain physical environment.
Coexistence in relation to human–ecosystem interaction could be used to
explain the respectful and non-violent relationship between human beings and
different species living in a given place at any given time.
Adaptive Development
Understanding the concept of adaptive development paves way for understanding
the notion of resilience and its relationship with sustainable development. The
capability of an ecosystem to endure disturbances like storms, fire and pollution,
without changing its form, is known as ecosystem resilience. If a resilient ecosystem
is damaged, it has the ability to repair itself. In a resilient ecosystem, the procedure
of repairing facilitates renewal and innovation. Without resilience, ecosystems
become more prone to the effects of disturbances, which could have previously
been absorbed.
Clean and clear lakes can turn into dirty, oxygen-depleted pools; grasslands
can be converted into shrub-deserts, and coral reefs into algae-covered rubble.
All these are a result of a combination of disturbance patterns caused by human
alteration in nature, and due to reduced social and ecological resilience of
ecosystems. Coral reefs, mangrove forests and other coastal wetlands shelter
human settlements from coastal storms. Forests and wetlands help in absorbing
floodwaters. Sadly, our activities have depleted resilience in many natural systems
to such an extent that their ability to protect us from disturbances has declined.
Furthermore, the resilience of many social systems to natural calamities has been
decreased as the increase in the human population growth has forced people to
settle down and conduct economic activities in vulnerable areas.

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Introduction to Ecological Balance or Ecosystem Stability
Ecosystem
and Ecology
Ecological balance or ecosystem stability implies a balance between the production
and consumption of each component in the ecosystem. According to T.D. Brock,
NOTES ‘Steady state condition in nature ecosystem is a time independent condition in
which production and consumption of each constituent in the system is exactly
balanced, the concentration of all constituents within the system remains constant,
even though there occurs a continual change’.
There are a number of theories, mechanisms and models to explain the stability of
ecosystem. The important ones are as follows:
(i) Theory of Diversity or Stability
If there is diversity of food webs, it will lead to an increase in the number of links
in the food web and if community succession operates in an ecosystem, the stability
will increase.
(ii) Homeostatic Mechanism
Inbuilt, self-regulating mechanism is known as homeostatic mechanism. If within
an ecosystem the population of a species increases significantly, the result will be
scarcity of food, leading to competition for food. Most species will die of starvation
and the species population will be brought back to its original value and the stability
will be restored.
(iii) Models
The equilibrium, as well as non-equilibrium model can explain stability. Thus, if the
ecosystem is disturbed by external factors, it may quickly return to its original
state by some adjustments, restoring the stability. However, if it does not return to
its original state, the disordered arrangement might lead to cross-relationships and
make the system stable.
Ecological Instability
When an ecosystem is unable to adjust to the environmental changes, it is said to
be unstable. The instability occurs due to a number of natural and anthropogenic
activities such as destruction of natural vegetation and animal species, partly or
completely or by replacing them by other vegetations and animals, introduction of
toxic substances like insecticides and pesticides and toxic gases like SO2 and
NO2.
Importance of Ecology
During the past decades, due to rapid increase in technology and population,
humans have far more influenced their own environment than any other ecosystem.
Some quoted examples of ecological crisis are as follows:
 Permian: Triassic extinction over 25 million years ago.
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  Cretaceous: Tertiary extinction over 65 million years ago. Introduction to
Ecosystem
 Global warming related to greenhouse effect could involve flooding of and Ecology
the Asian deltas, multiplication of extreme weather phenomena and
changes in the nature and quality of the food resources.
NOTES
 Ozone layer hole issue
 Deforestation and desertification, resulting in disappearance of many
species
 The nuclear meltdown at Chernobyl in 1986, caused the death of many
people and animals due to cancer and caused mutation in large number
of people and animals.
The study of ecology helps us to understand the various primitive factors
responsible for the existence of life on earth. The survival and well-being depend
entirely on the ecological relationships. Although, ecology is considered a branch
of biology, ecology deals with many other branches of science, such as chemistry,
physics, geology, geography, meteorology, pedology, etc. Thus, the study of ecology
gives a reactive insight into the universe and helps to take proper care of the
environment for overall survival.

Check Your Progress

7. What are Common Property Resources?
8. What do you mean by coexistence?
9. When is the ecosystem said to be unstable?

1.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Species is a group of organisms that resemble one another in appearance,

behaviour, chemistry and genetic structure.
2. The transfer of food energy from its source in plants through a series of
organisms where eating and being eaten is repeated a number of times is
called food chain.
3. An ecosystem is a community of organisms involved in a dynamic network
of biological, chemical and physical interactions among themselves and with
the non-living components.
4. Increase in the human population, deforestation, fuel shortage, decreased
food production have adversely affected our ecosystem.
5. Sustainable development can be defined as meeting present needs without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. It is
about leaving a cleaner earth for the future generations.
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Introduction to 6. Natural ecosystems benefit humans by providing clean drinking water, and
Ecosystem
and Ecology processes that help decompose dead plants and animals.
7. Common Property Resources (CPR) include all such resources which are
meant for common use of the villagers but not for individual possession.
NOTES
These resources are an indispensable aspect of the social and institutional
arrangements made to meet the everyday requirements of village
communities.
8. Coexistence is a common architectural feature of ecosystems where
autotrophs and heterotrophs exist together in a mutually interdependent,
compulsory relationship that ensures the flow of energy and the constant
recycling of vital chemical nutrients through the ecosystem.
9. When an ecosystem is unable to adjust to the environmental changes, it is
said to be unstable.

1.5 SUMMARY

 Group of organisms that resemble one another in appearance, behaviour,

chemistry and genetic structure form a species.
 Population is a group of individuals of the same species occupying a given
area at a given time.
 Groups of various species occupying a particular area and interacting with
each other make up a community.
 An ecosystem is a community of organisms involved in a dynamic network
of biological, chemical and physical interactions among themselves and with
the non-living components. Such interactions sustain the system and allow it
to respond to changing conditions.
 The term ecosystem is made up of two words: eco and system. Eco means
ecological sphere or a region of space where living things can exist, while
system mean interacting organisms living in a particular habitat (living space).
 Sustainable development can be defined as meeting present needs without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. It is about
leaving a cleaner earth for the future generations. Ecologically sustainable
development is about keeping ecosystems healthy.
 Land resources provide various functions or services including provisioning,
regulating and supporting. Deforestation, farming, damming of rivers,
industrialization, mining, urbanization, etc., have seriously stressed land
resources.
 Understanding the relationship between air pollution and ecosystem services
is vital for achieving sustainable development of the communities. Air is a
precious resource that supplies us with oxygen.
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 Another important ecosystem resource which is important to discuss in the Introduction to
Ecosystem
present scenario is biodiversity. Biodiversity provides both tangible and and Ecology
intangible benefits like food, fodder, fiber, fuel, climate regulation, flood and
drought control, nutrient recycling, cultural and recreational benefits.
NOTES
 Each ecosystem has two components, i.e., biotic and abiotic substances.
In short, ecosystem can be described as ‘Life Support System’.
 Regional ecosystems are referred as biomes, while the largest of all the
possible ecosystems is called a biosphere.
 Abiotic components that are responsible for creating the physical
environment of an ecosystem consist mainly of elements like energy,
inorganic elements and compounds, dead organic matter and climate.
 The biotic components of an ecosystem include plants, animals and microbes,
i.e., the complete living community. The biotic components can be further
classified to include autotrophs or producers, heterotrophs or consumers
and saptotrophs or reducers.
 The autotrophic components include green plants, photosynthetic bacteria,
chemosynthetic microbes, etc. The autotrophic components are known as
producers.
 Heterotrophic components are the living organisms that are unable to prepare
their own food like autotrophs, but consume or decompose the complex
food material prepared by the autotrophs or producers.
 The transformation of energy between the different components of an
ecosystem is known as ‘energy flow’. This is very important, as it determines
the density and diversity of organisms as well as their development and
functional status.
 Ecological succession is the gradual process by which ecosystems change
over time.
 Ecosystems are strongly affected by human activities which are a simple
manifestation of society where human beings live. In a simple human–
ecosystem interaction, the ecosystem provides services to the human social
system by the way of moving materials, energy and information to meet
people’s needs.
 Common Property Resources (CPR) include all such resources which are
meant for common use of the villagers but not for individual possession.
These resources are an indispensable aspect of the social and institutional
arrangements made to meet the everyday requirements of village
communities.
 Activities like encroachment as well as privatization and government
appropriation are the main processes that have taken resources out of
communal control.
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Introduction to  Understanding the concept of adaptive development paves way for
Ecosystem
and Ecology understanding the notion of resilience and its relationship with sustainable
development. The capability of an ecosystem to endure disturbances like
storms, fire and pollution, without changing its form, is known as ecosystem
NOTES resilience.
 Ecological balance or ecosystem stability implies a balance between the
production and consumption of each component in the ecosystem.
 The study of ecology helps us to understand the various primitive factors
responsible for the existence of life on earth. The survival and well-being
depend entirely on the ecological relationships.

1.6 KEY WORDS

 Ecosystem: It is the biological community of interacting organisms and

their physical environment.
 Species: It refers to a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals
capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding.
 Sustainable development: It refers to the economic development that is
conducted without depletion of natural resources.
 Biosphere: It refers to the regions of the surface, atmosphere, and
hydrosphere of the earth (or analogous parts of other planets) occupied by
living organisms.
 Environment: It refers to the natural world, as a whole or in a particular
geographical area, especially as affected by human activity.

1.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. What are the types of ecosystem?
2. State the components of ecosystem.
3. What are the causes behind the reduction of common property resources?
4. Why is it important to study the ecology?
Long-Answer Questions
1. How has the disruption of ecosystem affected the social system? Explain.
2. ‘Degradation of land resources has resulted in serious variance in the energy
balance.’ Elucidate the statement.
3. Describe the structure of an ecosystem.
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 Introduction to
1.8 FURTHER READINGS Ecosystem
and Ecology

J. Donald Hughes. 2015. What is Environmental History?. London: Wiley.

Chakrabarti, Ranjan. 2020. Critical Themes in Environmental History of India. NOTES
New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Agnoletti, Mauro and Simone Neri Serneri. 2014. The Basic Environmental
History. New York: Springer International Publishing.
Isenberg, Andrew Christian. 2014. The Oxford Handbook of Environmental
History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rosencrazz, Armin. 2002. Environmental law & Policy in India. Noida: Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Appadurai, Susila. 2004. Environmental studies. New Delhi: New Century Book
House Pvt Ltd.
Porter, Goreth, Janet Welsh Brown. 2000. Global Environmental politics.
Colorado: Westview Press.
Gadgil, Madhav, Ramachandra Guha. 2012. The Fissured Land: An Ecological
History of India. Noida: Oxford University Press.

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Ecological Balance

UNIT 2 ECOLOGICAL BALANCE

NOTES Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Nature’s Balance
2.2.1 Environment and Culture
2.3 Conservation
2.3.1 Individual Measures
2.3.2 Reduce, Reuse and Recycle
2.3.3 Global Conventions for Environmental Conservation
2.4 Green House Effect
2.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Words
2.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
2.9 Further Readings

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Ecological balance describes the equilibrium between living creatures and the
environment they live in. For example, the process of photosynthesis taking place
in plants contributes to building a good environment that balances the coexistence
of all the organisms. Since humans have reasoning and thinking capability, they
play an instrumental role in keeping the ecological balance due to which survival of
all organisms is possible. Ecological balance makes sure that no species are being
overused or exploited. Conservation of nature is the moral philosophy and
conservation movement aimed at maintaining and restoring habitats, protecting
species from extinction and biological diversity and improving ecosystem services.
In modern times, evidence-based conservation tools are employed for conserving
the natural resources. The goals for nature conservation are protecting habitat,
preventing deforestation, mitigating overfishing and decreasing climate change.
Moreover, conservation is involved with the study of earth’s biological loss,
understanding the causes behind the loss and creating solutions to restore the
biodiversity. Today, various changes in earth’s climate are happening due to global
warming which is the result of greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is a natural
process that warms the Earth’s surface. When the Sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s
atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed and re-
radiated by greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and some artificial chemicals such as
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). In this unit, we will study in detail about the balance
of the ecosystem, conservation of nature and natural resources and the greenhouse
effect.
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 Ecological Balance
2.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Describe the meaning and types of ecological factors NOTES
 State the relation between culture and climate
 Explain the meaning of conservation and various methods to conserve the
natural resources
 Discuss the causes and effects of the greenhouse effect

2.2 NATURE’S BALANCE

Ecological balance or stability of the ecosystem implies a balance between the

production and consumption of each component in the ecosystem. According to
T.D. Brock, ‘Steady state condition in natural ecosystem is a time independent
condition in which production and consumption of each constituent in the system
is exactly balanced, the concentration of all constituents within the system remains
constant, even though there occurs a continual change.’
There are a number of theories, mechanisms and models to explain the
stability of the ecosystem. The important ones are as follows:
(i) Theory of diversity or stability: If there is diversity of food webs,
it will lead to an increase in number of links in the food web and if
community succession operates in an ecosystem, the stability will
increase.
(ii) Homeostatic mechanism: Inbuilt, self-regulating mechanism is known
as homeostatic mechanism. If within an ecosystem the population of
species increases significantly, the result will be scarcity of food, leading
to competition for food. Most species will die of starvation and the
species population will be brought back to its original value and the
stability will be restored.
(iii) Models:The equilibrium, as well as non-equilibrium model can explain
stability. Thus, if the ecosystem is disturbed by external factors, it may
quickly return to its original state by some adjustments, restoring the
stability. However, if it does not return to its original state, the disordered
arrangement might lead to cross-relationships and make the system
stable.
Issues Affecting Ecological Equilibrium: Ecological factors
In an ecosystem, a living organism is influenced by a large number of environmental
factors. These environmental factors are known as ecological factors or eco-factors.
These factors may be biotic (living) or abiotic (non-living). All the environmental
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Ecological Balance factors bring marked distributional, structural and functional changes in organisms.
To live, grow and carry out all its activities, an organism requires a harmonious
relationship with its immediate environment. The differences in vegetation of a
desert and a rain forest, fish in sweet water and saline water, animals in tropical
NOTES countries and cold countries, clearly indicate the role of environmental factors in
the distribution and survival of organisms in different eco-systems.
The organisms subjected to diurnal, seasonal, annual and cyclic relations of
the environment, develop strategies to cope with these changes for their survival.
Only those which are able to cope with the conditions, remain and those who
cannot, become extinct.
The ecological factors can be classified into the following:
1. Climatic factors: (i) light (ii) temperature (iii) nature (iv) rainfall (v)
wind (vi) humidity (vii) atmospheric gases (viii) pH
A variation in these factors affects the distribution and lifestyle of organisms.
2. Topographic factors: (i) altitude (ii) slope and direction of mountain
chain and valleys.
3. Edaphic factors: Structure, formation and characteristics of different
types of soils.
4. Biotic factors: Biotic factors are derived from the interactions between
different species of life (intra-specific as well as inter-specific). The
different species mentioned here are plants, micro-organisms and
animals.
5. Limiting factors: Denote the amount of substance that is either least
abundant or over abundant in relation to the need of the living organism.
Climatic factors

(i) Light
Light plays a vital role for both plants and animals. Sunlight is the ultimate source
of energy for the biological world. Light is highly essential for photosynthesis,
plays an important role in respiration and transpiration, regulates hormones in
plants thereby modifying the shape and size and influences the growth and
development of flowers, fruits, germination and distribution of plants. As far as
animals are concerned, light influences reproduction and metabolism.
(ii) Heat
Like light, heat exerts a profound influence on the physiological and biochemical
activities of organisms. Generally, organisms prefer to conduct their activities in a
temperature region of 4°C to 45°C. The physiological effects of temperature are
the mineral absorption in plants, water intake, growth, germination in plants and
distribution, migration, hibernation and reproductive activities in animals. Both plants
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and animals exhibit morphological, ecological and physiological adaptation to the Ecological Balance

variation in temperature. The biochemical effects are due to enzymes and hormonal
changes and are related to the temperature.
(iii) Water NOTES
Water is one of the most important materials necessary for life. All the physiological
processes take place in water. The availability of water in an ecosystem affects the
distribution, growth and other activities of its organisms.
(iv) Rainfall
Rainfall (precipitation) determines the type of vegetation in any region. Tropical
regions support thick evergreen forests as it experiences heavy rainfall throughout
the year. Grasslands are found in regions where there is heavy rainfall in summer
and low rainfall in winter. Due to changes in vegetation, animals and birds in various
regions also differ.
(v) Wind
Wind brings physical, anatomical and physiological changes to plants. Excessive
transpiration due to wind leads to desiccation and death of apical meristems. Thus,
the plants become dwarf, contain small leaves and more branches. On the
mountains, due to the danger of uprooting, the vegetation is composed of species
having prostrate growth, with long underground roots. This is known as growth of
rhizome type.
(vi) Humidity
The physiological activities of organisms, like transpiration, absorption of water,
etc., are greatly influenced by humidity. Thus, humidity plays an important role in
the life of plants and animals.
(vii) Atmospheric gases
Gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour and inert gases are
essential for sustaining life. However, gases like sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen
dioxide (NO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and smoke particles from the industries
have a major influence on the environment and lead to various physiological changes
in plants and animals.
(viii) pH
pH can be a deciding factor in aquatic ecosystem, as far as distribution of organisms
is concerned. For aquatic animals as well as for organisms on land, the pH should
not be too acidic or too alkaline. For every species, there is an optimum pH level
at which they can survive. Large scale industrialization and the discharge of effluents
into water bodies or the soil change the pH level to a great extent, endangering the
lives of organisms.
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Ecological Balance Topographic factors
The physical geographical factors are known as topographic factors. These factors
include altitude, slope and direction of mountain chains and valleys. All these factors
NOTES affect the climatic conditions of a place and thereby influence the distribution of
organisms. With rise in altitude, there is progressive fall in temperature and as we
go higher, with a decrease in temperature there is greater activity of the wind. A
decrease in soil temperature reduces the absorption of water and nutrients by the
plants. In higher altitudes, the atmospheric pressure and decreased concentration
of oxygen affects animals, particularly mammals. The slope and direction of
mountain chains have a pronounced effect on the amount of solar radiation, rainfall,
wind velocity, temperature and on the whole, the climate of the area. This, in turn,
affects vegetation patterns and thus, the distribution of animals.
Edaphic factors
Edaphic factors deal with the structure formation and characteristics of different
types of soils.
Soil provides mechanical anchorage to plants and holds water and mineral
ions for the plants. They provide a basis for the activities of micro-organisms and
animals. Soil contains organic and inorganic colloids, electrolytes, organic matter
and soil organism. Soil water forms the lifeline of soil organisms, since proper
growth of micro-organisms and invertebrate population within the soil occurs in
soil containing adequate moisture. Water is a solvent for the organic nutrients as
well as minerals and thus, its contents regulate the physiological, morphological
and anatomical features of plants.
Air, found in soil pores, contains CO2, O2, and N2 while their quantity differs
from soil to soil. Soil air is a very important edaphic factor that determines the
types of micro-organisms, soil animals and vegetation that can grow in the soil.
Similar to soil water, it also brings about morphological, physiological and
anatomical changes in plants and animals. The temperature of the soil is very
important as it affects the growth of microorganisms, plants and animals. The
temperature influences growth of the roots, the ability of the roots to absorb nutrients
and movement of organisms.
Soil pH and salinity are also important because when the pH of the soil is
very high (highly alkaline) grows on the soil no vegetation. Soil organisms like
bacteria, fungi, algae and animals like protozoa, nematodes, earthworms modify
the structure of the soil, increase soil fertility, and help to form humus. Nitrogen
fixing bacteria and blue-green algae fix atmospheric nitrogen and increase soil
fertility. Thus, a change in any of the soil constituents will have a tremendous effect
on the whole.

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Biotic factors Ecological Balance

The living components (animals and plants) of the environment are considered as
biotic factors. Organisms in the environment interact among themselves and this
may be intra-specific (between populations of same organism) or inter-specific NOTES
(between populations of different species). Some of the interactions are mutually
beneficial while some are beneficial to only one species without harming the others
or by harming the others. These interactions are very essential for the occurrence
of the biotic factors.
Based on the nature of the influence, these interactions can be classified as
follows:
(i) Symbiosis
In symbiosis, two different species depend upon each other metabolically and
thus, are mutually benefitted. The species are known as symbionts. For example,
Rhizobium bacteria and leguminous roots are the symbionts. In this case, the
bacteria get protective space to live in and derive readymade food from leguminous
roots. The leguminous roots, on the other hand, utilize the fixed nitrogen in the
bacteria to manufacture proteins.
(ii) Commensalism
In this case, one species is benefited while the other either benefits or remains
neutral. The members are called the commensals and this association, is known
as commensalism. For example, some algae and fungi join together to form a
different life form known as lichens. The algae manufacture food through
photosynthesis, which the fungi utilize and in return, the fungi protects the algae
from drying up and together both colonize tree barks, rocks, etc. Some terrestrial
insects and marine animals share the nest or burrow of others without causing any
damage to it.
(iii) Parasitism
In this case, there are two different species, i.e., one is the parasite and the other,
host. In this relationship, it is the parasite that is benefited and the host harmed.
The two different species may be two plants or animals; for example, mosquitoes,
bedbugs, lice are the parasites which live on hosts like animal and man, harming
them.
(iv) Epiphytism
In this case, epiphytes grow on other plants, but do not derive food from them;
for example, Lianas, a woody plant has roots in the ground but takes the support
of other plants to climb.
Some carnivorous plants, like Nepenthes, a pitcher plant, grows on other
plants but derives food from insects. They have folded leaf lamina, modified into a
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Ecological Balance pitcher-like structure with a lid. Zooplankton enters into the structure through the
lid, gets trapped and the soft parts of its body gets digested by the Nepenthes.
(v) Competition
NOTES Organisms survive on some materials and if these are found inadequate, competition
occurs. This competition may be both intra-specific and inter-specific. This leads
to the survival or dominance of certain species over others. As all species cannot
tolerate same range of temperature, humidity, etc., only those who can, survive.
Limiting factors
Limiting factors denote the amount of substance that is either least abundant or
overabundant in relation to the need of the living organism. Limiting factors may
be density dependent, for example, when the food stock is fixed for a given density
of population, overpopulation will lead to scarcity of food. Limiting factor may be
density independent, for example, earthquake or tsunami may wipe out an entire
population irrespective of whether there are few or many. The density independent
limiting factors affecting living organisms may be abiotic factors like climate, soil,
wind, temperature, water, etc., or other biotic factors. Some climatic conditions
may not be tolerable to certain species and might reduce their population, or in
extreme cases, make them extinct. If the soil does not have proper amount of
nutrients, air and moisture, the plants will not prepare balanced and sufficient amount
of food to support animal life, reducing their population. Biotic factors are the
most important limiting factors that influence the growth and distribution of plants
and animals.
Laws of limiting factors
To explain the effect of different limiting factors on living organisms, number of
laws and principles have been proposed by different scientists. They are as follows:
1. Liebig’s Law of Minimum: An organism requires minimum quantity of a
particular nutrient for its proper growth and if it is depicted below the critical
minimum level, the organism will fail to grow or will grow abnormally; for
example, if the soil is deficient in any one nutrient, it will make the other
nutrient metabolically inactive and the proper growth of the plant will get
restricted.
2. Blackman’s Law of Limiting Factor: A biological process is controlled
by a number of factors and the deficiency of any of these factors will affect
the process on the whole; for example, photosynthesis by plants.
Photosynthesis is dependent on the correct amount of water, carbon dioxide,
chlorophyll, intensity of solar radiation and temperature of chloroplast. A
deficiency of any of these factors will affect the rate of photosynthesis.
3. Shelford’s Law of Tolerance: The law states that, it is not only that the
minimum amount of a material can be a limiting factor, but also the excess
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 amount of the same material can be limiting to the growth and development Ecological Balance

of an organism; for example, all the soil nutrients are equally important for
the growth and development of plants, but anything in excess might limit the
uptake of the other nutrient, restricting the proper growth. Every organism,
thus, has an ecological minimum and maximum for every factor and the NOTES
range between two limits is known as limit or zone of tolerance. Thus, every
environmental factor has two zones:
(i) Zone of tolerance (ii) Zone of intolerance
(i) Zone of tolerance: This zone is favourable for the growth and
development of all organisms. Zone of tolerance can be sub-divided
into the following (see Figure 2.1):
(a) Optimum zone: It is the most favourable zone for the growth
and development of an organism.
(b) Critical minimum zone: It is the lowest minimum limit below
which growth and development of the organism ceases.
(c) Critical maximum zone: It is the highest maximum limit above
which growth and development of the organism ceases.
(ii) Zone of intolerance: Tolerance with respect to various factors differs
from species to species. Organisms that have a wide range of tolerance
for all factors have a better chance of survival, and hence, are widely
distributed.

Fig 2.1 Range of Tolerance

Ecological instability
When an ecosystem is unable to adjust to the environmental changes, it is said to
be unstable. The instability occurs due to a number of natural and anthropogenic
activities such as destruction of natural vegetation and animal species, partly or
completely or by replacing them by other vegetations and animals, introduction of
toxic substances like insecticides and pesticides and toxic gases like
SO2, NO2, etc.
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Ecological Balance 2.2.1 Environment and Culture
Culture is significant for many things, for instance climate. Each nation has its own
way of life. Culture is more than just about language, conventional garments,
NOTES nourishments, or perhaps dance. Culture assumes a main part in forming a nation’s
climate. For instance, everywhere in the world plastic packs are used for packing
many things like food, garments, etc. Plastic bags are not favourable for our current
world situation in which the environment is facing a high level of pollution and
degradation as plastic does not disintegrate. Thus many countries have put a ban
on single-use plastic and have advertised for using paper bags and other
alternatives. In such countries, forbidding the use of plastic has become a basic
way of life. This shows that how culture shapes people’s mentalities towards the
climate.
Climate place in contemporary talk of culture can be analyzed from two
wide viewpoints: one is more extensive civilizational buildings of humanity and the
other is regular social life in a given society. Endeavours to associate a country’s
social accomplishment to a specific climate have been made for quite a while. For
example, an Arab researcher in the medieval times noticed that the individuals of
northern Europe had been so influenced by the outrageous separation from the
sun that they started to develop fair skin tone and ‘mental visual impairment’.
During the time of European strength around the world, climate turned into a
significant topic of discussion and force. In the eighteenth century Europe, a desire
for creating racial classification in accordance with the ecological variables prompted
the development of the hypothesis of ‘climatic determinism’. This hypothesis was
promoted by the compositions of a French scholarly, Montesquieu, who stated
that individuals in hot atmosphere would feel both physical and mental issues more
enthusiastically than the occupants in the cold areas. He contended that the
individuals in the previous locales were anxious and wild, thus a solid tyrannical
guideline was more fitting for them, though the individuals in the chilly districts
were inconsistently fit to a more equitable request. Climatic determinism was before
long supplanted by ‘organic determinism’ whose advocates, for the most part
known as Social Darwinists, contended that Europeans of the nineteenth century
had a predominant function over the Non-European world since they were
organically prevalent, showing a reverberation of the confidence in ‘natural
selection’ in the regular world. In the 20th century, especially in the post-WWII
period, the scholarly act of partner race with climate lost ground and a more
unique understanding of nature surfaced. On account of close cooperation between
individuals’ regular social life and their indigenous habitat, Ibn Khaldun was perhaps
the most punctual researcher who, while inspecting the social existence of the
Arab Bedouins, looked to discover linkages between a specific way of life and
the actual climate in which it prospered. In contempory times an auxiliary of Social
Darwinism advanced the theory that humans are different from other living creatures
in the world and their conduct should be represented by natural drives and senses.
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Subsequently, fighting and viciousness were compared to ‘forceful sense’, mass Ecological Balance

conduct to the ‘grouping nature’ and homemaking to the ‘settling intuition’.

In the mid-20th century, the natural talk of culture was gradually supplanted
by mental clarifications. Behaviourists argued heredity or ‘intuition’ as results of
NOTES
social acts of person, and contended that the behaviours of individuals was directed
by the events in their actual climate. While nature’s impact on both civilizational
and past social examples has been valued, the weakness of nature itself has not
been analyzed enough in its connection with culture; nature simply represented the
changelessness that should be penetrable through existence. It is without a doubt,
as of late that the social ecological discussion has been educated more by a sense
regarding weakness of nature than by its apparent supremacy. Along these lines, a
staggering feeling of weakness of humankind in the wake of natural corruption has
added to the rise of differed, pluralist and infinitesimal investigation of connection
among climate and culture
Influence of Culture and Environment on an Individual’s Life
Various authors have given different meanings of culture, with the hint of culture as
a lifestyle of people. E.B. Taylor, an eighteenth-century anthropologist who instituted
the term, characterized culture as “that perplexing entirety which incorporates
information, convictions, workmanship, ethics, laws, custom and some other abilities
and propensities as needed by man as a citizen” (White, 1959). The term climate
alludes to the environmental factors where we live. Culture and climate cooperate
in the respect that culture changes all around. Different gatherings of individuals
with various societies can likewise occupy a similar climate or topographical area.
Social and ecological factors straightforwardly influence a person’s life, for example,
well-being, information, and sociological and monetary pursuits.
Culture and climate influence well-being, which is fundamental to one’s life.
These impacts decide factors, for example, admittance to quality medical care just
as specific highlights of the climate, lodging, clean water supply, and clean air.
Social qualities like emphasis on sound living, through measures, for example, the
arrangement of good medical care and clean water, guarantee people remain
healthy. An absence of these qualities would conceivably cause disintegration of
well-being in the populace because of breakout and spread of infections and
diseases. Healthy people are progressively beneficial. Along these lines, well-being
which is influenced by climate and culture, plays a significant role in an individual’s
life.
One’s information is additionally dependent upon social and ecological
influences. Information includes viewpoints such as thoughts, values, convictions,
abilities, and ethics which are integral to any culture. Similarly, explicit information
exists in the natural angle, where an individual’s current circumstances are seen as
far as geological area. For instance, higher aptitude would be pervasive in the
people living in a mountainous region rather than the ones living near water bodies,
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Ecological Balance for example, lakes and seas. Thus, culture is fundamental in the dispersal of
information, where a thought or an idea of a person impacts others and a person’s
information is liable to be impacted by culture and climate.
The connection between culture and climate impacts sociological
NOTES
perspectives, for example, decision of living space and monetary pursuits. This is
basic among little and “crude” social orders where such decisions rely upon the
climate. For instance, Eskimos in the Arctic area live in snow houses because of
their cold climate and thus setting up their culture accordingly. Nomads are more
inclined to endeavours of acquiring food supply in the area they live for a particular
period of time. In this way, setting up societies and the culture in accordance with
the climate impact these people.
The interactive nature of culture and environment influences various aspects
of humans such as health, education, and means of living like habitat and economic
activity. These factors directly affect one’s quality of life and outlook towards life.
Health is a major determinant of an individual’s efficiency in goal-oriented activity,
while knowledge puts one in a favourable position to pursue certain interests, as
well as find solutions to challenges. Social choices such as habitat and economic
activities also affect an individual’s life experience. Culture and environment are
therefore important factors which influence aspects that affect one’s life.
Impact of Environmental Change on Human Well-being
Human prosperity is subject to products and ventures resulted from well-working
biological systems. Changes in biological system status and trustworthiness can
subsequently affect the human prosperity. In any case, neither the effect of current
biological system nor the strategies to strengthen environment administrations
consolidate techniques to evaluate the effects of changes in environment on the
well-being and prosperity of humans. Changes in these parts of social relations
can have a stream of effects on social capital, informal organizations, levels of trust
and physical and emotional well-being. Changes in environment condition may
likewise have more straightforward effects on human wellbeing through bacterial
pollution of recreational waters, the presence of poisons in fish, or through the
presence of harmful algal blossoming in recreational waters. A State’s revenue is
influenced by the changes in water bodies’ environment, which may be due to
fishing, hydroponics and the travel industry businesses.
Humans affect the vast majority of the world’s biological systems today and
are liable for overseeing a large portion of the world’s resources. Regardless of
our expanding attention to the negative effects that a large number of our exercises
have on these environments, as a tradition we have been proceeding with utilizing
regular resources at a quicker rate than they are replenished. One reason for this
is that people in general oversee frameworks on the basis of benefit they could get
from them. This advantage has customarily been estimated in terms of
monetary value.
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 Ecological Balance

Check Your Progress

1. What are eco-factors?
2. What is climatic determinism? NOTES

2.3 CONSERVATION

Air, minerals, soil, trees, water and wildlife are earth’s natural resources.
Conservation is about taking care of these natural resources so that they can be
available in their pristine condition for the future generation. Nature conservation
includes maintaining diversity of species, genes, and ecosystems along with the
functions of the environment, such as nutrient cycling. It focuses on the sustainable
use of nature and its resources by humans. In this section we will study about
various methods to conserve nature. This will begin with individual measures and
will be followed by global conventions that have been entered upon.
2.3.1 Individual Measures
Different natural resources like forests, water, soil, food, mineral and energy
resources play a vital role in the development of a nation. With our small individual
efforts we can help in conserving our natural resources to a large extent. The
following are some of the ways:
Conservation of water
1. Do not keep water taps running while brushing, shaving, washing or bathing.
2. Fill water in washing machines only upto the level required.
3. Install water-saving toilets that use not more than six litres per flush.
4. Check for water leaks in pipes and toilets and repair them promptly.
5. Reuse the soapy water of washing from clothes for gardening, driveways,
etc.
6. Water the plants and the lawns in the evening when evaporation losses are
minimum. Never water the plants in mid-day.
7. Install a system to capture rain water.
Conservation of energy
1. Turn off lights, fans and other appliances, when not in use.
2. Obtain as much heat as possible from natural sources. Dry the clothes in
sun instead of using dryers.
3. Use solar cooker for cooking, which will make the food more nutritious
and will save your LPG expenses.
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Ecological Balance 4. Build your house with provision for sunspace, which will keep your house
warmer and will provide more light.
5. Drive less, make fewer trips and use public transportations whenever
possible. Share a carpool if possible.
NOTES
6. Control the use of air conditioners.
7. Recycle and reuse glass, metals and paper.
8. Use bicycle or just walk down small distances instead of using an automobile.
Protection of soil
1. Grow different types of ornamental plants, herbs and trees in your garden.
2. Grow grass in the open areas that will bind the soil and prevent its erosion.
3. Make compost from your kitchen waste and use it for your kitchen-garden.
4. Do not irrigate the plants using a strong flow of water as it would wash off
the soil.
5. Better use sprinkling irrigation.
Promotion of sustainable agriculture
1. Do not waste food; take as much as you can eat.
2. Reduce the use of pesticides.
3. Fertilize your crops with organic fertilizers.
4. Use drip irrigation.
5. Eat local and seasonal vegetables.
6. Control pests.
2.3.2 Reduce, Reuse and Recycle
The role of each individual human is important for collective action to save the
planet and its resources before it is too late. Each individual needs to adopt
sustainable ways and propagate the same around him or her. The principle or
‘reduce, reuse, recycle’ needs to be followed, for which people need to change
their attitudes, that is, discard the ‘use and throw’ mentality and adopt an eco-
friendly lifestyle. Some of the steps that an individual can take are as follows:
Reduce
Buy less: Before buying a product, one must think if it is really necessary, in other
words, ‘think before you buy’. This is because the production of each item has an
impact on the environment in terms of resources used in making it. Also, when it is
discarded, it adds to the waste, and its disposal has an impact on the environment.
Many items, especially electronics, batteries, etc., have toxic chemicals, which are
hazardous.
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 Ecological Balance

NOTES

Fig 2.2 Conservation of Resources

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Ecological Balance Say no to disposable items: As much as possible, avoid disposable items like
Styrofoam plates and cups, use-and throw pens and razors, paper napkins. Instead
use reusable products. It also better to use rechargeable batteries, which can be
used again and again. They not only reduce the harm to the environment, they also
NOTES save money in the long run.
Buy and sell used products: Buying and selling second-hand items like books,
furniture, electronics saves the earth’s resources and the consumer’s money. These
can be bought from local sellers or through the Internet.
Minimize waste: This can be done by buying only as much as necessary, avoiding
products with excessive packaging, avoiding products that are packaged for single
use and buying in bulk.
Say no to plastic bags: Carry your own reusable shopping bag when going to
the market. Plastic shopping bags are a major source of trash around the world. It
is estimated that about 500 billion-1 trillion plastic bags are used worldwide every
year, out of which less than 1 per cent is recycled. Plastic bags end up in trash
dumps and in water bodies like rivers, lakes and oceans. They choke drains and
because of their toxic composition, they poison the water and soil. They also kill
animals who swallow them, mistaking them for food. A large number of marine
animals like whales, dolphins, turtles and seals die due to plastic bags.
Reduce energy use at home and workplace: Turn off lights, air conditioners,
fans and appliances when not in use. Use energy-saving CFL (compact fluorescent
lamps) instead of regular incandescent bulbs, which waste a lot of energy. Check
for the energy-star ratings before buying electronics. Use natural light during the
day instead of electric lamps. Wear extra warm clothing during winter rather than
turn up the heating. In summer, open the windows to let in the breeze instead of
using the air conditioner. Use solar cookers.
Save fuel: Avoid the use of car for travelling short distances. Use public transport
as much as possible. Form carpools for going to work, school or college. Walk or
cycle short distances.
Reduce the use and wastage of water: Avoid long showers; use bucket for
bathing. Do not let taps run while brushing, shaving, bathing or washing. Use low-
flush toilets and check for water leaks in pipes and toilets and repair them promptly.
Reuse
Many of the products we discard and throw away can be reused directly or
indirectly in some other way. For example, plastic containers can be used for
storing food items, bottles can be used to store water, while old clothes can be
given away to charity or used to make shopping bags or mops, etc. Instead of
throwing away electronic items, they can be repaired and reused. Alternatively,
they can be given away to someone who needs it.

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 Here are several ways to reuse: Ecological Balance

 Donate (and buy used) household items like clothes, furniture, dishes,
appliances and electronic items.
 Buy and sell used books and magazines, or donate to libraries. NOTES
 There are NGOs, food banks and soup kitchens that collect food items
that are left over from parties and events.
 Buy long-lasting and durable products.
 Save paper by printing only when necessary. Use both sides of paper
— for writing or printing documents from your computer. Blank pages
from used notebooks can be used for making new notebooks. Used
paper can be stapled together to make note-pads.
Recycle
 Kitchen waste such as fruit and vegetable peels and garden waste like leaves
can be composted in a pit or bin to make manure.
 Recycle electronics such as mobiles. Many companies have takeback
schemes or drop-off facilities, where old mobile phones can be given away
for recycling.
 The following products/materials can be recycled:
o glass
o paper products
o Plastic containers
o aluminium
o cardboard
o tin cans
o scrap metal
o ink cartridges
o household appliances such as refrigerators
o computer equipment and other electronic devices
o styrofoam
o tyres
 Hazardous products such as the following need to be recycled or disposed
of properly:
o Paint, varnish, paint thinner, etc.
o Automotive products like engine oil, brake fluid, kerosene, used motor
oil, used oil filters, used antifreeze, etc.

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Ecological Balance
o Chemicals products used in the house such as stain removers, bathroom
cleaners, mosquito repellents and insect sprays, CFLs (contain mercury),
batteries, acids, etc.
NOTES o Garden products like insect killers, weed killers, fertilizers and pesticides
 Reuse water: Collect rainwater and use it for watering plants or washing
car. Soapy water from the washing machine can be used for mopping floors
and washing cars.
2.3.3 Global Conventions for Environmental Conservation
In the 1970s, it was realized that there were ‘limits to growth’. If growth continued
unbridled at the existing rates, it was asserted that it would exhaust the limited
stock of natural resources of the earth. Although technological innovations have
contributed in pushing outwards the ‘limits to growth’, it is now being argued that
the limits must be evaluated in terms of the ‘carrying capacity’ of the environment.
There is a consensus over the fact that growth without commensurate efforts at
environmental protection will pose a global threat. The international community
has responded to this perceived threat and environmental protection and sustainable
development concerns are now on a high priority of the international agenda.
The last century has seen a proliferation of international legal instruments—
declarations and agreements—aimed at environmental protection. Whereas
declarations are more general in nature, containing a general commitment to the
environmental protection without being legally binding, agreements contain binding
obligations for the member states and deal with specific issues relating to particular
environmental problems.
On various occasions, the highest representatives of states and governments
have got together at international conferences on environmental protection and
development. The basic principles for environmental protection, such as the
precautionary principle, the polluter pays principle and the principle of sustainable
development, etc., have also taken shape. Moreover, an international structure
has been put in place, which is devoted to furthering the objective of environmental
protection. There is also talk of setting up a centralized world body—a World
Environment Organization (WEO)—to address the problems of environment.
However, despite the intensified efforts at the international level, there are numerous
challenges that must be met in order to allow these initiatives to be successful in
their endeavour.
Various environmental problems have been identified, some related to the
conservation of natural resources and ecosystems, such as forests, wildlife,
biodiversity, wetlands, migratory species, etc. These issues put a question mark
on how much the earth can give. Other issues relate to ensuring that we stay within
the limits of the ‘carrying capacity’ of the environment. These issues, mostly relating
to ozone depletion, global warming, hazardous wastes, persistent organic pollutants

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(POPs), hazardous chemicals, genetically modified organisms (GMOs),
atmospheric pollution, marine pollution, etc., relate to the basic question of how
much the earth can take. Because of the diversity of environmental problems, the
legal regime at the international level is necessarily fragmented, with over 200
Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) each dealing with different NOTES
environmental problems.
The basic principles of environment management are increasingly being
incorporated into the political constitutions since the Stockholm Conference on
Human Environment held in 1972. The Stockholm Conference has taken issues
such as proper use of natural reserves, environmental development as well as
ecological pollution into consideration and they have found expression in the
constitutional form. These are often articulated in terms of obligations which are
stated clearly to its citizens. Moreover, a duty is often imposed on citizens to
safeguard the national environment. Most of the developing countries exhibit this
constitutional trend.
National and International Legislations
A survey of national environmental legislation reveals an important range of judicial
mechanism for environmental management. These include anti-pollution laws, the
codification of environmental and natural resources laws, and framework of
legislations.
Like national legislations, there is no international legislative body with the
authority to pass legislations, nor are there international agencies with the power
to regulate resources on a global scale. The International Court at Hague in the
Netherlands has no power to enforce its decisions. Powerful nations can simply
ignore the Court. As a result, international legislation must depend on the agreement
of the parties concerned.
Certain issues of multinational concern are addressed by a collection of
policies, agreement and treaties that are loosely called International Environmental
Legislations. Most of the international legislations are international agreements to
which nations adhere voluntarily. These agreements are generally finalized through
international conventions or treaties. Nations that have agreed to be bound by the
conventions are known as Parties. Convention provides a framework to be
respected by each party, which has to adopt its own national legislations to make
sure that the convention is implemented at the national level. Protocols are framed
to support conventions. It is an international agreement that stands on its own that
is however linked with an existing convention. For example, the climate protocol
shares the concerns and doctrines that are set out at the climate convention.
Followed by this, the protocol builds on these by adding new commitments that
are stronger, more complicated, and comparatively more detailed than those existing
in the convention. The United Nations has a significant role to play in developing
as well as implementing conventions.
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Ecological Balance
Major international environmental legislations exist in the following five areas:
 Pollution of international watercourses
 Marine pollution
NOTES  Atmospheric pollution
 International transfers of hazardous waste
 Risks of nuclear energy
Key International Environmental Treaties

International watercourses
 1992 Helsinki Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary
Water-courses and International Lakes
Marine pollution
 1973 Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL)
 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
 1992 Paris Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the
North-East Atlantic
 1958 Geneva Conventions on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone, the
High Seas, Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High
Seas, and the Continental Shelf
Atmospheric pollution
 1979 ECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
protocols on sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs)
 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (Montreal
Protocol and London and Copenhagen Amendments)
 1992 UN Convention on Climate Change
 Kyoto Protocol
Hazardous waste
 1989 Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of
Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal
 1991 Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the
Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous
Wastes within Africa

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Nuclear energy Ecological Balance

 1986 IAEA Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident

 1986 IAEA Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident
NOTES
 1994 IAEA Convention on Nuclear Safety
Others
 1991 ECE Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a
Transboundary Context
 1992 UN Convention on Biological Diversity
Some Global Environmental Initiatives
One of the favourable initiatives that reversed the catastrophic impact of modern
development on ecology relates to the ozone layer. Depletion of the ozone layer
was confirmed way back in the late 1970s. The depletion resulted in an increased
ultraviolet radiation that causes deadly diseases such as skin cancer. Global action
regarding the same was taken much later in 1985, when the United Nations
organized a convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer in Vienna in 1985.
In a short while, following the convention, satellite images captured ozone holes
over the Antarctic that grabbed immense public attention. This issue prompted the
Montreal Protocol of 1987 that resulted as an outgrowth of the Vienna Convention.
The major objective of the Montreal Protocol was to impose obligations on the
developed countries to reduce the use of ozone depleting substances.
Much later when the causal effects of the CFCs were proved, the 1990
London Protocol was organized which took effect and agreed upon to reduce the
CFC levels largely by 85 per cent by 1997. According to the London Protocol,
countries with developing economies agreed to take on accountability with a grace
period. The developed countries underwrote a trust fund of US $ 240 million to
assist them.
The resultant effect was a considerable reduction in the atmospheric
concentrations of ozone-depletion followed by an eventual improvement of the
same. The issue of the ozone layer was much easier to handle than other issues
such as climate change and biodiversity erosion. The political scenario around the
world also started taking the problem of ozone depletion seriously.
At the national level, the wealthy industrial nations responsible for most of
the production, were also those at the greatest risk from skin cancer. Further, the
production and use of ozone-depleting substances was not central to any
economy—unlike greenhouse gases, whose production is deeply embedded in
the energy and transport sectors.
In spite of a number of hurdles, the United Nations has been at the forefront
in taking initiatives to mitigate the global environmental problems, which are likely
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Ecological Balance to exacerbate if the present trend of economic globalization continues unabated. A
major UN initiative came after the UN Conference on the Human Environment
(UNCHE) in 1972 at Stockholm. As you know, the United Nations Environmental
Programme (UNEP) was created in 1972 ‘to provide leadership and encourage
NOTES partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations
and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future
generations’.
The UNEP initiative, however, remained dormant for almost two decades
until early 1990s. There was growing concern about global warming. Under global
pressure, the UN Convention on Climate Change was adopted in 1992. In 1997,
the Kyoto Protocol was signed which called for industrial countries to reduce
emissions by 5.2 per cent, compared to 1990 levels, by 2008–2012. But the US,
which is responsible for one-fourth of the world’s total carbon emission, refused
to ratify the Kyoto Protocol on the ground that the developing countries were
exempted. The developing countries, on the other hand, demanded that the
‘polluting’ North pay costs and transfer resources to compensate for the losses
suffered by them. The carbon convention is a positive step in this direction.
The UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in
Rio de Janeiro in 1992 is seen as a landmark in evolving a blueprint for the 21st
Century. The Commission for Sustainable Development (CSD) was established
in 1992. Though, Global Environmental Facility (GEF) was established in 1991, it
was restructured in 1994, in the light of developments and conventions since the
Rio Conference. Recognizing the importance of biodiversity for the survival of life,
including human life on the earth, and sharing concern over the loss of biodiversity
by unprecedented levels since 1980s, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
was convened in 1992, and among other things, it reaffirmed sovereign rights of
the states over their natural resources and agreed to establish a fund through GEF
to pay for the use of genetic resources of developing countries.
Unlike the initiative on ozone layer, the progress on other major environmental
issues like climate change and biodiversity is very tardy. It appears that while
economic globalization seems to be increasingly embedded in strong institutional
support systems, ‘ecological globalization’ seen in terms of challenges to sustainable
development is still in search of empowered institutional support. At least two
shortcomings are discernible. First, the process of global environmental threat is
not accompanied by any strong political support. As a result, no political leader
has any interest to ensure that the emerging global ecological policy is managed in
the best interest of the maximum number of people and on the basis of the principles
of ‘good governance’, that is, equality, justice and democracy.
Second, there is no clear and transparent mechanism to integrate the two
processes of economic and ecological globalization. But nations are doing so
individually, often in a covert manner, through the positions they take to set the
rules for the two processes of globalization. When the leaders of nation states
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meet to develop rules and regulations for economic globalization, they take positions Ecological Balance

to derive the maximum economic benefits for their national economies. When they
meet to develop the rules and regulations for ecological globalization, they take
positions which ensure that there would be either no costs or, at worst, least possible
costs to their individual national economies. NOTES
As a result of these two shortcomings, the rules and regulations that are
emerging generally tend to be based on the principles of business transactions
rather than on the principles of ‘good governance’. Environmental diplomacy has
turned into petty business transactions, and not the establishment of fair and just
global environmental governance systems. While business transactions are built
on the principles of mutual benefits regardless of their societal costs, governance
systems are built on the principles of democracy, justice and equality.
For international environmental negotiations that deal with pollution or
degradation, global equity is of utmost importance. The issue of equity has become
a very contentious one in environmental diplomacy. Equity is a prerequisite for
global agreement, and environmental cooperation can only be possible through
solutions that are both equitable and ‘ecologically effective’. Without equity or a
sense of fair play it is quite unlikely that there will be a long lasting partnership to
address and solve global problems. Global equity is particularly important in global
environmental negotiations which deal with the pollution or degradation of global
common property, such as the stratospheric ozone layer, the atmosphere or the
oceans. So far, these common property resources are seen as free access
resources—a situation that aided the industrialization process of early entrants.

2.4 GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

The phenomenon that worries the environmental scientists is that due to

anthropogenic activities, there is an increase in the concentration of the greenhouse
gases in the air that absorbs infra-red light containing heat and results in the re-
radiation of much of the outgoing thermal infra-red energy, thereby increasing the
average surface temperature beyond 15°C. The phenomenon is referred to as the
enhanced greenhouse effect to distinguish its effect from the one that has been
operating naturally for millennia. The greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide,
chlorofluorocarbons, methane and nitrous oxide. These are the greenhouse gases
present in the troposphere which result in an increase in the temperature of air and
earth.
Impacts of Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
The enhanced greenhouse effect will not only cause global warming, but will also
affect various other climatic and natural processes.
1. Global temperature increase: It is estimated that the earth’s mean
temperature will rise between 1.5 to 5.5 °C by 2050, if inputs of greenhouse
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Ecological Balance gases continues to rise at the present rate. Even at the lower value, earth
would be warmer than it has been for the past 10,000 years.
2. Rise in sea level: With the increase in global temperature, sea water will
expand. Heating will melt the polar ice sheets and glaciers, resulting in further
NOTES
rise in the sea level. Current models indicate that an increase in the average
atmospheric temperature of 3°C would raise the average global sea level
by 0.2-1.5 metres over the next 50-100 years. One metre rise in sea level
will inundate low-lying areas of cities like Shanghai, Cairo, Bangkok, Sydney,
Hamburg and Venice, as well as agricultural lowlands and deltas in Egypt,
Bangladesh, India and China. This will affect rice productivity. This will also
disturb many commercially important spawning grounds, and would probably
increase the frequency of storm damage to lagoons, estuaries and coral
reefs.
In India, the Lakshadweep Islands with a maximum height of 4 metres above
the sea level is vulnerable. Some of the cities like Mumbai may be saved by
heavy investment on embankments to prevent inundation. Life of millions of
people who have built homes in the deltas of Ganges, the Nile, the Mekong,
the Yangtze and the Mississippi rivers will be affected, by the sea level rise.
3. Effects on human health: The global warming will lead to changes in the
rainfall pattern in many areas, thereby affecting the distribution of vector-
borne diseases like malaria, filariasis and elephantiasis. Areas which are
presently free from diseases like malaria may become the breeding ground
for the vectors of such diseases. The areas likely to be affected in this manner
are Ethiopia, Kenya and Indonesia. Warmer temperature and more water
stagnation will favour breeding of mosquitoes, snails and some insects, which
are the vectors of such diseases.
Higher temperature and humidity will increase/aggravate respiratory and
skin diseases.
4. Effects on agriculture: There are different views regarding the effect of
global warming on agriculture. It may show positive or negative effects on
various types of crops in different regions of the world. Tropical and
subtropical regions will be more affected since the average temperature in
these regions is already on the higher side. Even a rise of 2°C may be quite
harmful to crops. Soil moisture will decrease and evapo-transpiration will
increase, which may drastically affect wheat and maize production. Increase
in temperature and humidity will increase pest growth like the growth of
vectors for various diseases. Pests will adapt to such changes better than
the crops. To cope up with the changing situation, drought resistant, heat
resistant and pest resistant varieties of crops have to be developed.

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 Ecological Balance

Check Your Progress

3. What do you mean by conservation?
4. Name some renewable resources of energy. NOTES
5. What is the difference between declarations and agreements?
6. What change was brought over by the Stockholm Conference for
environmental protection?
7. Name the areas that are covered by the major international environmental
legislations.
8. What was the purpose behind the creation of the United Nations
Environmental Programme?
9. What is enhanced greenhouse effect?

2.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. In an ecosystem, a living organism is influenced by a large number of

environmental factors. These environmental factors are known as ecological
factors or eco-factors.
2. Climatic determinism is a system of creating racial classification in accordance
with the ecological variables. This hypothesis was promoted by the
compositions of a French scholarly, Montesquieu.
3. Air, minerals, soil, trees, water and wildlife are earth’s natural resources.
Conservation is about taking care of these natural resources so that they
can be available in their pristine condition for the future generation.
4. There are some renewable resources, e.g., solar power, wind power and
geothermal power.
5. Declarations are more general in nature, containing a general commitment
to the environmental protection without being legally binding. Agreements
on the other hand, contain binding obligations for the member states and
deal with specific issues relating to particular environmental problems.
6. Since the Stock Conference in 1972, the basic principles of environmental
protection are increasingly integrated into the political constitutions.
7. The areas covered by major international environmental legislations include
pollution of international water courses, marine pollution, atmospheric
pollution, international transfer of hazardous waste and the power of nuclear
energy.

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Ecological Balance 8. The United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) was created in
1972 ‘to provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the
environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and peoples to
improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations’.
NOTES
9. An increase in the concentration of the greenhouse gases in the air that
absorbs infra-red light containing heat and results in the re-radiation of much
of the outgoing thermal infra-red energy, thereby increasing the average
surface temperature beyond 15°C. The phenomenon is referred to as the
enhanced greenhouse effect.

2.6 SUMMARY

 Ecological balance or stability of the ecosystem implies a balance between

the production and consumption of each component in the ecosystem.
 If there is diversity of food webs, it will lead to an increase in number of
links in the food web and if community succession operates in an ecosystem,
the stability will increase.
 The differences in vegetation of a desert and a rain forest, fish in sweet
water and saline water, animals in tropical countries and cold countries,
clearly indicate the role of environmental factors in the distribution and survival
of organisms in different eco-systems.
 Light plays a vital role for both plants and animals. Sunlight is the ultimate
source of energy for the biological world. Light is highly essential for
photosynthesis, plays an important role in respiration and transpiration,
regulates hormones in plants thereby modifying the shape and size and
influences the growth and development of flowers, fruits, germination and
distribution of plants.
 The physical geographical factors are known as topographic factors. These
factors include altitude, slope and direction of mountain chains and valleys.
All these factors affect the climatic conditions of a place and thereby influence
the distribution of organisms.
 Edaphic factors deal with the structure formation and characteristics of
different types of soils.
 Air, found in soil pores, contains CO2, O2, and N2 while their quantity
differs from soil to soil. Soil air is a very important edaphic factor that
determines the types of micro-organisms, soil animals and vegetation that
can grow in the soil.
 The living components (animals and plants) of the environment are considered
as biotic factors. Organisms in the environment interact among themselves
and this may be intra-specific (between populations of same organism) or
inter-specific (between populations of different species).
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 Limiting factors denote the amount of substance that is either least abundant Ecological Balance

or overabundant in relation to the need of the living organism.

 To explain the effect of different limiting factors on living organisms, number
of laws and principles have been proposed by different scientists – Liebig’s
NOTES
Law of Minimum, Blackman’s Law of Limiting Factor and Shelford’s Law
of Tolerance.
 Culture is significant for many things, for instance climate. Each nation has
its own way of life. Culture is more than just about language, conventional
garments, nourishments, or perhaps dance.
 During the time of European strength around the world, climate turned into
a significant topic of discussion and force. In the eighteenth century Europe,
a desire for creating racial classification in accordance with the ecological
variables prompted the development of the hypothesis of ‘climatic
determinism’.
 Air, minerals, soil, trees, water and wildlife are earth’s natural resources.
Conservation is about taking care of these natural resources so that they
can be available in their pristine condition for the future generation. Nature
conservation includes maintaining diversity of species, genes, and ecosystems
along with the functions of the environment, such as nutrient cycling.
 The principle or ‘reduce, reuse, recycle’ needs to be followed, for which
people need to change their attitudes, that is, discard the ‘use and throw’
mentality and adopt an eco-friendly lifestyle.
 On various occasions, the highest representatives of states and governments
have got together at international conferences on environmental protection
and development. The basic principles for environmental protection, such
as the precautionary principle, the polluter pays principle and the principle
of sustainable development, etc., have also taken shape.
 The basic principles of environment management are increasingly being
incorporated into the political constitutions since the Stockholm Conference
on Human Environment held in 1972. The Stockholm Conference has taken
issues such as proper use of natural reserves, environmental development
as well as ecological pollution into consideration and they have found
expression in the constitutional form.
 Certain issues of multinational concern are addressed by a collection of
policies, agreement and treaties that are loosely called International
Environmental Legislations. Most of the international legislations are
international agreements to which nations adhere voluntarily.
 One of the favourable initiatives that reversed the catastrophic impact of
modern development on ecology relates to the ozone layer. Depletion of
the ozone layer was confirmed way back in the late 1970s. The depletion
resulted in an increased ultraviolet radiation that causes deadly diseases
such as skin cancer. Self-Instructional
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Ecological Balance  In spite of a number of hurdles, the United Nations has been at the forefront
in taking initiatives to mitigate the global environmental problems, which are
likely to exacerbate if the present trend of economic globalization continues
unabated.
NOTES
 Unlike the initiative on ozone layer, the progress on other major environmental
issues like climate change and biodiversity is very tardy. It appears that
while economic globalization seems to be increasingly embedded in strong
institutional support systems, ‘ecological globalization’ seen in terms of
challenges to sustainable development is still in search of empowered
institutional support.
 The phenomenon that worries the environmental scientists is that due to
anthropogenic activities, there is an increase in the concentration of the
greenhouse gases in the air that absorbs infra-red light containing heat and
results in the re-radiation of much of the outgoing thermal infra-red energy,
thereby increasing the average surface temperature beyond 15°C.
 There are different views regarding the effect of global warming on
agriculture. It may show positive or negative effects on various types of
crops in different regions of the world. Tropical and subtropical regions will
be more affected since the average temperature in these regions is already
on the higher side.

2.7 KEY WORDS

 Stability: It is the state of being stable.

 Soil pH: It is a scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of soil.
 Conservation: It is the prevention of wasteful use of a resource.
 Greenhouse gases: These are the gases that absorb and emit radiant
energy within the thermal infrared range, causing the greenhouse effect.

2.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. How does the homeostatic mechanism work in restoring the stability?
2. State the relation between culture and climate of a region.
3. What steps can we take for the protection of soil?
4. What was the 1990 London Protocol?

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Long-Answer Questions Ecological Balance

1. Describe the climatic factors that influence the living organism.

2. What are the limiting factors that affect the ecosystems? Explain with the
laws of limiting factors. NOTES
3. How can the ‘reduce, reuse and recycle’ strategy be applied in conservation?
Explain.
4. Describe the effects of enhanced greenhouse effect.

2.9 FURTHER READINGS

J. Donald Hughes. 2015. What is Environmental History?. London: Wiley.

Chakrabarti, Ranjan. 2020. Critical Themes in Environmental History of India.
New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Agnoletti, Mauro and Simone Neri Serneri. 2014. The Basic Environmental
History. New York: Springer International Publishing.
Isenberg, Andrew Christian. 2014. The Oxford Handbook of Environmental
History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rosencrazz, Armin. 2002. Environmental law & Policy in India. Noida: Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Appadurai, Susila. 2004. Environmental studies. New Delhi: New Century Book
House Pvt Ltd.
Porter, Goreth, Janet Welsh Brown. 2000. Global Environmental politics.
Colorado: Westview Press.

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Global Warming, Ozone
Depletion and Bio
Diversity UNIT 3 GLOBAL WARMING,
OZONE DEPLETION
NOTES
AND BIO DIVERSITY
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Global Warming
3.2.1 Meaning of Climate Change and Global Warming
3.2.2 Measures to Control Global Warming
3.2.3 Climate Change and its Costs
3.3 Ozone Depletion
3.3.1 How it Happens
3.3.2 Halocarbons
3.3.3 International Conventions for Protection of Ozone Layer
3.4 Biodiversity
3.4.1 Threats to Biodiversity
3.4.2 Conservation of Biodiversity
3.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
3.6 Summary
3.7 Key Words
3.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
3.9 Further Readings

3.0 INTRODUCTION

Global warming is the long-term heating of Earth’s climate system observed since
the pre-industrial period (between 1850 and 1900) due to human activities, primarily
fossil fuel burning, which increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth’s
atmosphere. The term is frequently used interchangeably with the term climate
change, though the latter refers to both human- and naturally produced warming
and the effects it has on our planet. It is most commonly measured as the average
increase in Earth’s global surface temperature. Climate change is a long-term change
in the average weather patterns that have come to define Earth’s local, regional
and global climates. These changes have a broad range of observed effects that
are synonymous with the term. Changes observed in Earth’s climate since the
early 20th century are primarily driven by human activities, particularly fossil fuel
burning, which increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth’s atmosphere,
raising Earth’s average surface temperature. The ozone layer is a natural layer of
gas in the upper atmosphere that protects humans and other living things from
harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. Although ozone is present in small
concentrations throughout the atmosphere, most (around 90%) exists in the
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stratosphere, a layer 10 to 50 kilometres above the Earth’s surface. The ozone Global Warming, Ozone
Depletion and Bio Diversity
layer filters out most of the sun’s harmful UV radiation and is therefore crucial to
life on Earth. Scientists discovered in the 1970s that the ozone layer was being
depleted. Atmospheric concentrations of ozone vary naturally depending on
temperature, weather, latitude and altitude, while substances ejected by natural NOTES
events such as volcanic eruptions can also affect ozone levels. However, these
natural phenomena could not explain the levels of depletion observed and scientific
evidence revealed that certain man-made chemicals were the cause. These ozone-
depleting substances were mostly introduced in the 1970s in a wide range of
industrial and consumer applications, mainly refrigerators, air conditioners and fire
extinguishers. Ozone layer depletion causes increased UV radiation levels at the
Earth’s surface, which is damaging to human health. Aquatic life just below the
water’s surface, the basis of the food chain, is particularly adversely affected by
high UV levels. UV rays also affect plant growth, reducing agricultural productivity.
Biodiversity is all the different kinds of life one finds in a region, which include a
variety of animals, plants, fungi, and even microorganisms like bacteria. Each of
these species and organisms work together in ecosystems to maintain equilibrium
and support life. Biodiversity supports everything in nature that we need to survive:
food, clean water, medicine, and shelter. In this unit, we will study in detail about
the global warming, ozone depletion and biodiversity.

3.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Describe the meaning and causes of global warming
 Discuss the factors responsible for and the measures to prevent the climate
change
 Explain the impact of climate change in terms of monetary value
 State the importance and the causes behind the depletion of ozone layer
 Describe the levels and principles of biodiversity

3.2 GLOBAL WARMING

Global warming and climate change are perhaps considered to be the greatest
threat to the planet. Global warming is threatening the existence of life on this
planet. Global warming affects climate in such a manner that it intimately becomes
related with our economic, social and political activities. Global warming has
affected all the countries of the world. Our planet is one but those who inhabit it
have a multicultural perspective. Hence, there are many interests. The pursuit of
self-interest leads to exploitation of natural resources. There are many issues within
which the environmental issue has to survive. These include issues of intergenerational
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Global Warming, Ozone and concern for rationality. The interest of the whole is in conflict with the interest
Depletion and Bio
Diversity of the individual. An example given by Garrett Hardin, ‘tragedy of the commons’
explains it comprehensively. Garrett Hardin was an American ecologist who warned
of the dangers of overpopulation. In this example, he shows how a common
NOTES resource will be depleted if more and more people go on using it for their self-
interest. It is a fitting metaphor to describe the impact of global warming. Global
warming can bring immense changes to the existing natural condition. It brings
about change in the natural vegetation, landscape, weather condition and living
condition of flora and fauna. The whole of the existing ecosystem is altered due to
basic changes brought within it by human activities. Since the ecosystem adjusts
to such changes and it may not be favourable every time, the consequences are
too many to handle. This kind of warming is caused by humans.
The past acts of the developed countries have contributed to immense global
warming resulting in heavy carbon dioxide emissions. The way global warming
impacts the atmosphere is highly complex. To grant concessions in terms of carbon
dioxide emissions for economic gains has an uneasy feel to it. Climatic changes
are rather unpredictable to accommodate any such concessions. The impact can
be contained or gradually lightened, but only for the next generation if this generation
takes steps in that direction. The more we delay our action, the heavier the burden
will be on the next generation. Concepts like geoengineering (using man made
ways of bringing large-scale changes in the climate condition), providing with carbon
free nuclear energy have their own risks. The misuse of technology is yet another
problem. The ethic of means and end relationship which Gandhi has espoused
seems to be vital for environmental problems and its solutions. The means-end
relationship enjoins that our actions should be ethically as good as the means. In
the environmental context, it gains special importance because each act can induce
irreparable damage to the environment. The objective of becoming self-sufficient
at the basic level is linked with the ethical approval of means in the larger whole. If
all our needs are met at the basic place of existence we will not manipulate the
environmental resources to our advantage. There is a provision to meet the basic
requirement for everyone and one must seek it from the surroundings first. The
inner self-restraint is fundamental to such approach.
It is due to previous acts of exploitation of natural resources that we need to
look at their harmful effects on us. We need to act in the direction of minimizing the
hazards. There are two types of approaches possible towards conservation of
nature. Some environmental thinkers feel that restoration has a value in itself. It
may not be as real as the original condition of nature, but at least it has some
resemblance to the original state. If some past wrong can be slightly corrected
then acts of restoration should be permissible. There is a difference between a
restoration act done to correct a past wrong inflicted on nature and of another
kind which is done just to meddle with nature. This distinction is important because
any interference with nature will have an adverse effect on the climate and civilization.
In line with this thought some thinkers find interference with nature in the name of
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restoration unjustified. It is simply overestimation of human capacity. With difficulties Global Warming, Ozone
Depletion and Bio Diversity
in bringing things back to normal, not being able to deal with the present impact,
we need to re-examine our values. The question of ethics emerges here. Should
the developed countries not pay more and limit their emission levels so that poor
countries can develop more and have economic prosperity as well? The developed NOTES
countries argue that the impact of global warming was unknown to them before
1990 so they should not be held entirely responsible for the looming threat as it
was committed in ignorance. Though the past acts may not be corrected, all countries
need to form a consensus on the actions to be taken for tackling global warming
and changes in climate. Concepts of climate justice and ecological debt are frequently
raised with little effect on rich and powerful countries. The failure to find a sustainable
solution suggests that we are unable to tackle the challenges posed by the current
global scenario. The failure to arrive at a common consensus by the political leaders
of the world has further emphasized the need to adopt an ethical outlook.
Environmental ethics needs to find answers to these problems.
We must consider our past climate changes to study how it led to great
geographical changes in the prehistoric era. A fossil pollen analysis reveals how
some species moved up towards the north from 200meters to 1500meters per
year due to the effect of melting ice. With the increasing effect of global warming
the ecosystem might just not survive. Hence, global warming needs urgent attention
for the survival of mankind on earth.
Global warming has led to change in the climate, but there are no clear
instructions on how to read these changes since all facts have not been discovered.
That is why studies in the field of climate change are different. Nonetheless, we
cannot delay action till all the facts are not discovered and climate change studies
analysed. Human beings have dealt with the natural world according to their own
needs and wants without taking into consideration the depletion of natural resources.
Scientific study has highlighted the harm caused to the natural environment by
humans. It is for us to relate this state with our values to bring changes in it. In the
context of climate change economic mediation may not be always successful. The
uncertainties are immense and to assess these uncertainties in economic terms is
not possible. Approximate ways may lead to further digression. Human beings will
also show a corresponding change in their adaptation to the changing climate.
Climate change brings variation in all aspects of human life as well as economic
life. Everything is dependent on climate change. Forests, fisheries, natural life,
wildlife, tourism, agriculture and human living will be changed accordingly. The
impact can hardly be accurately evaluated. We can only realize its vast impact on
civilization. The management of global climate cannot be successfully attempted
through economic evaluation. The only way to deal with this anthropogenic situation
is through an adoption of ethical means and value formation. The problem is ethical
in nature and must be solved through ethical means. Science and economics are
there to facilitate the ethical process. To work towards a better sense of ourselves,
the world of nature is the only way to move.
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Global Warming, Ozone 3.2.1 Meaning of Climate Change and Global Warming
Depletion and Bio
Diversity
Climate is the average weather of an area. It is the general weather conditions,
seasonal variations and extremes of weather in a region. Such conditions which
NOTES average over a long period, for at least thirty years is called climate.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1990 and 1992
published the best available evidence about past climate changes, the greenhouse
effect and recent changes in global temperature. It was observed that earth’s
temperature has changed considerably during the geological times. It has
experienced several glacial and interglacial periods. However, during the past
10,000 years of the current interglacial period, the mean average temperature has
fluctuated by 0.51°C over 100 to 200 year period. We have relatively stable
climate for thousands of years due to which we have practised agriculture and
increased population. Even small changes in the climatic conditions may disturb
agriculture that would lead to migration of animals including humans.
Anthropogenic activities are upsetting the delicate balance that has been
established between various components of the environment. Greenhouse gases
have increased in the atmosphere resulting in the increase in the average global
temperature.
This may upset the hydrological cycle, resulting in floods and droughts in
different regions of the world, causing sea level to rise, changes in agricultural
productivity, famines and death of humans as well as livestock.
Cause of Global Warming
Troposphere, the lower most layer of the atmosphere, traps heat by natural
processes due to the presence of certain gases. This effect is called greenhouse
effect, as it is similar to the warming effect observed in the horticultural greenhouse
made of glass.
The amount of heat trapped in the atmosphere depends mostly upon the
concentration of heat trapping or greenhouse gases and the length of time they
stay in the atmosphere. The major greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, ozone,
methane, nitrous oxide, and water vapour.
The average global temperature is 15°C. In the absence of greenhouse
gases, this temperature would have been 18°C. Therefore, greenhouse effect
contributes to a temperature rise to the tune of 33°C.
Heat trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere keeps the planet warm
enough to allow us and other species to exist. The two predominant greenhouse
gases are water vapour which is controlled by the hydrological cycle and carbon
dioxide which is controlled mostly by the global carbon cycle. While the levels of
water vapour in the troposphere have relatively remained constant, the levels of
carbon dioxide have increased.

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 Other gases whose levels have increased due to human activities are methane Global Warming, Ozone
Depletion and Bio Diversity
and nitrous oxide. Deforestation has further resulted in elevated levels of carbon
dioxide due to the non-removal of carbon dioxide by plants through photosynthesis.
Warming or cooling by more than 2°C over the past few decades may
NOTES
prove to be disastrous for various ecosystems on the earth, including humans as it
would alter the conditions faster than some species could adapt or migrate. Some
areas will become inhabitable because of droughts or floods following the rise in
the average sea level.
3.2.2 Measures to Control Global Warming
To slow down enhanced global warming the following steps will be important:
1. Cut down the current rate of use of CFCs and fossil fuel.
2. Use energy more efficiently.
3. Shift to renewable energy resources.
4. Increase in nuclear power plants for electricity production.
5. Shift from coal to natural gas.
6. Trap and use methane as a fuel.
7. Adopt sustainable agriculture.
8. Stabilize population growth.
9. Efficiently remove carbon dioxide from smoke stacks.
10. Plant more trees.
11. Remove atmospheric carbon dioxide by utilizing photosynthetic algae.
3.2.3 Climate Change and its Costs
Critical questions have been raised about the role of climate change in the economics
of risk, economics of distribution amongst individuals, economics of distribution
over time and generations, and economics of different aspects of well-being. Since
climate change is a non-marginal, international, inter-generational policy challenge,
concerning important questions of risk and ambiguity, our usual shortcuts are
unsuitable to find appropriate solutions. Moreover, existing markets do not provide
a technocratic solution to the questions of intergenerational justice. Instead, climate
change demands that a number of ethical perspectives be considered. Typical
welfare economics is one such perspective.
Climate change is a serious challenge faced by the international community
striving towards sustainable development. It has implications for not only health
and well-being of the earth’s ecosystem but also for the economic enterprises and
social livelihood. The current models predict a 0.3°C increase per decade in global
temperatures over the next century. This is attributed to the increase in the amount
of carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere, which has risen by about 25 per cent
in the last 150 years. As a global problem, climate change requires a global solution,
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Global Warming, Ozone which can be made possible by research, shared knowledge and engagement of
Depletion and Bio
Diversity people at all levels. Within climate change, particular attention needs to be paid to
the unique challenges facing the developing countries. The South is likely to be
significantly affected by the climate change, yet it typically lacks in the resources
NOTES needed to adapt to the economic, social and environmental changes expected to
occur. Partnership between the North and South countries would give a good
understanding of the implications of climate change for these countries and throw
light upon how approaches such as the Clean Development Mechanism may be
used to meet the sustainable development objectives in the developing countries.
One of the most significant reviews on the economics of climate change is
the Stern review. The review maintains that though all countries have to suffer due
to climate change, it is the poorest that will suffer the most. However, any positive
international action will help slow down this change. Unstopped climatic changes
will raise the temperature by at least 5 degrees than the pre-industrial era. This will
change the physical as well as human geography of the world. This will prove to
be beneficial for social and economic life of human beings. The report highlights
the costs and opportunities in tackling global climatic changes in the first part. The
review considers recent developments and their effects on human life and
environment. The cost of allowing unbridled climatic changes will be about 20 per
cent of GDP. On the other hand, the cost of reducing greenhouse gases will amount
to 1 per cent of global GDP. If we do not take care of carbon emissions, each ton
of carbon dioxide emitted will cause damage worth $85. Studies show that this
can be restricted to $25 per ton through global strategies. Thus, reducing emissions
will also be beneficial for our economic growth. The review also estimates that the
market for low carbon products is estimated at $500 billion or perhaps much
more by 2050. Thus, tackling climate change is definitely a pro-growth strategy.
The negative consequences of global warming are catastrophic. These
include:
 Increasing drought and desertification
 Crop failures
 Melting of the polar ice caps
 Coastal flooding
 Displacement of major vegetation regimes
 Coral mortality
 Change in ocean behaviour
 Natural disasters
 Infectious diseases
 Degradation of ecosystems
 Scarcity of food supply
 Rise in sea level
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 To address the detrimental effects, corrective measures with regard to the Global Warming, Ozone
Depletion and Bio Diversity
following need to be taken:
 Cutting down on carbon monoxide emissions
 Adopting the Clean Development Mechanism suggested under the Kyoto NOTES
Protocol
 Reducing green house effect
 Using cleaner mining technologies that will reduce sulphur dioxide and
particulate pollution thereby lowering mining contamination of water and
air
Implications of Climate Change for Development
There is growing awareness and many studies show that climate change is leading
to reduction in economic growth and development especially in Asia and Africa
(Stern, 2007; Biemansetal., 2006). Climate change may lead to bringing down the
GDP in India by 10 per cent by 2100 in comparison to a condition without climate
change (Stern, 2007). The Stern review also identifies that in particular the
combination of a gradually declining environment and the shock of extreme events
will affect growth. The extreme events will knock back years of growth while the
declining environment will slow down development between extreme events and
decrease the resilience to manage the impacts of extreme events.
Historic events reveal that droughts and heavy floods had a major impact
on the economy of developing countries. During the events like droughts or floods,
the government revenue is often reduced due to the less output; while the expenditure
needs to be increased to supply food aid and repair the damaged infrastructure.
Future climate change is expected to increase the number of floods and droughts
that will reduce government incomes and increase expenditure with a bad impact
on budgets.
The impacts on growth are expected to be different among various countries.
Some countries are presently undergoing fast growth. These countries are expected
to be more ready than countries with slow or no growth. The so called ‘least
developed countries’ could see their vulnerabilities increase manifold.
Let us now see the other set of issues related to globalization and environment.
It is important to realize that the environment has the power to affect the pattern of
globalization as well.
 Due to globalization, our economic activities have grown at a fast pace
and are causing considerable environmental damage, some of which
are irreparable.
 Our burning of fossil fuels at greater rates is contributing to global climate
change. We do not even know what the full consequences of climate
change may be, but we know that these may be severe.

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Global Warming, Ozone  Sea levels could rise.
Depletion and Bio
Diversity  Extreme weather conditions could become more common. Weather
patterns could shift. Some species could perish.
NOTES  Rapid destruction of the world’s tropical rainforests; over-fishing of
oceans; diminishing sources of fresh water.
 Environmental degradation may result in large-scale desertification and
loss of agricultural land.
 Can cause great despair and frustration at individual level as people
may stand to lose their livelihood (farmers and fishermen).
 Environmental degradation can bring in various diseases.
 Insurance companies will be plagued as communities suffer from severe
weather conditions, such as flood, draught, hurricanes, etc.
 It can also increase ethnic tensions in regions that already lack natural
resources.
A fine balance between economic development and environmental
requirements makes for a self-sustaining model that survives into the future.
Suggestions include creating increased public consciousness about the issue;
explaining the concept of environmental conservation; highlighting the dangers of
environmental devastation, particularly from the historical perspective; and actively
exploring the possibility of incorporating self-sustaining eco-systems within our
daily work cycles.
Cost of Climate Change in Developed Countries
We acknowledge that estimating abatement (or ‘mitigation’) costs is very complex
in nature. To begin with, the costs are lower if the world adopts the cheapest
emission-reduction technologies first and the highest-cost technologies last—but
we have no guarantee the world shall act that way. Costs are projected in different
ways. Generally, they are based on the direct costs of the technologies, e.g., the
cost of construction of a nuclear power station. Nonetheless, several other types
of costs are involved and technology costs do not necessarily communicate with
the right concept of cost which is measured by the ‘welfare’ losses incurred to
customers and producers. The costs can differ significantly; depending on the
compliance policies. For example, the market-based instruments, such as carbon
taxes and tradable permits, are thought to have lesser compliance costs than simply
telling emitters what technology to use through ‘command and control’. It is for
this cause that so much emphasis is being placed on the latest policies like permit
trading systems. Many economic specialists consider that costs will be lower than
projected because the emitters will find new technologies and the cheaper ways of
overcoming problems of climate regulation. But some others consider that there
are many unseen costs in regulation, so that real costs may turn out to be higher
than projected. For all these causes, and others, we would expect broad variations
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 Global Warming, Ozone
Depletion and Bio Diversity
Check Your Progress
1. What does the means-end relationship state?
2. Define climate. NOTES
3. What does the Stern review state on climate change?

3.3 OZONE DEPLETION

The ozone layer is a thin layer in the atmosphere, made up of oxygen atoms (O3)
that absorb harmful ultraviolet radiation (UV-B) from reaching the earth’s surface.
The ozone is being depleted by chemicals released into the atmosphere like
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), carbon tetraflouride, methyl chloroforms,
chlorofluoromethanes (aerosol repellents and as refrigerants). The problem is when
CFCs reach the ozone layer, it is broken down by the UV -B rays and it is these
free chlorine atoms that do the damage to ozone. One free chlorine atom will
destroy 100,000 ozone molecules before it dies off.
Scientists have discovered a hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica and
some mid-altitude regions over Chile in South America. The Mapuche Nation
lives under one of these holes in the ozone and they have seen an increased number
of skin cancer and blindness among their people. They see a huge impact to the
plants and animals in their surrounding environment.
Scientists believe that species on earth will have to adjust their UV-B
composition in order to survive. Humans can put on sunscreen to protect them
from the UV-B rays but animals and plants will have a hard time surviving. Plus the
addition of UV-B rays will heat the earth’s surface, which adds to global warming.

Fig 3.1 Varying Size of the Ozone Hole over Antarctica

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Global Warming, Ozone 3.3.1 How It Happens
Depletion and Bio
Diversity
About 90 per cent of the atmospheric ozone is in the stratosphere from 10 to 50
km and is known as ozone layer. The rest 10 per cent of ozone is in the troposphere.
NOTES Ozone is beneficial when it is in the stratosphere by protecting us from the harmful
UV rays, as it helps in formation of photochemical smog in the troposphere. It
needs to be mentioned here that the photochemical smog formation is mainly due
to human activities. Thus, ozone is mainly beneficial for us.
Ozone absorbs all the solar ultraviolet radiations of wavelength less than
290 nm and negligibly absorbs those in between 290 to 350 nm.
Ozone is continuously created in the stratosphere and at the same time
continuously removed. Thus, there is an apparent equilibrium in the ozone region
with the concentration of ozone remaining constant.
A satellite data, however, indicated damage to the stratospheric ozone layer
over Antarctica, a hole of the size of a big continent. The main chemicals responsible
for depletion of ozone layer were found to be chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
especially CFCl2, CF2Cl2, C2F3Cl3 and chloroflouro bromine (CF3Br).
Another potent ozone depleting gas is methyl bromide (CH3Br), which is
used in agriculture to sterilize soil and fumigate crops after harvesting. Greater
concentration of NO2 if present in the upper atmosphere (main source, jet planes)
may also destroy ozone.
In the Arctic, the combination of land and ocean maintains warmer
temperature and atmospheric conditions are not as in Antarctica and, thus, there is
lesser thinning of ozone layer over the Arctic in spring.
However, it is of great concern that due to troposphere warming by
greenhouse gases, there is a possibility of stratospheric cooling which ultimately
might lead to same atmospheric condition in Arctic like the Antarctic and cause
dramatic ozone layer depletion.
Depletion of ozone layer will lead to increase in the flux of UV radiation
over the biosphere of the earth. This ultimately will lead to:
 skin cancer
 eye and lung irritation
 reduced photosynthesis
 affects crop productivity
 affects weather patterns through interference with oxygen.

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 The depletion of ozone (O3) molecule by CFC can be depicted as below: Global Warming, Ozone
Depletion and Bio Diversity
[Antarctic Spring]
UV rays UV rays

Cl2
NOTES
CF2Cl2

+ HCl + CH4
HCl + CH3 Cl +CF2Cl
ClONO2

+ O3
+NO2 ClO+O2 [Antarctic Winter]

Fig 3.2 Ozone Depletion by CFC

3.3.2 Halocarbons
This class of carbon compounds is based with chlorine, fluorine or bromine in
them. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are commonly called Freon gases and
bromofluoro carbons are called Halons. These gases do not occur naturally and
are entirely created by human activities. Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), methyl
bromide (CH3Br), methyl chloroform (CH3CCl3) are also halocarbons but the
latter two are better to form hydrobromocarbon and hydrochlorocarbon.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are non-toxic, non-flammable, non-reactive and are
insoluble in water. As they are inert and water insoluble, they cannot be destroyed
by chemical reactions or cannot be removed by rain.
Thus, they have a long lasting life in the atmosphere. These molecules absorb
approximately 9 ìm with some bending and stretching bands in the vicinity of
atmospheric window, making these as potent greenhouse gases.
Halocarbons are responsible not only for their contribution to global warming,
but also for their ability to deplete ozone layer in the stratosphere.
Chlorofluorocarbons, because of their easy liquefaction under pressure and when
pressure is released produce very cold temperature. Also because of their non-
toxic character they are used as refrigerants to replace toxic, noxious, highly
inflammable gases like CO2, CH3Cl, SO2, NH3, etc.
Uses
• Refrigerant and air conditioners
• Foam products
• Fire extinguishers
• Solvents in cleaning action
• Pesticides.

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Global Warming, Ozone Classification of Halocarbons
Depletion and Bio
Diversity
(1) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): These compounds have carbon, fluorine
and chlorine but no hydrogen. For example,
NOTES CFCl2
CF2Cl2
(2) Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs): These compounds have carbon,
chlorine, fluorine, as well as hydrogen. For example,
CHF2 Cl
CH2CFCl2
(3) Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs): These compounds have carbon, hydrogen
and fluorine but no chlorine. For example,
CH3CF3
CH2CH2F
(4) Halons: These compounds have carbon with bromine and fluorine and
occasionally chlorine. For example,
CF3Br
CF2ClBr
There are other types of halocarbons like carbon tetrachloride (CCl 4),
tetrafluromethane (CF4).
Chlorofluorocarbons are known to be potent destroyers of the ozone layer
in the stratosphere. So, hydrochlorofluorocarbons came as replacement of CFCs.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons, due to the presence of hydrogen bond undergo
chemical reactions and in the process get destroyed in the troposphere, thus cannot
reach the stratosphere to affect ozone. Its ozone depletion potential is 2–5 per cent
of most commonly used CFC-11 and CFC-12. Hydrofluorocarbons having no
chlorine atom can be much better replacement.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC)
This is an alternative to fully halogenated CFC. Due to the presence of hydrogen
bond, such compounds will be less stable compared to CFC and are less likely to
reach stratosphere affecting ozone layer. The ozone depletion potential of HCFC
is only 2 to 5 per cent of the most commonly used CFC.
3.3.3 International Conventions for Protection of Ozone Layer
To address the issue of depletion and protection of ozone layer, international
conventions at Vienna and Montreal were held. Let us discuss them here.

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Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer Global Warming, Ozone
Depletion and Bio Diversity
The ozone layer, found in the stratosphere about 10–50 km above the ground,
protects us from the harmful effects of certain wavelengths of the Ultra-Violet
(UV) rays of the sun. The sun rays especially the UV-B radiation can result in NOTES
increased risk of skin cancers, reduced immunity and other illnesses. The rest of
the animal kingdom is also affected by the depletion of ozone layer. Ozone depletion
is caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are used in aerosols, foams,
refrigeration, air conditioners, solvents, fire extinguishers and so on. The discovery
of the Ozone Hole, confirmed the depletion of the ozone layer over the Antarctic
in 1985.
The Vienna Convention was adopted on 22 March 1985 and entered into
force on 22 September 1988. As per the Vienna Convention, the parties agree to
take appropriate measures to prevent the modification of the ozone layer. However,
the appropriate measures in this regard are not unspecified. The main thrust of the
convention was to encourage research, cooperation among countries and the
exchange of information. The Vienna Convention represented the first instance
when nations agreed to address a global environmental problem even before it
was scientifically established.
The obligations under the Vienna Convention include the following.
 A member must cooperate in the observation, research and information
exchange on ozone layer depletion and its impact on human health and
the environment.
 It must also cooperate in the international efforts to formulate and
implement the ozone regime.
 It must initiate and cooperate in the conduct of research and scientific
observations.
 It must also cooperate in legal, scientific and technical fields and
transmission of information on the measures adopted by them in the
implementation of this convention.
 It must adopt legislative and administrative measures to control, limit,
reduce or prevent human activities that have an adverse effect on the
ozone layer.
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
After the fact of ozone depletion was confirmed in a paper published in May 1985
by the British scientists followed by observations by the American satellites, the
Montreal Protocol was signed on 16 September 1987. The Montreal Protocol,
which entered into force on 1 January 1989, outlined the specific measures to be
taken in order to control the use of Ozone Depleting Substances (ODSs). The
protocol aims to reduce and eventually eliminate the emissions of man-made ODSs.
Since its adoption, the Montreal Protocol has been modified five times through
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Global Warming, Ozone adjustments and amendments. Its control provisions were strengthened in London
Depletion and Bio
Diversity (1990), Copenhagen (1992), Vienna (1995), Montreal (1997) and Beijing (1999).
Under the Montreal Protocol, a member agrees to take precautionary measures
to control the emissions of ODSs, with the ultimate objective of their elimination.
NOTES The emission reduction obligations are laid out in detail in the protocol.

Check Your Progress

4. What is ozone layer?
5. What is the aim of the Montreal Protocol?

3.4 BIODIVERSITY

The earth holds a vast variety of living organisms, which includes different kinds of
plants, animals, insects, and microorganisms. It has an immense variety of habitats
and ecosystems. The total diversity and variability of living things and of the system
of which they are a part is generally defined as biological diversity, i.e. the total
variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity includes diversity within species, between
species and of ecosystems.
Perception of biodiversity varies widely among biologists, sociologists,
lawyers, naturalists, conservationists, ethno biologists and so on. Thus, biodiversity
issues have been a unifying force among people of various professions and pursuits.
Conservation is the protection, preservation, management, or restoration
of wildlife and natural resources such as forests and water. Through the conservation
of biodiversity, the survival of many species and habitats which are threatened due
to human activities can be ensured. Other reasons for conserving biodiversity
include securing valuable natural resources for future generations and protecting
the functions of the eco-system.
Levels of Biodiversity
Biodiversity can be studied at many levels.
1. Genetic biodiversity
It is the basic source of biodiversity. Genes found in organisms can form enormous
number of combinations, each of which gives rise to some variability. Genes are
the basic units of hereditary information, transmitted from one generation to other.
When the genes within the same species show different versions, due to new
combinations, it is called genetic variability. For example, all rice varieties belong
to the species Oryza sativa, but there are thousands of wild and cultivated varieties
of rice which show variations at the genetic level and differ in their colour, size,
shape, aroma and nutrient content of the grain. This is genetic diversity of rice.
Genetic biodiversity means the variation of genes within a species. In a species,
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each variety has its own genes or genetic make-up. Diversity of genes within a Global Warming, Ozone
Depletion and Bio Diversity
species increases its ability to adapt to disease, pollution and other changes in
environment. When a variety of a species is destroyed, genetic diversity gets
diminished.
NOTES
2. Species biodiversity
This is the variability found within the population of a species or between different
species of a community. It represents broadly the species richness and their
abundance in a community. Till now, only about 1.5 million living and 300000
fossil species have been actually described and given scientific names. It is quite
likely that a large fraction of these species may have become extinct even before
they were discovered and enlisted. Species biodiversity means a variety of species
within a region. Such diversity can be measured on the basis of species in a region.
More the species biodiversity means more the biological wealth.
3. Ecosystem biodiversity
Ecosystem biodiversity is the diversity that shows variations in ecological niches,
nutrient cycling, tropic structure, food webs, etc. There is variation in physical
parameters like moisture, temperature, altitude and precipitation. Thus, there is
tremendous variation within the ecosystems along these gradients.
Variations in trees and wildlife found in forests are due to these physical
factors. Ecosystem diversity is of great importance and should be kept intact. This
diversity has developed over millions of years of evolution. Destruction of this
diversity will result in ecological imbalance. It is impossible to replace the diversity
of one ecosystem with that of another. Coniferous trees of boreal forests cannot
take up the function of the trees of tropical deciduous forest lands and vice versa
as this is the result of the prevailing environmental condition of that particular area
with well-regulated ecological balance.
Principles of Biodiversity
Biodiversity in terms of its commercial utility, ecological value, social and aesthetic
value has enormous importance. We are benefited by other organisms in many
different ways. Sometimes, we come to know and appreciate the value of an
organism only after it is lost from this earth. All organisms have their importance
and role to play in keeping the ecological. The multiple principles of biodiversity
are classified as follows:
1. Consumptive use value
These include direct use values where the biodiversity product can be harvested
and consumed directly, e.g., fuel, food, drugs and fibre.
Food: A large number of wild plants and shrubs are consumed by human
beings as food. Many edible plants species have been taken up for farming.
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Global Warming, Ozone Agricultural scientists develop new hardy strains of different plant species that are
Depletion and Bio
Diversity available in the wild. A large number of wild animals are also our sources of food.
Drugs and medicines: About 75 per cent of the world’s population depends
on plants or plant extracts for medicines. For example, penicillin drug used as an
NOTES
antibiotic is derived from a fungus called penicillin and quinine, the cure for malaria
is obtained from the bark of cinchona tree. Recently, vinblastin and vincristine,
two anti-cancer drugs, have been obtained from periwinkle (catharanthus) plant,
which possesses anti-cancer alkaloids.
Fuel: Our forests have been a big supplier of fuel wood. Fossil fuels like
coal, petroleum and natural gas are products of fossilized biodiversity. Firewood
collected by people is not normally marketed, but are directly used by tribals and
local villagers; hence, falls under constructive value.
2. Productive use values
These are the commercially usable values that can be marketed and sold. These
products can range from lumber or wild gene resources used by scientists for
introducing desirable traits in crops and domesticated animals or animal products
like tusks of elephants, musk from musk deer, silk from silkworm, wool from
sheep, and lac from lac insects. Many industries are dependent on the productive
use of values of biodiversity like paper and pulp industry, plywood industry, railway
sleeper industry, silk industry, and textile industry.
3. Social value
These are the values associated with the social life, customs, religion and psycho
spiritual aspects of the people. Many plants like tulsi, peepal and lotus are
considered holy and sacred in our country. The leaves, fruits or flowers of some
particular plants are used in worship or the sometimes the plant itself is worshipped,
like the plant of tulsi. The tribal people have close links with the wildlife in the
forest. Their social life, songs, dances and customs are closely woven around the
wildlife. Animals like cow, snake, peacock and owl also have a significant place in
our psycho-spiritual arena and therefore are of social importance. Thus, biodiversity
has distinct social value, attached with different societies.
4. Ethical value
Ethical value is also sometimes known as existence value and is based on the
concept of ‘live and let live’. If we must protect all biodiversity as biodiversity is
valuable and important for human race to survive.
Ethical value means that we may or may not use a species, but are happy
with the fact that they exist in the nature. One feels sorry when any particular
species like ‘passenger pigeon’ or ‘dodo’ become extinct. This means, there is an
ethical value or existence value attached to each species.

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5. Aesthetic value Global Warming, Ozone
Depletion and Bio Diversity
Great aesthetic value is attached to biodiversity. None of us would like to visit vast
stretches of barren lands with no signs of visible life. Most people like to spend
their time in the lapse of nature and in wilderness. They enjoy the aesthetic value of NOTES
biodiversity. This type of tourism has come to be known as ecotourism. The concept
‘willingness to pay’ on such ecotourism gives us a monetary estimate for aesthetic
value of biodiversity.
6. Option value
These values include the potential of biodiversity that are presently unknown and
need to be explored. It is the knowledge that there are biological resources that
may prove to be effective some day in future. Option value also includes the values,
in terms of the option to visit areas where a variety of flora and fauna, or specifically
some endemic, rare or endangered species exist.
7. Ecosystem service value
This refers to the services that can be rendered to preserve the ecosystems like
maintenance of soil fertility, prevention of soil erosion, prevention of floods, fixation
of nitrogen, cycling of water, cycling of nutrients, pollutant absorption and reduction
of the threat of global warming, etc. Different categories of biodiversity value indicate
that there is enormous potential in ecosystem, species and genetic diversity and a
decline in biodiversity will lead to huge economic, ecological and socio- cultural
losses.
Biogeographical Classification of India
India has different types of climate and topography in different parts of the country
and these variations have induced enormous variability in flora and fauna. India
has a rich heritage of biological diversity and occupies the tenth position among
the plant rich nations of the world.
It is very important to study the distribution, evolution, dispersal and
environmental relationship of plants and animals in time and space. There are ten
different bio-geographic habitats in India.
1. Trans-Himalayan – Upper regions
2. Himalayan – North-West Himalayas, West, Central and East Himalayas
3. Desert – Kutch, Thar and Ladakh
4. Semi-Arid – Central India, Gujarat-Rajwara
5. Western Ghats – Malabar Coast, Western Ghat Mountains
6. Deccan Peninsula – Deccan Plateau South, Central, Eastern, Chhota
Nagpur
7. Gangetic Plain – Upper Gangetic Plain, Lower Gangetic Plain
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Global Warming, Ozone 8. North-East India – Brahmaputra Valley, North Eastern Hills
Depletion and Bio
Diversity 9. Islands – Andaman Islands, Nicobar Islands, Laskhadweep, etc.
10. Coasts – West Coast and East Coast
NOTES Global Biodiversity
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development at Rio in 1992,
put biological diversity on the international agenda by signing the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD). This convention addresses many issues ranging from
forests, agriculture to Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs). India is a signatory to
CBD and ratified it in 1993. The Government of India has finalized the National
Policy and Action Strategy for Biodiversity. A legislation was finalized and the
Indian Parliament passed the Biodiversity Bill in 2002. The objective of the
convention was ‘the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its
components and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic
resources.’ It also covered the ecological, economic and social aspects of
biodiversity.
The success of the convention can be evaluated in two main ways:
The first one is by the analysis of the changes in components of biodiversity
(i.e., species and ecosystems) and by measuring the effectiveness of the measures
taken to implement the convention. According to the Worldwide Fund for Nature,
scientists have identified about 1.4 million species. Of these, around 1.03 million
are animals and 2,48,000 are higher plants. But, human knowledge of the world’s
biodiversity is still not complete. Higher plants have also been fairly well studied,
but it is possible that 15 per cent more may still be discovered. Numerous insects,
invertebrates, lower plants and micro-organisms exist, but have yet to be identified
and described. One recent estimate put this figure as high as 30 million.
Human impact on nature has reached such high proportions that the world
is today witnessing an extraordinary rate in loss of species. Many thousands of
species will disappear even before they are found as described by biologists. In
1988, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listed 4,589
threatened animals. Scientists at the Kew Gardens in Britain listed around 20,000
plant species as threatened. According to an estimate by the IUCN’s Threatened
Plants Unit, by the year 2050 up to 60,000 plant species will become extinct or
threatened. These estimates show that the current rate of extinction is at least
25,000 times greater than the extinction that took place during evolutionary times.
The rate of extinction of mammals alone has risen from one species every five
years in the seventeenth century to one every two years in the twentieth century.
Biological Diversity at National Level
Every country is characterized by its own biodiversity which mainly depends on
the climate. India has a rich biological diversity of flora and fauna. Overall six per
cent of the global species are found in India. The total number of living species
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identified in India is 1,50,000. Out of the total 25 biodiversity hot spots of the Global Warming, Ozone
Depletion and Bio Diversity
world, India possesses two— one in the northeast region and one in the Western
Ghats. India is also one of the 12 mega-biodiversity countries in the world.
India as a Mega-Diversity Nation NOTES
India is one of the twelve mega-diversity countries in the world. The Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Govt. of India (2000), records 47,000 species of plants
and 81,000 species of animals which is about 7 per cent and 6.5 per cent
respectively of global flora and fauna. These major groups of species include
endemism, centre of origin, marine diversity, etc. A large proportion of the Indian
biodiversity is still unexplored. Due to its diverse climatic conditions, there is a
complete spectrum of biodiversity in our country.
3.4.1 Threats to Biodiversity
Extinction or elimination of a species is a natural process of evolution. The rate of
loss of species in the geologic past has been a slow process but the process of
extinction has become particularly fast in the recent years of civilization. In the
recent times, the human impact has been so severe that thousands of species and
varieties are becoming extinct annually.
The following are the major causes and issues related to threats to biodiversity:
 Loss of Habitat
Destruction and loss of natural habitat is the single largest cause of losing biodiversity.
Billions of hectares of forests and grasslands have been converted into agricultural
land, pastures, settlement areas or for development projects. These forests and
grasslands were the homes of thousands of species, which perished due to loss of
their natural habitat. There has been severe damage to the wetlands which were
thought to be useless ecosystems. They are getting destroyed due to draining,
filling and pollution causing huge loss of biodiversity.
The habitat is divided into small and scattered patches, so that the complete
loss of habitat can be put at bay. This phenomenon is known as habitat
fragmentation. There are many wildlife species such as bears and large cats that
require large territories to live but are threatened as they breed only in the interiors
of the forests. Marine diversity is also under serious threat as there is due to large-
scale destruction of the breeding and feeding grounds of fish and other species.
 Poaching
Illegal trade of wildlife products by killing prohibited endangered animals is another
threat to the wildlife. The rich countries in Europe and North America and some
affluent countries in Asia like Japan, Taiwan and Hong Kong are the major importers
of wildlife products or wildlife itself. The trading of such wildlife products is highly
profitable for the poachers who smuggle them to other countries mediated through
mafia.
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Global Warming, Ozone  Man-Wildlife Conflicts
Depletion and Bio
Diversity
As we know that it is very important to preserve and protect wildlife but sometimes
we come across situations when wildlife causes immense damage and danger to
NOTES man. Under such conditions it becomes difficult for the forest department to pacify
and gain local support for wildlife conservation from the people or villages that are
affected by the wildlife.
Instances of man-animal conflicts come to limelight from several states in
our country time and again. In Sambalpur, Odisha, 195 humans were killed in the
recent past by elephants. In retaliation, the villagers killed ninety-five elephants in
the border region of Kote-Chamarajanagar belt in Mysore. The conflict in this
region has arisen because of massive damage done by the elephants to the cotton
and sugarcane crops. The elephants are electrocuted by the villagers or blown off
with explosives when they intrude into the fields. In fact, more killings are done by
locals than by poachers. In early 2004, a man-eating tiger was reported to have
killed sixteen Nepalese people and a four year old child inside the Royal Chitwan
National Park, 240 km South-west of Kathmandu. Similar incidents were reported
near Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Borivali, Mumbai where similar incidents of
human killings, especially of small children was reported.
Causes of Man-Animal Conflicts
 Dwindling habitats of tigers, elephants, rhinos and bears due to shrinking
forests cover are compelled to move outside the forests. Human
encroachment into the forest areas has rendered all forest living animals to
trespass the borders of human civilizations. This is because the conflicts
between man and the wildlife have increased since it is an issue of survival
of both.
 Weak and injured animals have a tendency to attack man. At times, a tigress
might attack the human if she feels that her cubs are in danger. It is very
difficult to trace a man-eating tiger and in the process many innocent tigers
get killed.
 Earlier, the forest department used to cultivate crops like paddy, and
sugarcane within the sanctuaries as they are a favourite of elephants. Due to
lack of such practices the animals tend to move out of the forest in search of
food. It may be noted that, one adult elephant needs 2 quintals of green
fodder and 150 kg of clean water daily and if it is not available, the animal
will leave its habitat in search of it.
 Very often, the villagers put electric wiring around their ripe crop fields. The
elephants get injured, suffer pain and may then turn violent.
 Disappearance and disruption of wildlife corridor due to development has
given the animals a chance to attack humans.

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  The cash compensation paid by the government in lieu of the damage caused Global Warming, Ozone
Depletion and Bio Diversity
to the crops by the wild animals is not enough. The affected farmer, therefore,
gets revengeful and kills the wild animals.
Remedial Measures to Curb the Conflict NOTES
 Tiger Conservation Project (TCP) has made provisions of vehicles,
tranquillizer guns, binoculars and radio sets, etc., to deal with any imminent
danger tactfully.
 There should be adequate crop compensation and cattle compensation
schemes along with substantial cash compensation for loss of human life.
 Solar-powered fencing should be provided along with electric current proof
trenches to prevent animals from straying into the agricultural fields.
 Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest borders and adequate
amount of food and water should be made available to the animals.
 Wildlife corridors should be provided for mass migration of big animals
during unfavourable periods.
 Rituals such as wild animal hunting like ‘Akhand Shikar’, practiced in
Similipal Sanctuary, Odisha should be banned.
Endangered and Endemic Species of India
India is home to a number of species that are facing various degrees of extinction.
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals is internationally recognized as the list
that categorizes the status of globally threatened animal species. Based on the
numbers and the level of threat, the species have been classified into the following
groups:
 Critically endangered
Animals in this category face the highest risk. Critically endangered means that a
species’ numbers have decreased, or will decrease, by 80 per cent within three
generations. There are 18 critically endangered animal species in India, including
the Ganges shark, Himalayan wolf, Indian vulture and pygmy hog.
 Endangered
A species is said to be endangered when its population is at risk of becoming
extinct because it is either few in numbers, or threatened by changing environmental
or predation parameters. There are 54 endangered species in India, including
Asiatic lion, chiru (Tibetan antelope), Ganges dolphin, Indian rhinoceros, Indian
elephant, Royal Bengal tiger, Nilgiri tahr, Olive Ridley turtle, red turtle, snow leopard,
etc.

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Global Warming, Ozone  Vulnerable
Depletion and Bio
Diversity
A vulnerable species is one which has been categorized as likely to become
endangered unless the circumstances threatening its survival and reproduction
NOTES improve.
 Threatened
Threatened species are any species (including animals, plants, fungi, etc.) which
are vulnerable to endangerment in the near future. In addition to the animals, nearly
450 plant species have been identified in the categories of endangered.
India is also rich in endemic species. Endemic species are those that are
found in specific locations and nowhere else in the world. The biodiversity hotspots
in India are rich in endemic species. The Western Ghats are the richest in endemic
species, with about 62 per cent of the known amphibian species and nearly 50
per cent of the lizards of India being endemic to this region. There are 42 species
of endemic birds in India, out of which 35 are found in the Western Ghats. About
30 per cent of the world’s recorded flora is endemic to India. Most of these
endemic species are found in the Himalayas and adjoining regions and in the Western
Ghats. Endemic mammals of India include lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri langur, brown
palm civet and Nilgiri tahr.
3.4.2 Conservation of Biodiversity
Due to the tremendous importance of biodiversity it is considered an asset of a
region or a nation. Due to its multiple advantages of commercial value, consumption
value, medicinal value, social, cultural, religious and optional values, biodiversity
needs to be conserved. The need for its protection and conservation has become
more important due to overexploitation and the subsequent depletion. There are
two types of methods of conservation of biodiversity:
 Ex-situ
 In situ
Ex-situ conservation means off-site protection of biodiversity. It is the process of
protecting an endangered species of plant or animal by removing it from an unsafe
or threatened habitat and placing it under human care. While Ex-situ conservation
comprises some of the oldest and best-known techniques known to and created
by man, it also involves newer techniques like laboratory method.
Ex-situ conservation
Creation of zoos, botanical gardens, culture collection centres are the most
conventional and traditional methods of ex-situ conservation, all of which house
and protect specimens for breeding and reproduction of wild life animals and
plants. Endangered plants may also be preserved in part in such botanical garden
through seed banks and germ plasma banks. Endangered animals are preserved
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using similar techniques through preservation in gene bank. In the gene banks, Global Warming, Ozone
Depletion and Bio Diversity
which consist of cryogenic facilities, live sperms, eggs or embryos can be stored.
Some countries have established frozen zoos to store such samples from more
than 366 species, which consist of mammals, reptiles and birds.
NOTES
Drawbacks of ex-situ conservation: Ex-situ conservation although is helpful to
man’s effort to sustain and protect biodiversity, is rarely enough to save a species
from extinction. It can be used as a last resort or as a supplement to in-situ
conservation. It cannot re-create a habitat. Furthermore, ex-situ conservation
techniques are often costly natural.
In-situ conservation
In-situ conservation means to conserve the biodiversity within the habitat and on
site. It deals with the protection of an extinct species of plant or animal in its natural
habitat, either by protecting or preventing the habitat itself from getting exhausted.
The benefit of in-situ conservation is that it maintains the natural surroundings of
the population of the animals or plant in its natural distinctive property. In situ
conservation should be preferred to ex-situ conservation, the latter opted only in
case where in situ conservation is either too difficult or impossible. Wildlife
conservation is mostly based on in situ conservation through protection and
recreation of the wildlife habitat.

Check Your Progress

6. What do you mean by genetic variability?
7. Give a brief note on the biological diversity of India.
8. How did the Convention of Biological Diversity, 1992 define biodiversity?
9. What are the three levels of biodiversity?
10. What is the ethical value of biodiversity?
11. What are the two hot spots of biodiversity in India?

3.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. The means-end relationship enjoins that our actions should be ethically as

good as the means.
2. Climate is the average weather of an area. It is the general weather conditions,
seasonal variations and extremes of weather in a region.
3. The Stern review maintains that though all countries have to suffer due to
climate change, it is the poorest that will suffer the most. However, any
positive international action will help slow down this change.

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Global Warming, Ozone 4. The ozone layer is a thin layer in the atmosphere, made up of oxygen atoms
Depletion and Bio
Diversity (O3) that absorb harmful ultraviolet radiation (UV-B) from reaching the
earth’s surface.
5. The Montreal Protocol aims to reduce and eventually eliminate the emissions
NOTES
of man-made Ozone Depleting Substances (ODSs).
6. When the genes within the same species show different versions, due to
new combinations, it is called genetic variability. For example, all rice varieties
belong to the species Oryza sativa, but there are thousands of wild and
cultivated varieties of rice which show variations at the genetic level and
differ in their colour, size, shape, aroma and nutrient content of the grain.
7. Every country is characterized by its own biodiversity depending mainly on
its climate. India has a rich biological diversity of flora and fauna. Overall, 6
per cent of the global species are found in India. It is estimated that India
ranks tenth among the plant rich countries of the world, eleventh in terms of
the number of endemic species of higher vertebrates and sixth among the
centres of diversity and origin of agricultural crops.
8. In the Convention of Biological Diversity, 1992, biodiversity has been defined
as the variability among living organisms from all sources including inter alia,
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological
complexes of which they are a part of.
9. Biodiversity means the variety and variability of all living organisms.
Biodiversity constitutes the biological wealth. Biodiversity is at three levels
genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity.
10. It is also sometimes known as existence value. It involves ethical issues like
‘all life must be preserved’. It is based on the concept of ‘live and let live’.
If we want our human race to survive, then we must protect all biodiversity,
because biodiversity is valuable.
11. There are twenty-five such hot spots of biodiversity on a global level, out of
which two are present in India, namely the Eastern Himalayas and the
Western Ghats.

3.6 SUMMARY

 Global warming and climate change are perhaps considered to be the greatest
threat to the planet. Global warming is threatening the existence of life on
this planet. Global warming affects climate in such a manner that it intimately
becomes related with our economic, social and political activities.
 The past acts of the developed countries have contributed to immense global
warming resulting in heavy carbon dioxide emissions. The way global
warming impacts the atmosphere is highly complex.

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 The ethic of means and end relationship which Gandhi has espoused seems Global Warming, Ozone
Depletion and Bio Diversity
to be vital for environmental problems and its solutions. The means-end
relationship enjoins that our actions should be ethically as good as the means.
 Climate is the average weather of an area. It is the general weather conditions,
NOTES
seasonal variations and extremes of weather in a region. Such conditions
which average over a long period, for at least thirty years is called climate.
 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1990 and 1992
published the best available evidence about past climate changes, the
greenhouse effect and recent changes in global temperature.
 Heat trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere keeps the planet warm
enough to allow us and other species to exist. The two predominant
greenhouse gases are water vapour which is controlled by the hydrological
cycle and carbon dioxide which is controlled mostly by the global carbon
cycle.
 Climate change is a serious challenge faced by the international community
striving towards sustainable development. It has implications for not only
health and well-being of the earth’s ecosystem but also for the economic
enterprises and social livelihood.
 One of the most significant reviews on the economics of climate change is
the Stern review. The review maintains that though all countries have to
suffer due to climate change, it is the poorest that will suffer the most.
However, any positive international action will help slow down this change.
 Historic events reveal that droughts and heavy floods had a major impact
on the economy of developing countries. During the events like droughts or
floods, the government revenue is often reduced due to the less output;
while the expenditure needs to be increased to supply food aid and repair
the damaged infrastructure.
 The costs are lower if the world adopts the cheapest emission-reduction
technologies first and the highest-cost technologies last—but we have no
guarantee the world shall act that way.
 The ozone layer is a thin layer in the atmosphere, made up of oxygen atoms
(O3) that absorb harmful ultraviolet radiation (UV-B) from reaching the
earth’s surface. The ozone is being depleted by chemicals released into the
atmosphere like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), carbon tetraflouride, methyl
chloroforms, chlorofluoromethanes (aerosol repellents and as refrigerants).
 Ozone is beneficial when it is in the stratosphere by protecting us from the
harmful UV rays, as it helps in formation of photochemical smog in the
troposphere. It needs to be mentioned here that the photochemical smog
formation is mainly due to human activities.

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Global Warming, Ozone  Halocarbon compounds are based with chlorine, fluorine or bromine in
Depletion and Bio
Diversity them. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are commonly called Freon gases and
bromofluoro carbons are called Halons. These gases do not occur naturally
and are entirely created by human activities.
NOTES
 The Vienna Convention was adopted on 22 March 1985 and entered into
force on 22 September 1988. As per the Vienna Convention, the parties
agree to take appropriate measures to prevent the modification of the ozone
layer.
 The Montreal Protocol, which entered into force on 1 January 1989, outlined
the specific measures to be taken in order to control the use of Ozone
Depleting Substances (ODSs). The protocol aims to reduce and eventually
eliminate the emissions of man-made ODSs.
 The total diversity and variability of living things and of the system of which
they are a part is generally defined as biological diversity, i.e. the total
variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity includes diversity within species,
between species and of ecosystems.
 Genetic biodiversity means the variation of genes within a species.
 Ecosystem biodiversity is the diversity that shows variations in ecological
niches, nutrient cycling, tropic structure, food webs, etc. There is variation
in physical parameters like moisture, temperature, altitude and precipitation.
Thus, there is tremendous variation within the ecosystems along these
gradients.
 The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development at Rio
in 1992, put biological diversity on the international agenda by signing the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
 Human impact on nature has reached such high proportions that the world
is today witnessing an extraordinary rate in loss of species. Many thousands
of species will disappear even before they are found as described by
biologists.
 Destruction and loss of natural habitat is the single largest cause of losing
biodiversity. Billions of hectares of forests and grasslands have been
converted into agricultural land, pastures, settlement areas or for development
projects.
 A species is said to be endangered when its population is at risk of becoming
extinct because it is either few in numbers, or threatened by changing
environmental or predation parameters. There are 54 endangered species
in India.
 There are two types of methods of conservation of biodiversity:
o Ex-situ
o In situ
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 Global Warming, Ozone
3.7 KEY WORDS Depletion and Bio Diversity

 Global warming: It is a gradual increase in the overall temperature of the

earth’s atmosphere generally attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by NOTES
increased levels of carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and other pollutants.
 Carbon cycle: It is the series of processes by which carbon compounds
are interconverted in the environment, involving the incorporation of carbon
dioxide into living tissue by photosynthesis and its return to the atmosphere
through respiration, the decay of dead organisms, and the burning of fossil
fuels.
 Ozone layer: It is a layer in the earth’s stratosphere at an altitude of about
6.2 miles (10 km) containing a high concentration of ozone, which absorbs
most of the ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth from the sun.
 CFC: It refers to any of a class of compounds of carbon, hydrogen, chlorine,
and fluorine, typically gases used in refrigerants and aerosol propellants.
They are harmful to the ozone layer in the earth’s atmosphere owing to the
release of chlorine atoms on exposure to ultraviolet radiation.
 Biodiversity: It is the variety of life in the world or in a particular habitat or
ecosystem.
 Habitat: It refers to the natural home or environment of an animal, plant, or
other organism.

3.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. What kind of special importance does the means-end relationship have in
the environmental context?
2. What is the cause of global warming?
3. State the measures to control global warming.
4. What causes the depletion of ozone layer? How does this depletion affect
the earth?
5. What are the obligations under the Vienna Convention?
6. Categorize the species on the basis of their number and the level of threat to
them.
7. What are the two types of methods of conservation of biodiversity?

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Global Warming, Ozone Long Answer Questions
Depletion and Bio
Diversity
1. ‘The management of global climate cannot be successfully attempted through
economic evaluation.’ Elucidate the statement.
NOTES 2. What are halocarbons? Describe their uses and classification.
3. Illustrate the levels of biodiversity.
4. How does biodiversity in terms of its commercial utility, ecological value,
social and aesthetic value have enormous importance? Explain.

3.9 FURTHER READINGS

J. Donald Hughes. 2015. What is Environmental History?. London: Wiley.

Chakrabarti, Ranjan. 2020. Critical Themes in Environmental History of India.
New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Agnoletti, Mauro and Simone Neri Serneri. 2014. The Basic Environmental
History. New York: Springer International Publishing.
Isenberg, Andrew Christian. 2014. The Oxford Handbook of Environmental
History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rosencrazz, Armin. 2002. Environmental law & Policy in India. Noida: Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Appadurai, Susila. 2004. Environmental studies. New Delhi: New Century Book
House Pvt Ltd.
Porter, Goreth, Janet Welsh Brown. 2000. Global Environmental politics.
Colorado: Westview Press.

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 Environment Culture

UNIT 4 ENVIRONMENT and India

CULTURE AND INDIA

NOTES
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Environment in the Indian Cultural Tradition
4.3 Colonial Environment Policy
4.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
4.5 Summary
4.6 Key Words
4.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
4.8 Further Readings

4.0 INTRODUCTION

Today, when people throughout the world are perturbed by the degradation of the
environment and its disastrous consequences, traditional ethics of nature
conservation could be looked upon as a source of inspiration and guidance for a
better future. Perhaps no other culture can provide such a profound variety of
cultural practices and ecologically sound relationship with nature as the Indian
culture. In this unit, we will study about the importance given to the plants, land,
trees and animals in Indian culture. Moreover, the part played by the British in
degradation of the Indian forests and in formulating the Indian Forest Policy has
also been discussed. The British took some of the very strong steps in order to
protect environment from degrading and to preserve it for the future generations.
But, some of these laws showed their capability on paper and not on the practical
grounds. Many laws and acts enacted by the British in our country proved out to
be more useful for them as compared to local population. They made several laws
so as to make their task easy as by that they were able to make use of the resources
and degrade environment comfortably and lawfully. Some of the laws were so as
to protect the resources from the natives itself, so that the British can utilize them
for their own needs which were to gain as much capital from India as possible.
They introduced rail in India so that the resources present in India, especially
environmental resources that they were harnessing, can reach easily and quickly
to their destination. They made laws for conserving the forest and in the process
marked much of the area as the property of the government so that no one could
object to the use of these forests by the British. Even if some laws were beneficial
for the environment conservation, they were not implemented properly. The laws
like Indian Penal Code 1860, and Criminal Procedure Code 1893, were very
effective. Moreover, the laws made by the British paved a way for the Indian to
think and implement new laws in this field itself. These laws were one of the first
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Environment Culture lessons for the Indians to make laws for the protection of the environment in a
and India
more polished fashion in the future.

NOTES
4.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 Describe the value and importance of land, plants, trees and animals in
Indian tradition
 Explain the contribution of Indians in past for the conservation of trees
 Discuss the various stages through which Forest policy of India came into
existence
 State the influence of the British on Indian forests during the colonial era

4.2 ENVIRONMENT IN THE INDIAN CULTURAL

TRADITION

Living in harmony with Nature has been an integral part of Indian culture. This has
been abundantly reflected in a variety of traditional practices, religious beliefs,
rituals, folklore, arts and crafts, and in the daily lives of the Indian people from
time immemorial. The present day global concerns for sustainable development
and conservation of natural resources spanning the two decades between the
Stockholm Conference of Environment in 1992 and the United Nations Conference
on Human Environment and Development (Earth Summit) at Rio de Janeiro in
1992 are of recent origin in comparison to the long tradition and cultural ethos of
nature conservation in India.
Virtually all the countries of the world have rich traditions embedded in the
ethics of protecting nature. Many ancient cultures tell us how communities lived in
harmony with nature, with a tradition of reverence for the elements that constitute
ecosystems, drawing their sustenance from natural resources and at the same time
protecting the environment that sustains them. Modern man tends to look down
upon indigenous people as primitive, backward and superstitious. They may be
poor, illiterate, and disadvantaged in many other ways, but they have a tremendous
understanding of ecosystems and the factors that sustain them. In the words of
Sitakant Mahapatra (1992):
They still look upon life as a gift to be celebrated; and this ancient Earth as one
to be praised, worshipped and also celebrated. They are the one to whom the
earth is not something to be used, not a possession or an object for exploitation
but a living entity, an object of reverence, and the relationship is one of sacred
trust and loving intimacy. For, they believe as much in celebrating one’s life in
this world as in remembering, adoring and celebrating the world in one’s life. The
sacred soil of ancestors into which one is born is thus a part of one’s fundamental
psychic experience of life and is a part of its spiritual dimension. The earth, the
land, the village enter into and are secure in racial memory and it is only an
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 The worship of Mother Earth is a universal phenomenon in many indigenous Environment Culture
and India
cultures. There are innumerable examples of festivals, rituals, songs, and myths
that celebrate the gifts of Mother Earth all over the world, revealing the intimate
sense of togetherness and harmony that exists between man and nature in tribal
societies. An American-Indian community, the Sioux Indians, refused to till the soil NOTES
because they did not want to wound the body of their mother, the Earth. They
would say, ‘Must I mutilate her flesh so as to get at her bones? Then I can never
again enter into her body and be born again.’
Indigenous people in many countries attribute supernatural powers to plants,
animals, rivers, oceans, mountains, the wind, sun and moon. Respect for nature is
inherent in many religious faiths. Many Hindu gods and goddesses are shown to
use animals as mounts. Sacred groves or sacred forests preserved with reverence
have been part of Hindu and Buddhist culture. In Christianity as well as in Islam,
conservation of the environment is based on the principle that nature and its
components are created by God, and humans are entrusted with the responsibility
of protecting it. Many religions and moral philosophies have professed the unity of
all life on earth and the obligation of human beings to care for them.
The Indian Tradition
For the people of India, environmental conservation is not a new concept.
Historically, the protection of nature and wildlife was an ardent article of faith,
reflected in the daily lives of people, enshrined in myths, folklore, religion, arts,
and culture. Some of the fundamental principles of ecology-the interrelationship
and interdependence of all life-were conceptualized in the Indian ethos and reflected
in the ancient scriptural text, the Isopanishad, over 2000 years ago. It says, ‘This
universe is the creation of the Supreme Power meant for the benefit of all his
creation. Each individual life-form must, therefore, learn to enjoy its benefits by
forming a part of the system in close relation with other species. Let not anyone
species encroach upon the other’s rights.’
The oldest visual image of the human fascination, love, and reverence for
nature in India can be found in the 10,000 year-old cave paintings at Bhimbetka in
Central India depicting birds, animals, and human beings living in harmony. The
Indus Valley civilization provides evidence of human interest in wildlife, as seen in
seals depicting images of rhino, elephant, bull, etc. Historically, conservation of
nature and natural resources was an innate aspect of the Indian psyche and faith,
reflected in religious practices, folklore, art and culture permeating every aspect
of the daily lives of people. Scriptures and preaching that exhort reverence for
nature and relate to conservation can be found in most of the religions that have
flourished in the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity,
Islam; and others place great emphasis on the values, beliefs, and attitudes that
relate to the cross-cultural universality of respect for nature and the elements that
constitute the universe. The concept of sinning against nature existed in various
religious systems. Classical Indian myth is replete with similes of man in unison
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Environment Culture with the environment. Many of the rituals which to modern society may seem
and India
meaningless and superstitious were traditional strategies to preserve the intrinsic
relationship between man and nature. The worship of trees, animals, forests, rivers,
and the sun, and considering the earth itself as Mother Goddess, were part of the
NOTES Indian tradition.
Sacred Groves
One of the finest examples of traditional practices in India based on religious faith
which has made a profound contribution to nature conservation has been the
maintenance of certain patches of land or forests as “sacred groves’ dedicated to
a deity or a village God, protected, and worshipped. These are found all over
India, and abundantly along the Western Ghats, the west coast, and in several
parts of Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. In Kerala there are
hundreds of small jungles dedicated to snakes (Sarpakavu, Sarpa meaning
snake, kavu meaning jungle). There are also Ayyappan kavus dedicated to Lord
Ayyappa, the most famous of which, visited by millions of devotees every year,
being the sacred hill of Sabarimala with an Ayyappan temple.
According to Madhav Gadgil (1985):
Sacred groves ranged in extent from fifty hectares or more to a few hundred
square metres. Where the network. of sacred groves has remained intact till
recent times, as in the South Kanara district of the west coast, one can see that
they formed island of climax vegetation at densities of 2 to 3 per. sq. km, ranging
in size from a small clump to a hectare or more, and originally covering perhaps
5 per cent of the land area. This must have been a very effective way of preserving
tropical biological diversity, for we are still discovering new species of plants
which have disappeared from everywhere else, in these sacred groves.
In spite of the depletion of forests in many parts of India, some sacred
groves still remain intact as oases in deserts, conserving rich biological diversity.
The maintenance of sacred groves can thus he considered to be an outstanding
example of a traditional practice that has contributed to forest conservation, albeit
in a small measure. There are also examples of sacred ponds attached to temples
in many parts of India. Some of these have been responsible for the protection of
certain endangered species of turtles, crocodiles, and the rare fresh water sponge.
Sacred Plants and Animals
Many plants and animals have from historical times been considered sacred in
India by various communities. The most outstanding examples are the peepal
tree (Ficus religiosa). The banyan tree (Ficus ‘bengelensiss, and Khejdi
tree (Prosopis cineraria), and these have been traditionally revered and therefore
never cut. There are a number of other trees and plants considered sacred and
grown in temple premises and are protected in other localities. More than a hundred
such species of trees/plants in India are considered sacred by various communities
and religious faiths. These include the sandalwood tree, beetlenut,
palm, neem, coconut palm, juniper, champa, lotus, tulsi, pepper, etc. Such
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traditional cultural attitudes, though based on religious faith, have made significant Environment Culture
and India
contribution in the protection and propagation of various species of trees and
plants in India.
Many animals are considered sacred and worshipped by several Hindu and
NOTES
other communities, and have thus received protection for centuries. The peafowl,
sacred to lord Karttikeya is never hunted, the blue rock pigeon is considered
sacred to Saint Hazrat Shah lalal and is protected in the Bengal region. Even
rodents are considered sacred and are allowed to breed in the famous temple of
goddess Karnimata in Rajasthan. The tiger and the cobra, though greatly feared,
are afforded protection on religious grounds. According to Asutosh Bhattacharya
(1956):
In the pre-Aryan society of India tiger worship was in vogue from the remotest
past. The seal engraved with the image of Siva, lord of beasts, that has been
discovered at Mohenjodaro has also, among other four principal beasts, the
figure of a tiger engraved beside Siva. Siva, the god of the ancient non-Aryan
race of India, is clad in a tigerskin and it is a tigerskin which is his seat. Probably
the tiger was the most primitive vehicle of Siva. Later, when cow-worship started
in society, Siva was made to ride on a bullock, but a tigerskin was preserved for
his wearing cloth and seat. The legitimate conclusion form the association of
this particular beast with the god Siva is that the tiger-worship of primitive
society has subsequently got mixed with the Saiva cult. Another proof of the
special vogue of tiger-worship in regions lying outside the pale of Aryan society
in Northern India is that there is a community named Baghel Rajputs in Rajputana.
Perhaps they are the descendants of some primitive community of tiger-
worshippers. They worship tigers and never hunt them.
Snake worship has been an established cult among the Nairs of Kerala.
Snake groves or kavus abounding in wild trees and creepers housing a cobra’s
head carved in granite were found near the homes of many Kerala Hindus. The
celebrated Padmanabaswami temple in Thiruvanthapuram has Lord Vishnu reclining
on a mighty serpent. Many other animals are also worshipped as they are considered
vehicles of gods and goddesses.
Dealing with the status given to ‘animals in India, Sadashiv Gorakshkar
(1988) states:
In Buddhist mythology, the Jatakas or the stories of the Buddha’s previous life
are replete with several incarnations of the Bodhisattvaas an animal. Among the
Jains, eighteen of the twenty-four Tirthankaras have an animal as their cognizance.
It is interesting to observe that the first, second and the eleventh Tirthankaras
have a bull, an elephant and a rhinoceros as their cognizances. Their antiquity
could be traced to the Indus valley period (c. 2500 -1750 BC). The famous Pasupati
seal, for instance, shows a deity seated with a horned crown and surrounded by
an elephant, a tiger, a rhino and a bull/buffalo. On the other hand, those of the
first, second, third, and fourth, viz. the bull, elephant, horse and lion make their
appearance on the Ashokan pillar capital at Sarnath in the third century BC.
All these accounts vividly show how the ancient culture and traditions of
Indian society contributed to the conservation of natural ecosystems, and the plants
and animals that inhabited these.
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Environment Culture Nature in Indian Art and Scriptures
and India
Indian painting, sculpture, architectural ornamentation, and the decorative arts is
replete with themes from nature and wildlife reflecting love and reverence, and
NOTES therefore the ethics of conservation. A wide range of images of forests, plants, and
animals are to be found in Indian miniature paintings and sculpture. The theme of
the Hindu God Krishna’s life depicted in miniature paintings underlines an
appreciation of ecological balance. He is shown persuading people to worship the
mountain in order to ensure rainfall. Krishna swallowing the forest fire also signifies
a concern for the protection of forests and wildlife.
Innumerable examples of the status given to plants and animals can also be
seen in the traditional sculptural art of India. The concept of vana devatas (tree
goddesses), vehicles of gods and goddesses, sacred trees, tree and animal worship,
etc., are depicted in stone and metal sculptures independently, or as part of temples,
palaces, and historical buildings. In literature and scriptures too there has been
considerable depiction of the appreciation and love for nature:
“Mahakavi Kalidasa, a prominent poet of the ancient period (fourth century
AD) visualized, a cloud as a messenger in his Meghaduta and went into raptures
when describing various seasons in his Ritusamhara.” Such an involvement with
nature is reflected even in the visual arts which excel in their minute depiction of
nature.
Indian literature effectively mirrors the ethos of its deep and sympathetic
understanding of animals through innumerable stories. Even amongst these one
could pertinently mention are the Hitopadesha, the Panchatantra or the Shuka-
saptati which abound in allegorical references to the animal world. The impact of
the Panchatantra was so great that as early as the seventh century AD it was
translated into Arabic under the title Kalila-wa-Dimna and has been very popular
in the Arab and Persian world ever since. Though an interior form of life, animals
have been endowed with ennobling qualities which provide lessons in morals
relevant even to human beings.
Just as the appearance of animals in dreams or visions is considered to
express energy, which has still not been differentiated or rationalized, identification
of oneself with animals has been interpreted to represent integration of the
unconscious with sources of life itself. Indian approach to the animal world has
consistently demonstrated this appreciation throughout its evolving pattern of
thought, and it is no wonder that Indian art, while reflecting the changing approach
to physical representation of animal form, has retained the core of thought that it
has moulded.
Other Specific Contributions to Conservation
Twenty-two centuries ago Emperor Ashoka decreed that it was a king’s duty to
protect wildlife and the trees of the forests. He got edicts inscribed on rocks and
iron pillars throughout his kingdom, prohibiting the destruction of forests and the
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killing of various species of animals. This historical evidence, surviving to this day, Environment Culture
and India
is the first recorded measure on conservation anywhere in the world. In more
recent historical times, Mughal Emperor Babur’s memoirs (Baburnama), Guru
Nanak’s hymns on ‘Baramasa’ (the seasons) depicting each month with a dominant
bird image, and Emperor Jehangir’s memoirs showing his keen interest in and NOTES
study of wildlife provide fine illustrations of this Indian tradition.
The love for nature has been handed down the ages, becoming an integral
part of the Indian psyche. Nowhere is this better exemplified than in the martyrdom
of the Bishnois in Khejarli village in Rajasthan. In 1730 AD the then ruler of a
native state had ordered the khejri (Prosopis cineraria) trees to be cut in order
to bake lime for the construction of a fort. This sparked off a strong collective
protest from the local Bishnoi community. 363 men and women, young and old,
one after the other, placed their heads against the trees to prevent them being cut
and were axed along with the trees. The ruler of the state was so moved by this
sacrifice that he sought pardon from the people and issued an order that no green
trees should in future be cut in the Bishnoi village. This happened over two centuries
ago when the world had scarcely become conscious of ecological consequences
of the reckless felling of trees. This legend is now celebrated by singers on stage
and in the streets during the Tree Festival.
This long tradition and belief in the conservation of nature is also vividly
alive in contemporary times. One of the most successful conservation movements
in India today is the Chipko movement spearheaded by the womenfolk of
Gopeswar village in Garhwal in the Himalaya. Commercial felling of trees was
effectively stopped by them by hugging the trees when lumbermen arrived to cut
them. This simple yet effective action eventually saved 12,000 sq.km. of a sensitive
water catchment area. There was a similar Apiko movement in the southern state
of Karnataka.
Environment and Development
India is no exception to the global phenomenon of environmental degradation
brought about by developmental activities. Rapid industrialization, growing
urbanization, intensive cultivation, and other developmental activities, coupled with
increasing biotic pressure has had a very adverse impact on India’s environment.
The major areas of environmental concern today include, (i) deforestation, (ii)
degradation of land resources, (iii) pollution of air and water, (iv) threat to natural
living resources - wildlife, fisheries, etc., and (v) problems associated with
urbanization - slums, sanitation and pollution.
Human and animal pressures have led to considerable deforestation.
Deforestation leads to soil erosion and sedimentation that shortens the economic
life of reservoirs, hydroelectric facilities, and irrigation systems. The problem of
water and air pollution is assuming serious proportions in various parts of the
country. With eighty per cent of industrial production confined to ten cities,
atmospheric pollution is concentrated principally in the major cities and industrial
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Environment Culture towns. Apart from industries, the density of traffic is also contributing substantially
and India
to air pollution.
Habitat destruction has endangered the survival of a number of plants and
animals.
NOTES
Two species of mammals - the Indian cheetah and the Lesser Indian
rhinoceros, and two species of birds – the Pink headed duck and the Mountain
quail – have become extinct during twentieth century alone. Eighty-one species of
mammals, 38 species of birds, and 18 species of amphibians and reptiles are now
listed as ‘rare’ and ‘threatened’. Among these are the tiger, leopard, Asiatic elephant,
and all- the three species of the Indian crocodile. About 1500 species of plants
are on the endangered list.
India has often been described as a rich land with poor people. Its average
annual precipitation, the second highest in the world, next only to South America,
its perpetual sunshine, and its other resources (natural and human) place it among
the potentially rich nations. History, however, decreed otherwise and it found itself
in 1947, at the time of Independence, among the poorest with “a majority of its
people suffering from hunger, ignorance, and disease, and with little infrastructure
for irrigation, power, transport, communication or industry. Only 25 per cent of its
men and 7 per cent of its women knew how to read and write. The founding
fathers of the nation led by Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru realized that
political independence would have no meaning unless it enabled them to quickly
release themselves from the morass of poverty. Thus began, in the words of Indira
Gandhi, ‘an enterprise unparalleled in human history – the provision of basic needs
to one-sixth of mankind within the span of one or two generations’.
It was in the early seventies that, along with the rest of the countries of the
world, India became conscious of another disquieting trend. The same efforts that
had helped to bring people above the poverty line also put greater pressure on the
natural resources of the country. The vast majority of our people are directly
dependent on the country’s natural resources for their basic needs of food, fuel,
shelter, and fodder for their cattle.
While the annual per capita income in India has been rising over the years,
about 40 per cent of the people are still below the poverty line. Environmental
degradation has adversely affected the poor who depend upon the resources of
their immediate surroundings. Thus the challenge of poverty and the challenge of
environmental degradation are not two different challenges, but two facets of a
single challenge. In a developing country attempting to achieve rapid economic
growth, there are often tensions between the claims of environmental protection
and those of development. That environmental conservation cannot be isolated
from the general issues of development and must be viewed as an integral part of
it, and an essential prerequisite for sustainable development, is being increasingly
understood today. Conscious efforts are now being made to integrate environmental
concerns into policies and programmes relating to economic development. It is at
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this juncture that we should look back upon our rich tradition of living in harmony Environment Culture
and India
with nature, which over the years have been overshadowed by the Western utilitarian
approach to scientific and technological developments.
Madhav Gadgil and Romila Thapar (1990) focus our attention to our
NOTES
traditional relationship with nature when they say:
India obviously needs a new strategy of resource use and a new common belief
system to hold the society together and put this strategy into operation. The
present strategy of resource-use intensification, leading to increasing levels of
outflows from the countryside to the urban-industrial sector, which is heavily
subsidized by the state, and from the country as a whole to the developed world,
and the belief system centred on development and national prestige, which has
replaced the unifying theme of a national struggle against the British, have
proved inadequate. The new strategy has to be grounded in efficient, sustainable
use of resources and supported by a belief system based on respect for the
natural endowments of the country. There are welcome signs that such a strategy
and such a belief system are beginning to emerge, although not enough has
happened in terms of concrete action. What does ultimately happen will depend
critically on how far society recognizes the real power of those whose well-being
is organically linked to the health of the resource base of the country the peasants,
the tribal peoples and the nomads.

Check Your Progress

1. What evidences of human interest in wildlife does the Indus Valley
civilization provide?
2. Name the major areas of environmental concern today.
3. What is the adverse effect of soil erosion and sedimentation?
4. Which factors place India among the potentially rich nations?

4.3 COLONIAL ENVIRONMENT POLICY

In 1600, British arrived in India in the form of East India Company with the mission
of trading goods from India. But, after seeing the immense amount of natural
resources and plunders of opportunity to exploit the resources present here, they
changed their game plan and started applying coercion so as to complete their aim
of exploiting natural resources in India. At the time when British arrived in India,
India was divided into several princely states ruled by different rulers. It was quite
an easy task for the British to establish itself gradually and astutely. They very
cleverly implemented the policy of Divide and Rule in India and took advantage of
the diversity on the basis of different rulers as well as due to multiplicity of religion
in the country. The early days of British rule in India were days of plunder of
natural resources. They started exploiting the rich resources present in India by
employing the policy of imperialism.

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Environment Culture By around 1860, Britain had emerged as the world leader in deforestation,
and India
devastating its own woods and the forests in Ireland, South Africa and the
northeastern United States to draw timber for shipbuilding, iron-smelting and
farming. Occasionally the British would destroy the forests to symbolize their political
NOTES victory. Thus, the early nineteenth century, and following its defeat of the Marathas,
the East India Company razed to the ground teak plantation in Ratnagiri nurtured
and grown by the legendary Maratha Admiral Kanhoji Angre. There was a total
indifference to the needs of the forest conservancy. They caused a fierce onslaught
on Indian Forests. The onslaught on the forests was primarily because of the
increasing demand for military purposes, for British navy, for local construction
(such as roads and railways), supply of teak and sandalwood for export trade an
extension of agriculture in order to supplement revenue.
The British government started taking control of the forest region in the year
1806 when a commission was appointed to enquire into the availability of teak in
Malabar and Travancore by way of appointment of Conservator of Forest. This
move failed to conserve forest as the appointed conservator plundered the forest
wealth instead of conserving it. Consequently, the post of conservator of forest
was abolished in the year 1823.
Their early treatment of the Indian forest also reinforces the claim that
destructive energy of the British race all over the world was rapidly converting
forest into desert. Until the later decades of nineteenth century, the British Raj
carried out an immense onslaught on the subcontinent’s forest. With the Oaks
forest vanishing in England, a permanent supply of durable timber was required
for the British Navy because the safety and defense of the British Empire depended
primarily on its navy. In the period of fierce competition between the colonial
powers, Indian teak, the most durable of shipbuilding, saved British during a war
with Napoleon and the later maritime expansion. To tap the likely sources supply,
search parties were sent to teak forests of India’s west coast. Ships were built in
the dockyards in the Surat and the Malabar Coast, as well as in England by
importing teak from India.
The revenue orientation of colonial land policy also worked towards the
denudation of forests. As their removal added to the class of land assessed for
revenue, forests were considered as an obstruction to agriculture and consequently
a bar to the prosperity of the British Empire. The dominant thrust of agrarian
policy was to extend cultivation and the watchword of the time was to destroy the
forest with this end in view.
This process greatly intensified in the early years of the building of the railways
network after about 1853. While great chunks of forests were destroyed to meet
the demand for railway sleepers, no supervision was exercised over the felling
operation in which a large number of trees were felled and lay rotting on the road.
The sub-Himalayan forests of Garhwal and Kumaon, for example were all felled
in even to desolation and thousands of trees were felled which were never removed,
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nor was their removal possible.
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 As early as 1805, the British government requested the British East India Environment Culture
and India
Company, which already controlled large parts of the coastal regions, to investigate
the feasibility of harvesting Malabar teak in Madras to meet the needs of British
shipbuilding during the Napoleonic war. Although the East India Company was a
private trading company commissioned in 1600, in India it functioned as a state NOTES
entity, enjoying a monopoly of trade in the areas it ruled. Acting at the direction of
the British parliament, it shared authority in India with government officials. The
company appointed a former police officer, Captain Watson, as India’s first
conservator of forests in 1806. Watson’s two-pronged plan involved placing a tax
on teak in order to simultaneously slow its harvest by private interests and raise
money for the government, and then purchasing the teak from the private dealers.
Together, these measures would guard against over-exploitation and ensure a steady
supply of teak. On 3 August 1855, Lord Dalhousie, the governor general of India,
reversed previous laissez-faire policy to establish the India Forest Department
and annex large areas of sparsely populated lands in India. These lands were
declared protected areas and staffed by foresters, fireguards, rangers, and
administrators. Over the next decades, forestry in India became an international
profession with global specialists ruling an empire of trees and grasslands.
The new environmental policies served in turn to support British imperialism
in India. Unlike the conservative French and English royal forests reserved for
hunting by the privileged elite, or the later American concept of total protection in
national parks, the new colonial environmentalism was intended to generate income
for the imperial British state through strict control of India’s natural resources.
Lord Dalhousie’s new forest policies greatly expanded British authority over the
land and people of India, a colonial empire that the British had procured piecemeal
over the course of several centuries of mercantile and military exploitation. Thus,
environmentalism and imperialism have a shared past, and the newly protected
forests marked a symbiotic alliance of environmental concern with expansion of
state power in India.
After Napoleon’s defeat at Waterloo in 1815, however, the navy had less
need of teak, and a new governor of Madras, Thomas Munro, felt that the timber
royalty unnecessarily raised the opposition of Indian princes who objected to the
tax placed on forests under their authority. Munro also felt pressure from Indian
merchants who objected strenuously to a tax that cut severely into their profits
and from peasants who saw traditional access to the forest sharply curtailed. The
new governor rescinded the teak regulations, abolished Captain Watson’s position,
and allowed the free market to operate as it had before Lord Dalhousie’s tenure
as governor-general from 1848 to 1856 saw the acquisition of territory and
implementation of administrative reforms for which posterity dubbed Dalhousie
“the great Proconsul.” Dalhousie’s support for conservation was unapologetically
imperialist. Upon reaching the capital at Calcutta for his inauguration in 1848, he
proclaimed, “we are Lords Paramount of India, and our policy is to acquire as
direct a dominion over the territories in possession of the native princes, as we
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Environment Culture already hold over the other half of India.” The British government in India made it
and India
clear that “all the forests are the property of Government, and no general permission
to cut timber therein will be granted to anyone.”
The second half of the 19th century marked the beginning of an organized
NOTES
forest management in India with some administrative steps taken to conserve forest;
the formulation of forest policy and the legislations to implement the policy decision.
The systematic management of forest resources began with the appointment of
the First Inspector General of Forest in 1964. Dietrich Brandis was the first
Inspector General of India. Lord Canning appointed Dietrich Brandis as the first
inspector general of the India-wide Indian Forest Department, a post he held
from 1864 to 1883.
The immediate task of the forest department was under the supervision of
Inspector General was that of exploration of resources, demarcation of reserves,
protection of the forest from fire and assessment of the growing stock in valuable
reserve by sample enumeration and prescription of yields which could be sustained.
The objective of management of forest thus changed from obtaining of timber for
various purposes to protecting and improving forests and treating them as a
biological growing entity. Forest conservators had already been appointed in
Bombay (1847), Madras (1856), and the United Burma Provinces (1857); Brandis
in turn appointed forest conservators to the Northwestern Provinces and Central
Provinces in 1860, Oudh in 1861, Punjab in 1864, Coorg and Bengal in 1864,
Assam in 1868, and Berar in 1868. By the end of 1868, the Forest Department
had administrators in every province of the subcontinent. In 1871, the Forest
Department was placed under the newly established Department of Revenue and
Agriculture, itself under the umbrella of the Home Department. Brandis was
followed by Wilhelm Schlich (1883-88), Berthold Ribbentrop (1888-1900), and
E. P. Stebbings (1900-17).
The first step of the British Government to assess state monopoly right over
the forest was the enactment the Forest Act, 1865. The act was revised after
about thirteen years later in 1878 and extended to most of the territories under the
British rule. It also expanded the powers of the state by providing for reserved
forest, which were closed to the people and by empowering the forest administration
to impose penalties for any transgression of the provision of the Act. Yet the latter
act was passed only after a prolonged and bitter debate within the protagonist of
the earlier debate put forth arguments strikingly similar to those advanced by
participants in the contemporary debate about the environment of India.
Hurriedly drafted, the 1865 act was passed to facilitate the acquisition of
those forest areas that were earmarked for railway supplies. It merely sought to
establish the claims of the state to the forests in immediately required, subject to
the proviso that existing rights would not be abridged. Almost immediately, the
search commenced for a more stringent and inclusive piece of legislation. A
preliminary draft, prepared by Brandis in 1969, was circulated among the various
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presidencies. A conference of forest officers, convened in 1874, then went into Environment Culture
and India
defects of the 1865 act and the details of the new one.
The British Government declared its first Forest Policy by a resolution on
the 19th October 1884. The policy statement had the following objectives:
NOTES
1. Promoting the general well-being of the people in the country
2. Preserving climatic and physical condition in the country
3. Fulfilling the need of the people
The policy also suggested a rough functional classification of forest into the
following four categories:
1. Forests, the preservation of which was essential for climatic and physical
grounds;
2. Forests which offered a supply a valuable timber for commercial purposes;
3. Minor forest which produced only the inferior sort of timber; and
4. Pastures, which were forest only in name.
To implement the Forest policy of 1884, the Forest act of 1927 was enacted.
Till 1935, the government of India enacted the Forest Act. In 1935, the British
Parliament through the Government of India created provincial legislature and the
subject of the forest as included in the provincial legislature list. Thereafter, several
provinces made their own laws to regulate forest. Most of these laws were within
the framework laid down in the 1927 Act. The British all along their reign in India
formed many other Acts from time to time.
Main Acts in the field of Environment in the British Era Acts controlling
Water Pollution are as follows:
 The Shore Nuisance (Bombay and Kolaba) Act, 1853
 The Orient Gas Company Act, 1857
 Indian Penal Code, 1860
 The Serais Act, 1867
 The North India Canal and Drainage Act, 1873
 The Obstruction in Fairways Act, 1881
 The Indian Easement Act, 1882
 The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897
 The Indian Ports Act, 1908
 The Indian Steam Vessels Act, 1917
 The Poison Act, 1919
 The Indian Forest Act, 1927

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Environment Culture The Shore Nuisance (Bombay and Kolaba) Act, 1853
and India
This is the earliest Act on the statue book concerning control of water pollution in
India. It was the first act in the field of Environment protection in India, which was
NOTES enacted by the British for the British India. This act was passed so as to regulate
the waste materials discharged in the coastal area of Bombay (Now Mumbai) and
Colaba area, from various industries functioning in these areas.
Oriental Gas Company Act, 1857
This law imposed restrictions on fouling of water by the Oriental Gas Company.
The Oriental Gas Company provided fine of Rs. 1000, for fouling water and for
the subsequent continuation of the offence, Rs. 500 per day. Oriental Gas Company
(OGC) Act was among the first act in the field of water pollution.
Indian Penal Code, 1860
As regards to water pollution, Indian Penal Code says that whoever voluntarily
corrupts or fouls the water of any public spring or reservoir, so as to make it less
fit for the purpose for which it is ordinarily used, shall be punished with simple or
rigorous imprisonment for a term exceeding to three months or fine of five hundred
rupees or both. The definition is confined to a voluntary act and acts committed
without any knowledge or accidentally would not be covered under the present
law. Moreover, it has limited operation to the water of public spring or reservoir.
Further, looking to the gravity of the offence it attracts only minor punishment. It is
surprising to know that in spite of the fact that this provision was incorporated to
protect the public health, the cast ridden society wanted to enforce this provision
against the lower cast person taking water from a public cistern but the Bombay
High Court did not allow the above interpretation (R v Bhagi 2 Bom LR 1078) .
Chapter 14th of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) is for Public Nuisance from section
268 to 291.
The Serais Act, 1867
The Act enjoined upon a keeper of Serai or an inn to keep a certain quality of
water fit for consumption by “persons and use of it by the animals” to the satisfaction
of the District magistrate or his nominees. Failure for maintaining the standard
entailed a liability of rupees twenty. It is to be understood that the amount twenty
rupees was a very big amount at that time and therefore should not be compared
to the value of twenty rupees prevailing now in the country.
The North India Canal and Drainage Act, 1873
Certain offences have been listed under the Act contained in Section 70. It was to
regulate the way canals for the purpose of irrigation as well as to discharge the
effluents from various industries as well as drainage system is to be controlled.

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Obstruction in Fairways Act, 1881 Environment Culture
and India
Section 8 of the Act empowered the Central Government to make Rules to regulate
or prohibit the throwing of rubbish in any fairway leading to a port causing or likely
to give rise to a bank or shoal. NOTES
Indian Easements Act, 1882
It protected riparian owners against unreasonable pollution by upstream officer.
Illustrations (f), (h) and (j) of Section 7 of the Act deal with pollution of waters.
Section 28(d) of the Easement Act, 1882 on the one hand allowed a prescriptive
right to pollute the water but it was not an absolute right. The illustrations (f), (g),
and (j) of this Section, limited this prescriptive right not to unreasonably pollute or
cause material injury to other.
The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897
The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897 contains seven sections. This act penalized the
killing of fish by poisoning water and by using explosive. Section 5 of the Act
prohibits destruction of fish by poisoning waters.
Indian Ports Act, 1908
The Indian Ports Act, 1908, has regulated water pollution caused by the use of oil
or discharging of oil in the port waters.
The Indian Forest Act, 1927
This act was very comprehensive and contained all the major provisions of the
earlier act and amendments made thereto including those relating to the duty on
timber. The Act of 1927 also embodied land-using policy whereby the British
could acquire all forestland, village forest and other Common Property Resources.
Section 26(i) of the Act makes it punishable if any person, who, in contravention
of the rules made by the State Government, poisons water of a forest area. The
State Government has been empowered under Section 32(f) to make rules relating
to poisoning of water in forests. This act is still in force, together with several
amendments made by the State Governments.
Acts for the Protection of the Indian Environment
 The Orient Gas Company Act, 1857
 The Serais Act, 1857
 The Northern India Canal and Drainage Act, 1873
 The Obstruction in Airways Act, 1881
 The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897
 The Indian Ports Act, 1901
 The Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act, 1905
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Environment Culture  The Explosives Act, 1908
and India
 The Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act, 1912
 The Inland Stream Vessel Act, 1917
NOTES  The Mysore Destructive Insects & Pests Act, 1917
 The Poison Act, 1919
 The Andhra Pradesh Agricultural, Pest & Diseases Act, 1919
 The Indian Boilers Act, 1923
 The Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923
 The Indian Forest Act, 1927
 The Motor Vehicles Act, 1939
 The Bihar Wastelands (Reclamation, Cultivation & Improvement) Act, 1946.
Air Pollution Acts
 Indian Penal Code, 1860
 The Indian Boilers Act, 1923
 Motor Vehicle Act, 1939 (Repealed by Act No.59 of 1988)
 The Poison Act, 1919
Municipality Laws
 Uttar Pradesh Municipality Laws, 1916
 Bihar and Orissa Municipality Laws, 1922
Both of these laws were amongst the earliest laws for regulating the environment
conditions in the cities by the help of municipality laws.
Wildlife Protection Act
 Forest act of Madras 1873
 Elephant Preservation Act, 1879
 World Birds Protection Act, 1887
 World Birds and Animal Protection Act, 1912
 Hailey National Park Act,1936 (Now Called Corbett National Park)
In the field of wildlife protection, the first wildlife statute was enacted in Madras
(Chennai) for the protection of wild elephants. The law introduced a general
prohibition on destruction of wild elephants and imposed penalty on those who
violated the embargo. The first effort by the Central Government came after six
years later by the passing of the Elephant Preservation Act in 1879. In 1887,
central government enacted the Wild Birds Protection Act prohibiting the possession
or sale of wild birds recently killed or taken during the notified breeding season. In
1912, the Central Government enacted a broader Wild Life and Animal Protection
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Act. Extending to most of the British India, this law specified a closed hunting Environment Culture
and India
season and regulated the hunting of designated species through licenses. Indeed,
all the statutes related primarily to the regulation of hunting and did not regulate
trade in wildlife and wildlife products- both major factors in the decline of Indian
Wildlife. As a consequence, wildlife depredation continued and many species NOTES
became extinct.
The first comprehensive law for the protection of wildlife and its habitat was
perhaps the Hailey National Park Act of 1936, which established the Hailey (now
Corbett) National park in Uttar Pradesh.
Miscellaneous
 The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897
 The Indian Forest Act, 1927
 Criminal Procedure Code, 1893
Criminal Procedure Code, 1893
Criminal Procedure Code, 1893 was one of the major acts, which provided some
of the very strict punishments for the environmental offences under the criminal
law. Sections 133 to 144 in the Chapter XII of the Criminal Procedure under the
heading Public Nuisance provided for the punishment under criminal procedure
for the commission of any nuisance, which affected the public at large. The
environmental degradation was also included in it as any degradation of the
environment is automatically supposed to be affecting the public at large.

Check Your Progress

5. Why did the British change their plan of doing trade to exploiting natural
resources in India?
6. What was Watson’s two-pronged plan as the first conservator of forests
in 1806?

4.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. The Indus Valley civilization provides evidence of human interest in wildlife,

as seen in seals depicting images of rhino, elephant, bull, etc.
2. The major areas of environmental concern today include, (i) deforestation,
(ii) degradation of land resources, (iii) pollution of air and water, (iv) threat
to natural living resources - wildlife, fisheries, etc., and (v) problems
associated with urbanization - slums, sanitation and pollution.
3. Deforestation leads to soil erosion and sedimentation that shortens the
economic life of reservoirs, hydroelectric facilities, and irrigation systems. Self-Instructional
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Environment Culture 4. India’s average annual precipitation, the second highest in the world, next
and India
only to South America, its perpetual sunshine, and its other resources (natural
and human) place it among the potentially rich nations.
5. After seeing the immense amount of natural resources and plunders of
NOTES
opportunity to exploit the resources present here, the British changed their
game plan and started applying coercion so as to complete their aim of
exploiting natural resources in India.
6. Watson’s two-pronged plan involved placing a tax on teak in order to
simultaneously slow its harvest by private interests and raise money for the
government, and then purchasing the teak from the private dealers.

4.5 SUMMARY

 Living in harmony with Nature has been an integral part of Indian culture.
This has been abundantly reflected in a variety of traditional practices,
religious beliefs, rituals, folklore, arts and crafts, and in the daily lives of the
Indian people from time immemorial.
 Many ancient cultures tell us how communities lived in harmony with nature,
with a tradition of reverence for the elements that constitute ecosystems,
drawing their sustenance from natural resources and at the same time
protecting the environment that sustains them.
 The worship of Mother Earth is a universal phenomenon in many indigenous
cultures.
 Scriptures and preaching that exhort reverence for nature and relate to
conservation can be found in most of the religions that have flourished in the
Indian subcontinent. Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity, Islam; and
others place great emphasis on the values, beliefs, and attitudes that relate
to the cross-cultural universality of respect for nature and the elements that
constitute the universe.
 One of the finest examples of traditional practices in India based on religious
faith which has made a profound contribution to nature conservation has
been the maintenance of certain patches of land or forests as “sacred groves’
dedicated to a deity or a village God, protected, and worshipped.
 The maintenance of sacred groves can thus he considered to be an
outstanding example of a traditional practice that has contributed to forest
conservation, albeit in a small measure.
 Many plants and animals have from historical times been considered sacred
in India by various communities.
 Indian painting, sculpture, architectural ornamentation, and the decorative
arts is replete with themes from nature and wildlife reflecting love and
reverence, and therefore the ethics of conservation. A wide range of images
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 of forests, plants, and animals are to be found in Indian miniature paintings Environment Culture
and India
and sculpture.
 The major areas of environmental concern today include, (i) deforestation,
(ii) degradation of land resources, (iii) pollution of air and water, (iv) threat
NOTES
to natural living resources - wildlife, fisheries, etc., and (v) problems
associated with urbanization - slums, sanitation and pollution.
 India has often been described as a rich land with poor people. Its average
annual precipitation, the second highest in the world, next only to South
America, its perpetual sunshine, and its other resources (natural and human)
place it among the potentially rich nations.
 By around 1860, Britain had emerged as the world leader in deforestation,
devastating its own woods and the forests in Ireland, South Africa and the
northeastern United States to draw timber for shipbuilding, iron-smelting
and farming. Occasionally the British would destroy the forests to symbolize
their political victory.
 The revenue orientation of colonial land policy also worked towards the
denudation of forests.
 Acting at the direction of the British parliament, the Company shared authority
in India with government officials. It appointed a former police officer, Captain
Watson, as India’s first conservator of forests in 1806. Watson’s two-
pronged plan involved placing a tax on teak in order to simultaneously slow
its harvest by private interests and raise money for the government, and
then purchasing the teak from the private dealers.
 Lord Dalhousie’s new forest policies greatly expanded British authority over
the land and people of India, a colonial empire that the British had procured
piecemeal over the course of several centuries of mercantile and military
exploitation.
 In 1871, the Forest Department was placed under the newly established
Department of Revenue and Agriculture, itself under the umbrella of the
Home Department.
 The first step of the British Government to assess state monopoly right over
the forest was the enactment the Forest Act, 1865.
 The Shore Nuisance (Bombay and Kolaba) Act, 1853 is the earliest Act
on the statue book concerning control of water pollution in India. It was the
first act in the field of Environment protection in India, which was enacted
by the British for the British India.
 In the field of wildlife protection, the first wildlife statute was enacted in
Madras (Chennai) for the protection of wild elephants. The law introduced
a general prohibition on destruction of wild elephants and imposed penalty
on those who violated the embargo.

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Environment Culture  The Indian Forest Act, 1927 was very comprehensive and contained all the
and India
major provisions of the earlier act and amendments made thereto including
those relating to the duty on timber. The Act of 1927 also embodied land-
using policy whereby the British could acquire all forestland, village forest
NOTES and other Common Property Resources.

4.6 KEY WORDS

 Culture: It refers to the customs, arts, social institutions, and achievements

of a particular nation, people, or other social group.
 Worship: It refers to the acts or rites that make up a formal expression of
reverence for a deity; a religious ceremony or ceremonies.
 Groves: It refers to a small wood, orchard, or group of trees.
 Scripture: It is the sacred writings of a religion.
 Environmental degradation: It is the deterioration of the environment
through depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of
ecosystems; habitat destruction; the extinction of wildlife; and pollution.
 Environment policy: It is the commitment of an organization or government
to the laws, regulations, and other policy mechanisms concerning
environmental issues.

4.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. What are sacred groves? Give examples.
2. State the importance of plants and trees in Indian tradition?
3. How did the new environmental policies support British imperialism in India?
4. Why was Dalhousie ‘the great Proconsul’?
5. What were the objectives of the first Forest policy declared by the British
government in1884?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Describe the accounts showing the contribution of ancient culture and
traditions of Indian society to the conservation of natural ecosystems.
2. How is the importance of nature conservation depicted in Indian arts and
scriptures? Explain.

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 3. ‘The challenge of poverty and the challenge of environmental degradation Environment Culture
and India
are not two different challenges, but two facets of a single challenge.’ Elucidate
the statement.
4. How did the forestry in India become an international profession with global
NOTES
specialists ruling an empire of trees and grasslands during 1860s? Explain.
5. Comment on the statement, ‘Environmentalism and imperialism have a shared
past.’

4.8 FURTHER READINGS

J. Donald Hughes. 2015. What is Environmental History?. London: Wiley.

Chakrabarti, Ranjan. 2020. Critical Themes in Environmental History of India.
New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Agnoletti, Mauro and Simone Neri Serneri. 2014. The Basic Environmental
History. New York: Springer International Publishing.
Isenberg, Andrew Christian. 2014. The Oxford Handbook of Environmental
History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rosencrazz, Armin. 2002. Environmental law & Policy in India. Noida: Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Appadurai, Susila. 2004. Environmental studies. New Delhi: New Century Book
House Pvt Ltd.
Porter, Goreth, Janet Welsh Brown. 2000. Global Environmental politics.
Colorado: Westview Press.

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Management
of Forests
BLOCK II
FOREST AND ITS IMPORTANCE
NOTES
UNIT 5 MANAGEMENT OF
FORESTS
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Forest Land and Forest Management
5.3 Resistance System to Forest Management
5.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
5.5 Summary
5.6 Key Words
5.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
5.8 Further Readings

5.0 INTRODUCTION

The aim of forestland management is to make sure that the government has forestland
utilization under its control, as well as to ensure that the lands allocated for forest
industry uses are actually applied for forestry purposes to protect our natural
resources from exploitation. According to the report on sustainable land
management (SLM) by the UNCCD Science-Policy Interface (SPI), forest and
woodland areas continue to decline worldwide. According to the FAO 2015 Global
Forest Resources Assessment, between 2000 and 2010, an estimated 13 million
hectares of forest was lost to deforestation per year. Drivers of deforestation
include conversion to other land uses, such as agriculture, extractive activities,
and infrastructure. Other drivers, such as fire, windstorms, pests, and diseases,
are also significant contributors of forest loss. Forest policy of a country specifies
certain broad principles for the use of a nation’s forest resources. Earlier the forest
policies in India tended to regard timber production as the primary function of the
forests. However, in today’s context, a multiplicity of interests competes for forest
outputs and correspondingly forest policies have become increasingly responsive
to emerging varieties of demands. In this unit, we will study in detail about the
forest land management and the resistance system to it.

5.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Describe the system of forest land management in India
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  Explain the meaning of protected areas and various Acts relating to forest Management
of Forests
conservation
 Discuss the meaning of resistance and resilience in context of forest
management
NOTES

5.2 FOREST LAND AND FOREST MANAGEMENT

Indian forest policies have alienated people from the forests, thereby, exacerbating
the rates of deforestation. Post-independence forest policies gave rise to an
expansion in agricultural production, met industrial demand for raw materials, and
tightened control of forest lands through restricted access to forests and forest
products. Protection policies increased the hardships of vulnerable social groups
by denying them access to forests. While the state took responsibility for managing
forest resources, it did not have the commensurate resources to effectively manage
and police the forests from traditional users. Before state intervention, forests were
managed as communal property; the crucial role of forests in the economic
subsistence of individuals, families and community was the basis for managing
them as communal resources. A failure to recognize community control of forests
led to a collapse in institutional norms that were instrumental in protecting and
managing forest resources for local use. A shift in property rights to the state steadily
undermined the rights of tribals to use and extract forest resources.
Involvement of rural communities living close to forests in protection and
management of forest resources is enshrined in the National Forest Policy
1988.Translation of policy found expression in the resolution of Government of
India, Ministry of Environment and Forests issued in June 1990.It envisaged that
in lieu of the participation, the local communities will be entitled to sharing of usufructs
in a manner specified by the concerned State Forest Departments. This led to the
initiation of Joint Forest Management (JFM) programme. Importance of the
programme is evident from the fact that the Government of India has constituted a
“JFM Network” with the Inspector General of Forests, Government of India as
the Chairman.
The objectives of the network are as follows:
(i) To act as a regular mechanism of consultation between various agencies
engaged in JFM work in the country and
(ii) To obtain constant feedback from various stakeholders on the JFM
programme for proper policy formulation and suitable direction to
States.
World leaders adopted the Millennium Declaration at the Millennium Summit
in September 2000. The proportion of land area covered by forest globally is one
of the indicators for the seventh MDG, i.e., to ensure environmental sustainability.
In addition to quantitative, time-bound targets, the Millennium Declaration calls
for other actions, including intensified efforts for “the management, conservation
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Management and sustainable development of all types of forests”, an international commitment
of Forests
to sustainable forest management made in 1992 at the United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development (UNCED) and embodied in the Forest Principles
and Chapter 11 of Agenda 21. Subsequent intergovernmental deliberations to
NOTES promote progress towards sustainable forest management took place in the
Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) and Intergovernmental Forum on Forests
(IFF) from 1995 to 2000, and continue in the United Nations Forum on Forests
(UNFF) as well as at other places. Post 2015, the sustainable development goals
have been agreed upon. The sustainable development goals specifically the SDG
15 aims to ‘protect, restore and promote’ use of terrestrial ecosystems as well as
sustainably manage forests among other things.
Joint Forest Management and Forest Policy in Inida
Forest-based poverty reduction efforts tend to be linked to other land uses and
should form a part of rural development strategies. Conversely, the potential for
forests and trees outside forests to contribute to environmental sustainability cannot
be fully realized without intersectoral cooperation and coordination. Intersectoral
coordination, although difficult and time consuming, is necessary for sound decisions
on land use and resource allocation, particularly when there are trade-offs between
national development goals.
National Forest Policy in India treats forests as environmental and social
resource. With the initiative of assigning ownership of Non Timber forest Produce
(NTFP) to the local communities including the grass root level democratic institution
for enhancing their livelihood opportunities and also improving their income with
the value addition.
India has shifted the approach of forest management from regulatory to
participatory mode of management with the resolution promulgated in 1990. At
present, more than 17 million forests are managed by almost 10,000 Joint Forest
Management Committees with the benefit sharing mechanism. In addition, the
Government of India is in process to frame legislation for the settlement of tenurial
rights of the forest dwelling communities mainly tribal on forests. This would definitely
help in reducing the poverty of forest dwelling communities.
The JFM resolution was circulated by Ministry of Environment and Forest
in the year 1990 and 2000. JFM is a government resolution. A government resolution
is a executive order or opinion of the legislature. A resolution does not have any
legal backing.
JFM as the term indicates is the management of forest by more than one
party. In India there are two parties: the government represented by the Forest
Department and the people living in villages located within forest or on the fringes.
There are two major reasons behind introducing JFM: one that the
government’s management system was not succeeding in arresting growth of forest
degradation and deforestation. Second a new management paradigm was evolving
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in which the local people’s participation was found to be an appropriate and Management
of Forests
promising tool in arresting forest degradation.
However in pre-independent India the concept of JFM didn’t exist. The
first National Forest Policy was adopted in 1894. Following were the guidelines:
NOTES
 Ensure maintenance of adequate forest cover
 Meet the needs of local people
 Collect maximum revenue after meeting the needs of the local people
 Give priority to permanent cultivation over forestry land
In post independent India there was a shift in policy. In1988, the new forest
policy was adopted which covered all the sustainable management approaches.
The new policy had a few unique features which were as follows:
 Maintenance of environmental stability and restoration of ecological
balance, soil and water conservation
 Conservation of natural heritage and genetic resources
 Increasing productivity to meet the local needs then the national need
 Creating massive peoples participation movement to protect forest and
tree cover and achieve the objective of reducing pressure on existing
forests and meeting peoples need
 Deriving economic benefits must be subordinated to these principal aims
This initiated a process of reform at the local policy and operational level of
forest management ensuring that the Forest Department developed close
collaboration for protection and sustainable management of forests.
The aim was the involvement of village communities and voluntary agencies
of degraded forest land.
Important guidelines were as follows:
 The program should be implemented under an arrangement between a
voluntary agency or beneficiaries and the State Department.
 No ownership rights or lease should be given over the forest land.
 The beneficiaries should be entitled to share usufructs to the extent and
subject to conditions prescribed by the State Government.
 Access to forest land products benefactors should be available only to
benefactress who get organized into a village institution especially for
forest regeneration and protection. This could be through a village
panchayat or a Village Forest Committee.
 The beneficiaries should be given products like grass, lops and tops of
branches and minor forest produce. If they successfully protect the forest
they will be a portion from the sale proceeds when they mature.

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Management  Areas selected from the program should be free from claims from any
of Forests
person who is both a beneficiary under the scheme.
 The selected site should be worked in accordance of Working Scheme
duly approved by the state government .Such a scheme may remain in
NOTES
operation for ten years and revised after that. The working scheme is
prepared in consultation of with the beneficiaries
 It should ensure that there is no grazing at all on the forest land protected
by the Village Forest Committee. Permission to cut and carry grass free
of cost should be given so that stall feeding is promoted.
 No agriculture should be promoted on the forest land.
 Cutting of tress should not be permitted before they are ripe for
harvesting. The Forest Department should not be permitted to cut to cut
trees protected by the Village Forest Committee except in a manner
prescribed in the working scheme. In case of emergency needs the village
community should be taken into confidence.
 The Forest Department should closely supervise the work.
Such set-up, however suffered from certain flaws which are as follows:
 Bye- laws have not been formulated for the functioning of the JFMC
though now most of the states have issued executive orders for the
functioning of JFMC but these executive orders are not binding on JFMC.
The aim was to decentralize the process and make JFMC.
 Minor Forest Produce (MFP) has not been defined neither by the State
legislature nor by the Centre.
 Central and State/UT Governments have issued guidelines for the
creation and functioning of JFMC but these guidelines are not in
conformity with the provisions of the Constitution
 Through the Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) Act, 1992 and
Panchayat (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 ownership
rights over minor forest produce (MFP) have been given to Village
Panchayats.
 The JFM resolution only provides 20% of share to be given the Joint
Forest Management committees, while rest of the income would go to
the Forest Department. There is an obvious unequal distribution of benefit
sharing between the parties. These committees would have to protect
the forest for ten years, and would only receive 20% of the share.
 The national resolution provides that at least 33% of the seats shall be
reserved for women in the specified committees. However states like
Rajasthan are not following this provision.

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The Beginning of Land Alienation Management
of Forests
Introduction of the alien concept of private property began with the Permanent
Settlement of the British in 1793 and the establishment of the ‘Zamindari’ system
that conferred control over vast territories, including Adivasi territories, to NOTES
designated feudal lords for the purpose of revenue collection by the British. This
drastically commenced the forced restructuring of the relationship of Adivasis to
their territories as well as the powe relationship between Adivasis and ‘others’.
The predominant external caste-based religion sanctioned and practiced a rigid
and highly discriminatory hierarchical ordering with a strong cultural mooring.
After the transfer of power, the rulers of the Residency Areas signed the
“Deed of Accession” on behalf of the ruled on exchange they were offered privy
purse. No deed was however signed with most of the independent Adivasi states.
They were assumed to have joined the Union. The government rode rough shod
on independent Adivasi nations and they were merged with the Indian Union. This
happened even by means of state violence as in the case of Adivasi uprising in the
Nizam’s State of Hyderabad and Nagalim.
The Constitution of India, which came into existence on 26 January 1950,
prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth
(Article 15) and it provides the right to equality (Article 14), to freedom of religion
(Articles 25-28) and to culture and education (Articles 29-30). STs are supposedly
addressed by as many as 209 Articles and 2 special schedules of the Constitution
- Articles and special schedules which are protective and paternalistic.
Article 341 and 342 provides for classification of Scheduled Castes (the
untouchable lower castes) and STs, while Articles 330, 332 and 334 provides for
reservation of seats in Parliament and Assemblies. For purposes of specific focus
on the development of STs, the government has adopted a package of programmes,
which is administered in specific geographical areas with considerable ST
population, and it covers 69% of the tribal population.
Forest Laws in Relation to Tribal Land Conflict
The total forest cover in India is reported to be 765.21 thousand sq. km of which
71% are Adivasi areas. Out of this 416.52 and 223.30 thousand sq. kms. is
categorised as reserved and protected forest respectively. About 23% of these
are further declared as Wild Life Sanctuaries and National Parks which alone has
displaced some half a million Adivasis. By the process of colonisation of the forests
that began formally with the Forest Act of 1864 and finally the Indian Forest Act
of 1927, the rights of Adivasis were reduced to mere privileges conferred by the
state.
The Imperial Forest Department was formed in 1864. The first Act for the
regulation of forests was passed in 1865. It empowered the government to declare
any land covered with trees or brushwood as government forest and to make

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Management rules to manage them. The act was applicable only to the forests in control of the
of Forests
government and did not cover private forests. It made no provision regarding the
rights of the users. Its primary function was to generate revenue by selling timber
and forest produce. Since forests are deemed to be government property, Adivasis
NOTES were barred from collecting forest produce.
According to the Indian Forest Act, 1927, the Government can constitute
any forest land or waste land which is the property of Government or over which
the Government has proprietary rights, a reserved forest, by issuing a notification
to this effect. Commercial interests of the then British Government motivated it to
declare more and more lands as reserved forests, without ascertaining the rights
of the tribals and other forest dwellers.
After the enforcement of the Indian Forest Act in 1927, the government
declared all lands not claimed by private individuals and agencies as forest lands
and classified them into reserve, protected and village forests. To attract labour to
work in forestry related activities, the governments gave lands to households for
cultivation and also promised jobs. A number of forest villages were established.
The lands allotted for cultivation were on a purely temporary basis and forest
officials were to look after the administration of these villages.
After Independence, the inhabitants of forest villages realized that most villages
lacked infrastructure facilities; they could not get loans for development of agriculture
as they had no title over the land. Around 1980, the government decided to convert
forest villages into revenue villages. This was done in many states. However, not
all the forest villages have been converted into revenue villages. In some villages,
land has been given on a 15 year lease to enable the holders to obtain loans from
banks. Residents have agitated for the conversion of these villages into revenue
villages.
Even after independence in 1947, during the process of amalgamation of
princely states, the activity of consolidation of government forests continued. The
State Governments / UT Administrations proclaimed the lands of ex-princely states
and the zamindar-lands as Reserved Forests. However, no effective steps were
taken to give an alternative accommodation to the tribal people residing in this
area. Bar on accrual rights are imposed through section 5 of the Indian Forest Act.
The Act invites claims for settlement in the reserve forest area. This is
provided from section 3 to section 20 of the IFA. These sections provide a
complicated procedure which requires documentation in relation to ownership of
the land, evidence, which would be impossible for an indigenous to produce in
front of the Settlement Officer. Many tribal families today are regarded as
“encroachers” on forest land (persons who are cultivating or residing on forest
land without a legal right to be there).
In many cases, however, it would be more accurate to say that the ‘forest’
is encroaching on their traditional rights. There are a number of core issues that

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are central to the resolution of forest based conflicts, and are integral to the question Management
of Forests
of encroachment.
Protected Areas
About 4.5% of the total land in the country is covered under protected areas, NOTES
classified into national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and protected areas. The Wildlife
(Protection) Act of 1972 provided for the administration of these areas. The act
places several restrictions on the residents of villages in these areas. Efforts are
also being made to relocate these villages outside such areas. These efforts have
met with stiff resistance from the residents and violent conflicts have taken place in
many places. Under pressure from the World Bank and the environment protection
fund agencies, the government has tightened the restrictions on the hunting of animals
included in the list of wildlife species, as also a number of economic activities.
Consequently, development projects in these areas have been shelved.
Throughout this, one needs to be acutely aware that there are huge forest
encroachments by powerful vested interests which need to be dealt with strictly.
Mechanisms will need to be put in place to ensure that powerful interests/ land
mafias do not use poor people as a front to further their encroachments. In the
past two decades even as the genuine forest dwellers have lived in the fear of
eviction, mafias have continued to encroach forests and alienate tribal land. This
has not only had severe ecological implications due to disturbance of forest and
wildlife but also displaced tribals from their homes and livelihoods.
Forests Conservation Act
The 42nd Constitutional Amendment shifts forests from the “State List” to the
“Concurrent List”. The FCA prohibits non-forest use of forest land without the
government’s approval. It also advocates “sustainable forest management through
participatory approach”, with “due regard to the traditional rights of the tribal
people on forest land”. Further making the claim settlement process stringent and
inflexible and thereby the settlement dispute continues for decade.
The 1990 guidelines on Tribal and Forest Interface expressly provides for
speedy settlement of claims in relation to forest land, Regularization of
Encroachments; Review of Disputed Claims over Forest Land; Regularization of
Pattas & Leases; and Conversion of Forest Villages to Revenue Villages. These
Guidelines were supposed to provide a framework to resolve the problem of
settlement of rights of tribals and other forest dwellers on forest land. For instance,
FP1 outlined procedures whereby state governments could apply to the
Government of India for regularization of “pre-1980 encroachments”. As discussed
below, however, these Guidelines have not been implemented.
On 5 February 2004, the MoEF issued new guidelines for “regularization
of the rights of the tribals on the forest lands”, in continuation of the 1990 Guidelines.
These “supplementary guidelines” request the State Governments to give legal
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Management recognition to “the traditional rights of the tribal population on forest lands”, and to
of Forests
submit proposals for conferring “heritable but inalienable rights over such lands”
on “tribal dwellers who are in continuous occupation of such forest land at least
since 31 December 1993”.
NOTES
There are thousands of cases of local inhabitants claiming that they were in
occupation of notified forestlands prior to initiation of forest settlements under the
Indian Forest Act. There are a number of cases of pattas/leases/grants said to be
issued under proper authority but which has now become contentious issues
between different departments, particularly the Forest Department and the Revenue
Department. The problem is compounded by the fact that in many cases there is
no clear demarcation of forest lands. In fact most of the disputes and claims relating
to use and access to forests have lingered on and evaded resolution in the past
because of the failure to demarcate precisely the extent of the forest. All of these
require remedies and an approach aimed at only evicting the forest-dwellers is
worsening the situation, not remedying it.
There is a need to consciously distinguish between the authorised/
unauthorized occupation of forests by dwellers for bonafide consumption, and the
use of forest resources from the large scale timber and fuel wood smuggling and
intensive commercial exploitation of forest resources. In the former case the so-
called encroachment is a local and subsistence-oriented activity, while in the latter
case it is a widespread organized industry largely driven by the mafia. The approach
of the law and policy to the two situations cannot be the same
The National Forest Policy was adopted in 1894. Following were the
guidelines:
 Ensure maintenance of adequate forest cover
 Meet the needs of local people
 Collect maximum revenue after meeting the needs of the local people
 Give priority to permanent cultivation over forestry land
In post independent India there was a shift in policy. The National Forest
Policy Resolution 1952 adopted by the government, emphasised that the forest
policy should be based on paramount national needs. For the first time the resolution
emphasized the ecological and social aspects of forest management, giving
secondary importance to the needs of commerce, industry and revenue. The
resolution did not call for any change in the forest law and remained only a pious
declaration.
The National Forest Policy, 1988, has a separate section on ‘Tribal people
and forests’ which states that: “having regard to the symbiotic relationship between
the tribal people and forests, a primary task of all agencies responsible for forest
management, including the forest development corporations should be to associate
the tribal people closely in the protection, regeneration and development of forests
as well as to provide gainful employment to people living in and around the forest.”
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The section on ‘rights and concessions’ has focussed on ‘full protection’ of the Management
of Forests
rights of tribals.
In 1988, the new forest policy was adopted which covered all the sustainable
management approaches. The new policy had a few unique features which were
NOTES
as follows:
 Maintenance of environmental stability and restoration of ecological
balance, soil and water conservation
 Conservation of natural heritage and genetic resources
 Increasing productivity to meet the local needs then the national need
 Creating massive peoples participation movement to protect forest and
tree cover and achieve the objective of reducing pressure on existing
forests and meeting peoples need
 Deriving economic benefits must be subordinated to these principal aims\
This initiated a process of reform at the local policy and operational level of
forest management ensuring that the Forest Department developed close
collaboration for protection and sustainable management of forests. While the
resolution adopted a pro-tribal policy, the old Act of 1927 with all the subsequent
amendments remained unchanged.
The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers
(Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2007
The recently notified Act aims to compensate the “historical injustice” done to
forest-dwelling tribes that were denied their traditional rights to forest lands and
resources in the last couple of hundred years. In this period, the lands they had
been dwelling on were declared “forest land” or “protected areas” for wildlife.
The traditional conservation ethos and dependence of tribal societies on forest
land were overlooked. The Act aims to reverse the alienation of tribes from their
own habitat caused by past policies and laws.
The rights proposed to be accorded to Adivasis include pattas to forest
lands occupied before 1980. This is not new; it has been a stated policy of the
government for years now. A number of other rights are also to be granted: nistar
(usufruct) or ownership rights to forest resources, grazing rights including seasonal
ones of nomadic communities, habitation rights (for those classified as Primitive
Tribal Groups), conversion of forest villages into revenue villages, and so on. No
tribal person is to be evicted from currently occupied land until the process of
determining rights is completed.
Under the Act:
 All rights are accompanied by responsibilities for forest protection;
 All right holders have the duty to conserve forests and wildlife, protect
catchment areas, water sources, and ecologically sensitive areas, and inform
the gram sabha of ecologically destructive activities;
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Management  Hunting is explicitly excluded from the list of forest rights;
of Forests
 All rights are meant only for bona fide livelihood needs, not for exclusive
commercial purposes;
NOTES  In no case would forest land beyond 2.5 hectares be allotted (only land
under occupation prior to 1980 can be considered, no new forest lands
would be allotted).
The MOEF is of the view, land settlement of the forest dwellers would increase
the problem of encroachment to the already depleting forest cover in our country,
poaching would be rampant.

Check Your Progress

1. What are the objective of the Joint Forest Management (JFM) network?
2. Which SDG aims to sustainable management of forests?

5.3 RESISTANCE SYSTEM TO FOREST

MANAGEMENT

Increasingly, forest management goals include building or maintaining resistance to

disturbances in the face of climate change. Although many descriptive definitions
for resistance and resilience exist, to evaluate whether specific management activities
(silviculture) are effective, prescriptive characterizations are necessary. Generally,
resistance is characterized as the influence of structure and composition on
disturbance, whereas resilience is characterized as the influence of disturbance on
subsequent structure and composition.
In general, resistance is the ability of a community to remain unchanged
when challenged by disturbances, and resilience is “the capacity of a system to
absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to still retain
essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks” as originally defined
by Holling (1973). The terms resistance and resilience are used in a variety of
ways, which are often ambiguous, qualitative, and seemingly independent of
disturbance type. Furthermore, sometimes characterization of resistance focuses
on the system and sometimes on the disturbance (e.g., the amount of disturbance
necessary to change the system), as disturbance intensity has been shown to
influence both resistance and resilience. Rarely is resilience characterized in the
context of both the system and associated disturbances. Appropriately, it has been
suggested that resilience be defined as resilience “of what, to what” at appropriate
scales of space and time, something rarely done in contemporary literature. If
management goals include building resistance and/or resilience to disturbances
that potentially affect large areas, then their definitions should reflect whether the
disturbance affects individual stands or entire landscapes. In some contexts,
descriptive definitions of resistance and resilience may be useful, but to evaluate
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whether objectives are achieved in a silvicultural or operational context, they must Management
of Forests
be defined in measurable and consistent terms. Structure and composition of stands
and landscapes are measurable and can be used in prescriptive characterizations
of resistance and resilience to disturbance. Given the above definitions from the
literature, we propose that it is appropriate to characterize stand resistance to NOTES
disturbance as the influence of structure and composition on the severity of
disturbance. Of course, many disturbances occur at the scale of many stands;
consequently, landscape resistance is characterized as the influence of landscape
structure and composition on the spread of disturbance.
In the US, a conceptual framework was introduced that explicitly
differentiates resistance and resilience, denotes appropriate scales, and establishes
the context for evaluation—structure and composition. We will take two different
instances in the context of the US to understand the idea of resistance to forest
management. Silvicultural utility of the framework is demonstrated by describing
disturbance-specific, time-bound structural and compositional objectives for
building resistance and resilience to two fundamentally different disturbances:
wildfires and spruce beetle outbreaks. The conceptual framework revealed the
crucial insight that attempts to build stand or landscape resistance to spruce beetle
outbreaks will ultimately be unsuccessful. This frees the silviculturist to focus on
realistic goals associated with building resilience to likely inevitable outbreaks.
Resistance and Resilience to Wildfire
Fires are a natural part of many forested systems, and their management is a topic
of considerable interest. Recently, a strong case has been made for shifting the
focus of wildland fire management in dry, mixed-conifer forests from suppression
and control to the maintenance of fire-resilient forests capable of absorbing inevitable
fires without fundamentally changing the system at the landscape scale. Because
of the strong research focus on dry-site forests the following silvicultural approaches
are not necessarily appropriate in other forest types such as coastal temperate or
subalpine forests. Resistance is the influence of structure and composition on the
severity of fire. To assess how stand or landscape resistance is achieved, specific
structural and compositional attributes are evaluated with respect to their expected
influence on fire behaviour. Evaluation criteria are based on predetermined
thresholds of extreme fire behaviour, such as the mitigation of unwanted fire effects.
Characterization of extreme fire weather typically quantifies temperatures,
moistures, and wind speeds that are unusual but not unprecedented. Models and
empirical observations provide compelling evidence that thinning to reduce canopy
bulk density and eliminate ladder fuels, combined with surface fuel reduction, can
result in dramatically altered fire behaviour. Whereas stand level treatments for
resistance are demonstrably effective in influencing the behaviour of fire within
treated stands, they are costly, and the effects are short-term and small-scale.
Furthermore, most wildfires occur over large areas composed of many stands,
making characterization of resistance in the context of the landscape important.
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Management Landscape resistance is characterized as the influence of multistand structure and
of Forests
composition on the spread of fire. A highly resistant landscape could in principle
be composed entirely of highly resistant stands; however, as a management strategy
this is unrealistic in terms of scale and in particular over the long-term. In the
NOTES absence of continued treatment, extreme fire behaviour is inevitable. Ultimately,
fuels treatments are not intended to eliminate fire but to modify fire behaviour,
such as reducing potential fire behaviour from crown fire to surface fire to increase
fire suppression effectiveness and lessen impacts on the overstory without
compromising other ecological goods and services. This could be accomplished
by using strategically placed area treatments (SPLATs). SPLATs can, at least in
theory, slow fire rate of spread by as much as 60% with as little as 20% of the area
treated, compared with spread on untreated landscapes. The strategic placement
of fuel treatments across the landscape increases the likelihood that a large
proportion of the forest, substantially greater than the proportion actually treated,
will be resistant to high-severity wildfire. Stand resilience is characterized as the
influence of fire on subsequent mortality and species composition relative to those
that are desired after a fire. Stand resilience to wildfire could be defined as low
mortality in the overstory as a result of a fire. It is different from stand resistance in
that it explicitly focuses on long term strategies for maintaining desired vegetation
structure and composition rather than on the influence of vegetation structure and
composition on fire behaviour. Strategies for building stand resilience to fire will
depend on the forest type and specifics of the desired future condition but might
include retention of large, fire-adapted trees or increasing live tree spatial
heterogeneity. Although these strategies might also be used to build fire-resistant
stands, the crucial difference is the assumption that fire will occur, which shifts the
focus from changing fire behaviour to maintaining attributes consistent with the
desired future conditions. Forest fires are also seen in many Indian forests and
strategies to preent them and their study are important.
Resistance and Resilience to Spruce Beetle Outbreak
In the US, the magnitude of spruce beetle outbreaks has silviculturists and
entomologists questioning what, if anything, can be done to reduce spruce beetle
activity. Given the host specificity of the spruce beetle, planning for and evaluating
resistance and resilience to outbreaks are fundamentally different from those
processes for wildfires. The conceptual framework provides a template to evaluate
resistance and resilience of spruce-dominated stands and landscapes faced with
increasing populations of spruce beetle. Engelmann spruce stand resistance to
spruce beetle is characterized as the influence of structure and composition on the
likelihood of beetle populations increasing from within the stand, i.e., the likelihood
is small that large numbers of beetles could develop within, and spread from, a
resistant stand. Such resistance can result from a high percentage of non-host
species, induced or constitutive resistance mechanisms, or low susceptibility
associated with either low relative density and high vigour or young stands of small
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spruce trees. Stand resistance is characterized as the structural and compositional Management
of Forests
attributes that negatively influence the beetle and can be manipulated with stand
management. In contrast to methods intended to directly protect individual trees
from successful colonization by beetles (removal of infested trees and insecticide
treatments), building resistance via manipulation of stand structure and composition NOTES
is a strategy intended to indirectly influence a beetle population.
The conceptual framework explicitly differentiates resistance and resilience,
focuses on appropriate scales, and provides a context for evaluation and
manipulation: structure and composition. Application of the framework encourages
silviculturists to think beyond very general, ambiguous goals of resistance and
resilience and focuses attention on what is ultimately ecologically meaningful and
silviculturally achievable.

Check Your Progress

3. What is resistance?
4. Define resilience.

5.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. The objectives of the network are as follows:

(i) to act as a regular mechanism of consultation between various agencies
engaged in JFM work in the country and
(ii) to obtain constant feedback from various stakeholders on the JFM
programme for proper policy formulation and suitable direction to
States.
2. SDG 15 aims for sustainable management of forests.
3. In general, resistance is the ability of a community to remain unchanged
when challenged by disturbances.
4. Resilience is the capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize
while undergoing change so as to still retain essentially the same function,
structure, identity, and feedbacks.

5.5 SUMMARY

 Protection policies increased the hardships of vulnerable social groups by

denying them access to forests. While the state took responsibility for
managing forest resources, it did not have the commensurate resources to
effectively manage and police the forests from traditional users.

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Management  Involvement of rural communities living close to forests in protection and
of Forests
management of forest resources is enshrined in the National Forest Policy
1988.
 Importance of the Joint Forest Management (JFM) programme is evident
NOTES
from the fact that the Government of India has constituted a “JFM Network”
with the Inspector General of Forests, Government of India as the Chairman.
 The MDGs call for the integration of the principles of sustainable development
into environmental policies.
 Community-based forestry, or participatory forestry, is particularly well
placed to address poverty reduction. Community-based forestry is now
well accepted and established in various countries in all regions, and
programmes are beginning to generate financial and other benefits.
 National Forest Policy in India treats forests as environmental and social
resource. With the initiative of assigning ownership of Non Timber forest
Produce (NTFP) to the local communities including the grass root level
democratic institution for enhancing their livelihood opportunities and also
improving their income with the value addition.
 Introduction of the alien concept of private property began with the Permanent
Settlement of the British in 1793 and the establishment of the ‘Zamindari’
system that conferred control over vast territories, including Adivasi
territories, to designated feudal lords for the purpose of revenue collection
by the British.
 The Imperial Forest Department was formed in 1864. The first Act for the
regulation of forests was passed in 1865. It empowered the government to
declare any land covered with trees or brushwood as government forest
and to make rules to manage them.
 About 4.5% of the total land in the country is covered under protected
areas, classified into national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and protected areas.
The Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 provided for the administration of
these areas. The act places several restrictions on the residents of villages in
these areas.
 The 1990 guidelines on Tribal and Forest Interface expressly provides for
speedy settlement of claims in relation to forest land, Regularization of
Encroachments; Review of Disputed Claims over Forest Land; Regularization
of Pattas & Leases; and Conversion of Forest Villages to Revenue Villages.
 Increasingly, forest management goals include building or maintaining
resistance to disturbances in the face of climate change. Although many
descriptive definitions for resistance and resilience exist, to evaluate whether
specific management activities (silviculture) are effective, prescriptive
characterizations are necessary.

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  In general, resistance is the ability of a community to remain unchanged Management
of Forests
when challenged by disturbances, and resilience is “the capacity of a system
to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to still
retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks” as
originally defined by Holling (1973). NOTES
 In the US, a conceptual framework was introduced that explicitly
differentiates resistance and resilience, denotes appropriate scales, and
establishes the context for evaluation—structure and composition.

5.6 KEY WORDS

 Forest policy: Forest policy of a country specifies certain broad principles

for the use of a nation’s forest resources.
 Joint forest management: It was a government resolution which calls for
management of forests by more than one party.
 Silviculture: It is the practice of controlling the growth, composition/
structure, and quality of forests to meet values and needs, specifically timber
production.

5.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. What are the two major reasons behind introducing JFM?
2. What kind of restrictions does the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 place
on the residents of villages of nearby protected areas?
3. What is land alienation?
4. What are protected areas?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Explain joint forest management.
2. Describe the resistance system to forest management with examples.
3. Analyse the National Forest Policy of India since the time it started till now.

5.8 FURTHER READINGS

J. Donald Hughes. 2015. What is Environmental History?. London: Wiley.

Chakrabarti, Ranjan. 2020. Critical Themes in Environmental History of India.
New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
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Management Agnoletti, Mauro and Simone Neri Serneri. 2014. The Basic Environmental
of Forests
History. New York: Springer International Publishing.
Isenberg, Andrew Christian. 2014. The Oxford Handbook of Environmental
History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
NOTES
Rosencrazz, Armin. 2002. Environmental law & Policy in India. Noida: Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Appadurai, Susila. 2004. Environmental studies. New Delhi: New Century Book
House Pvt Ltd.
Porter, Goreth, Janet Welsh Brown. 2000. Global Environmental politics.
Colorado: Westview Press.

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 Forest Movements and

UNIT 6 FOREST MOVEMENTS Effects of Urbanization,

Industrialization
and Nationalism
AND EFFECTS OF
NOTES
URBANIZATION,
INDUSTRIALIZATION
AND NATIONALISM
Structure
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Forest and Environment Movements From 1921-42
6.3 Effects of Urbanization and Industrialization
6.4 Impact of Nationalism on Environment In India
6.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
6.6 Summary
6.7 Key Words
6.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
6.9 Further Readings

6.0 INTRODUCTION

An environmental movement may be defined as a social or political movement for

the conservation of environment and its improvement. Environmental movements
in India have been concerned mainly with dams, displacement and resettlement.
These have effectively articulated their agenda on the human consequences of
tampering with the courses of natural resources, have initiated protest action against
the forces and agencies responsible for environmental degradation. The traditional
practices of worshipping plants, trees, forest, and rivers in India reflect the natural
and social domains and the wisdom of observing unity in the living and the non-
living world. The environmental movements in India include all categories of caste,
race, religion, countries and also categories of species and the divisions of the
organic and inorganic world. Important environmental movements in India are
Chipko Movement, Bishnoi Movement, Appiko Movement, Silent Valley
Movement, Narmada Bachao Movement, Tehri Dam Movement, etc. In this unit,
we will discuss the history of environmentalism in India and also the impact of
urbanization and industrialization on environment.

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Forest Movements and
Effects of Urbanization, 6.1 OBJECTIVES
Industrialization
and Nationalism
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
NOTES  Describe the history of environmentalism and various movements associated
with it
 Explain forest movements in India
 Analyse the effects of urbanisation and industrialization on environment
 Discuss the impact of nationalism on environment in India

6.2 FOREST AND ENVIRONMENT MOVEMENTS

FROM 1921-42

Before leaning about the popular forest movements. Let’s discuss the history of
environment movements in the world.
History of Environmental Movement
Concern for the impact on human life of problems such as air and water pollution
dates to at least Roman times. Pollution was associated with the spread of epidemic
disease in Europe between the late 14th century and the mid-16th century, and
soil conservation was practiced in China, India and Peru as early as 2,000 years
ago. In general, however, such concerns did not give rise to public activism.
The contemporary environmental movement arose primarily from concerns
in the late 19th century about the protection of the countryside in Europe and the
wilderness in the United States and the health consequences of pollution during
the Industrial Revolution. In opposition to the dominant political philosophy of the
time, liberalism—which held that all social problems, including environmental ones,
could and should be solved through the free market—most early environmentalists
believed that government rather than the market should be charged with protecting
the environment and ensuring the conservation of resources. An early philosophy
of resource conservation was developed by Gifford Pinchot (1865–1946), the
first chief of the U.S. Forest Service, for whom conservation represented the wise
and efficient use of resources. Also in the United States at about the same time, a
more strongly bio-centric approach arose in the preservationist philosophy of John
Muir (1838–1914), founder of the Sierra Club, and Aldo Leopold (1887–1948),
a professor of wildlife management who was pivotal in the designation of Gila
National Forest in New Mexico in 1924 as America’s first national wilderness
area. Leopold introduced the concept of a land ethic, arguing that humans should
transform themselves from conquerors of nature into citizens of it; his essays,
compiled posthumously in A Sand County Almanac (1949), had a significant
influence on later bio-centric environmentalists.

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 Environmental organizations established from the late 19th to the mid-20th Forest Movements and
Effects of Urbanization,
century were primarily middle-class lobbying groups concerned with nature Industrialization
conservation, wildlife protection, and the pollution that arose from industrial and Nationalism
development and urbanization. There were also scientific organizations concerned
with natural history and with biological aspects of conservation efforts. NOTES
Although the United States led the world in such efforts during this time,
other notable conservation developments were also occurring in Europe and
Oceania. For example, a group of Swiss scientists and conservationists convinced
the government to set aside 14,000 hectares (roughly 34,600 acres) of land in the
Swiss Alps as Europe’s first national park by 1914. In New Zealand, the Native
Bird Protection Society (later the Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society, or
Forest & Bird) arose in 1923 in response to the devastation of Kapiti Island by
livestock.
Beginning in the 1960s, the various philosophical strands of environmentalism
were given political expression through the establishment of “green” political
movements in the form of activist non-governmental organizations and
environmentalist political parties. Despite the diversity of the environmental
movement, four pillars provided a unifying theme to the broad goals of political
ecology: protection of the environment, grassroots democracy, social justice, and
nonviolence. However, for a small number of environmental groups and individual
activists who engaged in eco-terrorism, violence was viewed as a justified response
to what they considered the violent treatment of nature by some interests, particularly
the logging and mining industries. The political goals of the contemporary green
movement in the industrialized West focused on changing government policy and
promoting environmental social values. Examples include the campaigns in Tasmania
in the 1970s and ’80s to block the flooding of Lake Pedder and the damming of
the Franklin River; protests in the United States and western Europe against nuclear
power development, especially following the catastrophic accidents at Three Mile
Island (1979) and Chernobyl (1986); the related decades-long controversy
surrounding uranium mining inAustralia’s Northern Territory, including at the Jabiluka
mine; protests against deforestation in Indonesia and the Amazon basin; and
campaigns in several countries to limit the volume of greenhouse gases released
through human activities. In the less-industrialized or developing world,
environmentalism has been more closely involved in “emancipatory” politics and
grassroots activism on issues such as poverty, democratization, and political and
human rights, including the rights of women and indigenous peoples. Examples
include the Chipko movement in India, which linked forest protection with the
rights of women, and the Assembly of the Poor in Thailand, a coalition of movements
fighting for the right to participate in environmental and development policies.
The early strategies of the contemporary environmental movement were
self-consciously activist and unconventional, involving direct-protest actions
designed to obstruct and to draw attention to environmentally harmful policies and
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Material 121
Forest Movements and projects. Other strategies included public-education and media campaigns,
Effects of Urbanization,
Industrialization community-directed activities, and conventional lobbying of policy makers and
and Nationalism political representatives. The movement also attempted to set public examples in
order to increase awareness of and sensitivity to environmental issues. Such projects
NOTES included recycling, green consumerism (also known as “buying green”), and the
establishment of alternative communities, including self-sufficient farms, workers’
cooperatives, and cooperative-housing projects.
The electoral strategies of the environmental movement included the
nomination of environmental candidates and the registration of green political parties.
These parties were conceived of as a new kind of political organization that would
bring the influence of the grassroots environmental movement directly to bear on
the machinery of government, make the environment a central concern of public
policy, and render the institutions of the state more democratic, transparent, and
accountable. The world’s first green parties—the Values Party, a nationally based
party in New Zealand, and the United Tasmania Group, organized in the Australian
state of Tasmania—were founded in the early 1970s. The first explicitly green
member of a national legislature was elected in Switzerland in 1979; later, in 1981,
four greens won legislative seats in Belgium. Green parties also have been formed
in the former Soviet bloc, where they were instrumental in the collapse of some
communist regimes, and in some developing countries in Asia, South America,
and Africa, though they have achieved little electoral success there.
The most successful environmental party has been the German Green Party
(die Grünen), founded in 1980. Although it failed to win representation in federal
elections that year, it entered the Bundestag (parliament) in both 1983 and 1987,
winning 5.6 percent and 8.4 percent of the national vote, respectively. The party
did not win representation in 1990, but in 1998 it formed a governing coalition
with the Social Democratic Party, and the party’s leader, Joschka Fischer, was
appointed as the country’s foreign minister.
Throughout the last two decades of the 20th century, green parties won
national representation in a number of countries and even claimed the office of
mayor in European capital cities such as Dublin and Rome in the mid-1990s.
Outside Europe, New Zealand’s Green Party, which was reconstituted from the
former Values Party in 1990, won 7 percent of the vote in the 1990 general election;
its influence had grown to 9 of the country’s 121 parliamentary seats by 2002 and
to 14 parliamentary seats by 2014.
By this time green parties had become broad political vehicles, though they
continued to focus on the environment. In developing party policy, they attempted
to apply the values of environmental philosophy to all issues facing their countries,
including foreign policy, defense, and social and economic policies.
Despite the success of some environmental parties, environmentalists
remained divided over the ultimate value of electoral politics. For some, participation
in elections is essential because it increases the public’s awareness of environmental
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122 Material
issues and encourages traditional political parties to address them. Others, however, Forest Movements and
Effects of Urbanization,
have argued that the compromises necessary for electoral success invariably Industrialization
undermine the ethos of grassroots democracy and direct action. This tension was and Nationalism
perhaps most pronounced in the German Green Party. The party’s Realos (realists)
accepted the need for coalitions and compromise with other political parties, NOTES
including traditional parties with views sometimes contrary to that of the Green
Party. By contrast, the Fundis (fundamentalists) maintained that direct action should
remain the major form of political action and that no pacts or alliances should be
formed with other parties. Likewise, in Britain, where the Green Party achieved
success in some local elections but failed to win representation at the national level
(though it did win 15 percent of the vote in the 1989 European Parliament elections),
this tension was evidenced in disputes between so-called “electoralists” and
“radicals.”
The implementation of internal party democracy also caused cracks within
environmental parties. In particular, earlier strategies such as continuous policy
involvement by party members, grassroots control over all party institutions and
decisions, and the legislative rotation of elected members to prevent the creation
of career politicians were sometimes perceived as unhelpful and disruptive when
green parties won representation to local, national, or regional assemblies.
By the late 1980s environmentalism had become a global as well as a national
political force. Some environmental non-governmental organizations (e.g.,
Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth, and the World Wildlife Fund) established a
significant international presence, with offices throughout the world and centralized
international headquarters to coordinate lobbying campaigns and to serve as
campaign centres and information clearinghouses for their national affiliate
organizations. Transnational coalition building was and remains another important
strategy for environmental organizations and for grassroots movements in developing
countries, primarily because it facilitates the exchange of information and expertise
but also because it strengthens lobbying and direct-action campaigns at the
international level.
Through its international activism, the environmental movement has influenced
the agenda of international politics. Although a small number of bilateral and
multilateral international environmental agreements were in force before the 1960s,
since the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in
Stockholm, the variety of multilateral environmental agreements has increased to
cover most aspects of environmental protection as well as many practices with
environmental consequences, such as the burning of fossil fuels, the trade in
endangered species, the management of hazardous waste, especially nuclear waste,
and armed conflict. The changing nature of public debate on the environment was
reflected also in the organization of the 1992 United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (the Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which
was attended by some 180 countries and various business groups, non-
governmental organizations, and the media. In the 21st century the environmental
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Forest Movements and movement has combined the traditional concerns of conservation, preservation,
Effects of Urbanization,
Industrialization and pollution with more contemporary concerns with the environmental
and Nationalism consequences of economic practices as diverse as tourism, trade, financial
investment, and the conduct of war. Environmentalists are likely to intensify the
NOTES trends of the late 20th century, during which some environmental groups increasingly
worked in coalition not just with other emancipatory organizations, such as human
rights and indigenous-peoples groups, but also with corporations and other
businesses.
Forest Movements in India
The green legislative issues or green development or ecological development can be
characterized as a social development for the preservation of the climate or for the
improvement of the state strategy particularly slanted towards the climate. As such,
it is the development to ensure the climate through changes in open strategy. Here,
we are giving a concise history of the Environmental Movements in India. Most of
these are post-independence movements. Historically, in British India, two popular
movements of Bhil and Santhals were related to forest and tribal rights.
1. Bishnoi Movement: Bishnoi is a strict order found in the Western Thar
Desert and northern conditions of India. It was established by Guru Maharaj
Jambaji in 1485 AD in the Marwar (Jodhpur) desert area of western
Rajasthan, India. It is peaceful local area of nature admirers. This development
was begun by sage Sombaji around 1700 AD against deforestation. After
that Amrita Devi sent the development. The 363 individuals from the Bishnoi
people group were murdered in the dissent. At the point when the lord of
this locale came to know the dissent and murdering then he raced to the
town and apologized, and proclaimed the district as ensured territory. It is
vital that this enactment still exists today.
2. Chipko Movement: It was dispatched from Gopeshwar in Chamoli area,
Uttarakhand in 1973. The development was to forestall illicit cutting of
trees in the Himalayan district (Uttarakhand). SunderlalBahuguna and Chandi
Prasad Bhatt were the heads of this development. The most eminent
attributes of this development were the association of ladies.
3. Appiko Movement: In 1983, on the lines of Chipko Movement,
Pandurang Hegde dispatched a development which came to be known as
Appiko Movement in Karnataka. Its fundamental targets were afforestation
just as advancement, protection and legitimate usage of timberlands in the
best way. The significance of “appiko” is to communicate one’s fondness
for a tree by accepting it.
4. Silent Valley Movement: It is a zone of tropical evergreen woodlands in
Kerala. It is extremely wealthy in biodiversity. The preservationists and the
nearby individuals unequivocally protested the hydel power project being
set up here in 1973. Under tension, the public authority needed to pronounce
Self-Instructional
it the public hold timberlands in 1985.
124 Material
 5. Wilderness BachaoAndola: The ancestral local area of Singhbhum region Forest Movements and
Effects of Urbanization,
of Jharkhand (Previously, it was a region of India during the British Raj, Industrialization
part of the Chota Nagpur Division of the Bengal Presidency) fomented and Nationalism
against the backwoods strategy of the Government in 1982. The Government
needed to supplant the regular soil, woods with the expensive teak. NOTES
Numerous tree huggers allude to this development as “Ravenousness Game
Political Populism”.
6. Narmada Bachao Movement: The tree huggers and the neighbourhood
individuals began challenge the structure of Dams on the Narmada for the
creation of hydro-power since 1985 which was prominently known as
Narmada Bachao Aandolan. Medha Patkar has been the head of this
aandolan who got support from the Arundhati Roy, Baba Amte and Aamir
Khan.
7. Tehri Dam Conflict: This development was begun by the locals around
1980s and 1990s on the grounds that the dam task would built in the seismic
delicate locale and individuals believe that it causes submergence of woodland
territories alongside Tehri town. In spite of dissent, the development of the
dam is being completed with police assurance as Sunderlal Bahuguna sat
on fast unto death. After affirmation from the public authority to survey the
venture, Bahuguna finished his fast unto death and the development went
on, however at a more slow speed.
Subsequently, we can say, various grass root natural developments were begun
against the formative exercises that have jeopardized the biological equilibrium
that changes the public approach more inclined towards the climate.

Check Your Progress

1. What was the philosophy of liberalism?
2. Why is the participation of environmental parties essential in elections?
3. What were the fundamental targets of Appiko Movement?

6.3 EFFECTS OF URBANIZATION AND

INDUSTRIALIZATION

Urbanization and industrialization have impacted forests in a considerable manner.

Here, we will discuss about their impacts on forests and wildlife. But before we
learn about the effects. Let’s brefly discuss environment degradation.
Underlying Causes of Environmental Degradation
Environmental degradation is a result of the dynamic interplay of socio-economic,
institutional and technological activities. Environmental changes may be driven by
many factors including economic growth, population growth, urbanization,
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Forest Movements and intensification of agriculture, rising energy use and transportation. Poverty still remains
Effects of Urbanization,
Industrialization a problem at the root of several environmental problems.
and Nationalism
1. Social Factors
NOTES Population: Population is an important source of development, yet it is a major
source of environmental degradation when it exceeds the threshold limits of the
support systems. Unless the relationship between the multiplying population and
the life support system can be stabilized, development programmes, howsoever,
innovative are not likely to yield desired results. Population impacts the environment
primarily through the use of natural resources and production of wastes and is
associated with environmental stresses like loss of biodiversity, air and water pollution
and increased pressure on arable land. India supports 17 per cent of the world
population on just 2.4 per cent of world land area. Its current rate of population
growth at 1.85 per cent continues to pose a persistent population challenge. In
view of the links between population and environment, a vigorous drive for
population control need hardly be over emphasised.
Poverty: Poverty is said to be both cause and effect of environmental
degradation. The circular link between poverty and environment is an extremely
complex phenomenon. Inequality may foster unsustainability because the poor,
who rely on natural resources more than the rich, deplete natural resources faster
as they have no real prospects of gaining access to other types of resources.
Moreover, degraded environment can accelerate the process of impoverishment,
again because the poor depend directly on natural assets. Although there has been
a significant drop in the poverty ratio in the country from 55 percent in 1973 to 36
percent in 1993-94, the absolute number of poor have, however, remained constant
at around 320 million over the years. An acceleration in poverty alleviation is
imperative to break this link between poverty and the environment.
Urbanization: Lack of opportunities for gainful employment in villages and
the ecological stresses is leading to an ever increasing movement of poor families
to towns. Mega cities are emerging and urban slums are expanding. There has
been an eightfold increase in urban population over 1901-1991. During the past
two decades of 1971-91, India’s urban population has doubled from 109 million
to 218 million and is estimated to reach 300 million by 2000 AD. Such rapid and
unplanned expansion of cities has resulted in degradation of urban environment. It
has widened the gap between demand and supply of infrastructural services such
as energy, housing, transport, communication, education, water supply and
sewerage and recreational amenities, thus depleting the precious environmental
resource base of the cities. The result is the growing trend in deterioration of air
and water quality, generation of wastes, the proliferation of slums and undesirable
land use changes, all of which contribute to urban poverty.

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2. Economic Factors Forest Movements and
Effects of Urbanization,
Industrialization
To a large extent, environmental degradation is the result of market failure, that is, and Nationalism
the non- existent or poorly functioning markets for environmental goods and
services. In this context, environmental degradation is a particular case of NOTES
consumption or production externalities reflected by divergence between private
and social costs (or benefits). Lack of well-defined property rights may be one of
the reasons for such market failure. On the other hand, market distortions created
by price controls and subsidies may aggravate the achievement of environmental
objectives.
The level and pattern of economic development also affect the nature of
environmental problems. India’s development objectives have consistently
emphasised the promotion of policies and programmes for economic growth and
social welfare. Between 1994-95 and 1997-98, the Indian economy has grown a
little over 7 per cent per annum: the growth of industrial production and
manufacturing averaging higher at 8.4 per cent and 8.9 percent respectively during
these years. The manufacturing technology adopted by most of the industries has
placed a heavy load on environment especially through intensive resource and
energy use, as is evident in natural resource depletion (fossil fuel, minerals, timber),
water, air and land contamination, health hazards and degradation of natural eco-
systems. With high proportion fossil fuel as the main source of industrial energy
and major air polluting industries such as iron and steel, fertilizers and cement
growing, industrial sources have contributed to a relatively high share in air pollution.
Large quantities of industrial and hazardous wastes brought about by expansion of
chemical based industry has compounded the wastes management problem with
serious environmental health implications.
Transport activities have a wide variety of effects on the environment such
as air pollution, noise from road traffic and oil spills from marine shipping. Transport
infrastructure in India has expanded considerably in terms of network and services.
Thus, road transport accounts for a major share of air pollution load in cities such
as Delhi. Port and harbour projects mainly impact on sensitive coastal eco systems.
Their construction affects hydrology, surface water quality, fisheries, coral reefs
and mangroves to varying degrees. Direct impacts of agricultural development on
the environment arise from farming activities which contribute to soil erosion, land
salinization and loss of nutrients. The spread of green revolution has been
accompanied by over exploitation of land and water resources, and use of fertilizers
and pesticides have increased many fold. Shifting cultivation has also been an
important cause of land degradation. Leaching from extensive use of pesticides
and fertilizers is an important source of contamination of water bodies. Intensive
agriculture and irrigation contribute to land degradation particularly salinization,
alkalization and water logging.

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Forest Movements and 3. Institutional Factors
Effects of Urbanization,
Industrialization
and Nationalism
The Ministry of Environment & Forests (MOEF) is responsible for protection,
conservation and development of environment. The Ministry works in close
NOTES collaboration with other Ministries, State Governments, Pollution Control Boards
and a number of scientific and technical institutions, universities, non-Governmental
organisations, etc. Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 is the key legislation
governing environment management. Other important legislations in the area include
the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 and the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. The
weakness of the existing system lies in the enforcement capabilities of environmental
institutions, both at the centre and the state. There is no effective coordination
amongst various Ministries/Institutions regarding integration of environmental
concerns at the inception/planning stage of the project. Current policies are also
fragmented across several Government agencies with differing policy mandates.
Lack of trained personnel and comprehensive database delay many projects. Most
of the State Government institutions are relatively small suffering from inadequacy
of technical staff and resources. Although overall quality of Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) studies and the effective implementation of the EIA process
have improved over the years, institutional strengthening measures such as training
of key professionals and staffing with proper technical persons are needed to
make the EIA procedure a more effective instrument for environment protection
and sustainable development. All efforts should be directed towards strengthening
institutions, scientifically and technologically, training the existing manpower, and
exchanging information and integrating knowledge by complementing the efforts
of agencies dealing with environment. Each of us has a role to play in rehabilitating
our environment. Let us not forget that the environment is nothing but an extension
of the individual. We belong to the earth; the earth does not belong to us. Land, air
and water are complex interrelated systems. Even if one is affected, the effects are
reflected on the others, and their constituents. Therefore, proper resource utilization,
and conservation and maintenance of the ecological balance is the need of the
hour.
Effect of Urbanization
Nature and humankind are an indistinguishable part of life that incorporates land,
water, air, space, energy, vegetation which are interconnected, interrelated and
reliant. There are limitless types of life on earth. Man is one among the numerous
animal groups contending with all others for endurance. For the sake of progress,
humanity has changed from being agrarian to narcissistic to such an extent that
improvement as it were has gotten inseparable from ecological debasement and
progress with contamination. There is likewise a growing acknowledgment that
the unpredictable utilization of common assets has led to difficult issues.
Air Pollution: Clear air is instrumental for our survival. It is one of the “five
spirits” or “Panchaboothas” pondered favoured in India. India’s metropolitan
networks have become lethal gas chambers. Vehicular defilement is the essential
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driver of air pollution. Delhi is the fourth most polluted city on earth. In the Forest Movements and
Effects of Urbanization,
metropolitan territories, the air pollution level has outperformed the pre-defined Industrialization
standards set by WHO. It has been evaluated that 2.0 million Indians die yearly and Nationalism
due to air pollution. India is spending Rs. 4,550 crore for treating harmful issues
due to air pollution. Increase in ordinary temperature, destructive storm over certain NOTES
metropolitan territories and smoke on account of wood fires inside homes are
some of the various causes of air pollution. India is one of the signatories of the
overall strategy to control pollution. Accordingly, diesel vehicles and 15-year-old
vehicles are to be restricted to control vehicular pollution in metropolitan regions
like Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad, etc. Vehicle production checks have been made
needed for all vehicles. To control the pollution levels precipitators, scrubbers and
suitable channels ought to be fundamentally presented. Real courses of action
under the Air (Pollution, Prevention and Control) Act have furthermore been taken
to discard the practices that lead to pollution.
Water pollution: Water is the fundamental requirement for all lives. Water
received as precipitation has been surveyed to be 4000 km3 consistently. Be that
as it may, it has been possible to explore only 690 km3 for beneficial use. The
ground water potential is surveyed at 450 km3. The case of water use in India is
with the ultimate objective that 93% is used by the agrarian zone and 3.73% by
the local region. 80% of the 14 suffering streams in India are polluted with sewage.
Current effluents, agrarian run-off, dumping of unsafe materials in streams and
other water bodies are the explanation behind water pollution.
Waste management will relieve the stress on the natural resources and will
provide a clean and sustainable environment. Every type of pollution has an effect
on the human body. Only the scale may differ. The effect depends on the severity
of pollution to which a person has been exposed to. Air pollution from vehicles,
industries and dust results in respiratory disorders like asthma, bronchitis, bronchial
irritation, etc. India spends a sizable portion of its revenue on health problems. In
the 36 major cities of India this accounts for about Rs. 9000 crore per year. Noise
pollution from heavy traffic, loudspeakers and industries affect the human system.
A noise level of 80 decibels creates tension and increases blood pressure.
Continuous exposure to noise levels above 85 db results in tinnitus, while a level of
115-120 db can result in permanent deafness and at times leads to fatigue. Even
the foetus in the mother’s womb is disturbed by noise pollution.
Impact of Industrialization
Centuries back, when there was no dynamic growing of enormous urban
communities and enterprises, nature had the option to defeat contamination and
keep air genuinely clean without outside assistance. The breeze and downpour as
common rescuers dissipated gases and washed away the residue. Nonetheless,
with expanding industrialization and urbanization, the nature’s framework cannot
adapt to contamination and clean the climate normally. In comparison to volcanoes,

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Forest Movements and tropical storms, timberland fires and other catastrophic events, humans produce
Effects of Urbanization,
Industrialization substantially more wastes that contaminate the climate.
and Nationalism
In this way, the negative effect of industrialization and urbanization measures
on the climate is radical and very expansive. Industrialization for the sake of
NOTES
development has stacked gigantic tension on climate. Industrialization and climate
in the agricultural nations attempts to run hand to hand. However, purposely or
unwittingly, industrialization ran quicker without really focusing on climate to
dominate the race. Industrialization has expanded at an exponential growth.
Since the start of nineteenth century, humans have started to effectively
utilize regular assets and intercede in the area of biosphere – a living piece of our
planet. Just throughout the previous 100 years, the advancement of industry has
brought about mechanical cycles, adverse results that individuals could not foresee.
Urban areas with a populace of at least 1,000,000 showed up and their extension
cannot be halted. This is the aftereffect of extraordinary creations and
accomplishments of humankind. Gradually, we have changed our air and its science.
These days manufacturing plants are spread around the planet and air
contamination has become a vital part of our life.
Industrial effluents: Effluent is by and large viewed as water contamination,
for example, the outpouring from a sewage treatment office or the waste water
release from modern offices. More than 73 million days are lost every year because
of water related sicknesses. A gushing sump siphon, for example, siphons waste
from latrines introduced under a primary sewage line. With regards to squander
water treatment plants, emanating that has been dealt with is now and then
called auxiliary profluent, or rewarded gushing.
This cleaner profluent is then used to take care of the microorganisms in
bio-channels. A nuclear energy plant, the yield of the cooling framework might be
alluded to as the profluent cooling water, which is recognizably hotter than the
climate. Gushing just alludes to fluid release.
Contaminated air: Air contamination alludes to the presence of substance,
natural, and particulate issue, and poisons the environment around the living spaces.
When breathed in, it influences the human organic framework, and negatively affects
the personal satisfaction, with the assault of various respiratory plot problems.
It is a condition set off by the presence of air-borne toxins noticeable all
around us. These toxins could either be the aftereffect of substance emanations or
the particulate material from natural waste. The condition has arrived at disturbing
extents in the advanced world, with enormous scope industrialization and vehicle-
outflows being the essential guilty parties. The contaminations that are air-borne
cause a great deal of mischief to people and creatures, other than lasting harm to
the regular habitat.
Impacts of Air Pollution on Humans: Various disease and medical problems
like cardiopulmonary disease, pneumonia, premature mortality, heart attack,
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130 Material
asthma, difficulty in breathing, wheezing and coughing, acute vascular dysfunction, Forest Movements and
Effects of Urbanization,
thrombosis/thrombus formation, cystic fibrosis, etc., are caused due to air pollution. Industrialization
and Nationalism
Impact of ozone depleting substances: Ozone depleting substances are man-
made gases that destroy ozone once they reach the ozone layer. The ozone layer
NOTES
sits in the upper atmosphere and reduces the amount of harmful ultra violet radiation
that reaches Earth from the sun. Ultraviolet radiation can have detrimental effects
on both humans and the environment. For instance inducing skin cancer and
cataracts, distorting plant growth and damaging the marine environment.
World over, the governments are getting progressively worried about
accomplishing and showing their ecological presentation in view of the developing
impulses from intense enactments and mounting public pressing factors. Ecological
debacles, for example, Bhopal misfortune, Rhine contamination, Chernobyl
catastrophe, Ozone Layer Depletion have prompted governments everywhere in
the world to take action.
Contaminations influence climate as well as social and political lives of
individuals. On one hand the headways of science and technology have added to
the human comfort by giving us vehicles, electrical apparatus, better medication,
better compound to control destructive bugs and nuisance and on the other hand
we also face the challenge of confronting contamination and search for the
sustainable solutions.
The decay of climate and quick exhaustion of common assets undermine
the maintainability of financial turn of events. Perhaps the most complex difficulty
for us is to look for ways to maintain a balance between economic and
developmental activities and ecological conduct.

Check Your Progress

4. Which factors drive the environmental changes?
5. When does population become a source of environmental degradation?

6.4 IMPACT OF NATIONALISM ON

ENVIRONMENT IN INDIA

The natural concern was negligible during the time of Gandhi, however his thoughts
on Village Swaraj, decentralization, Swadeshi, Sarvodya, etc., made him a
supporter of environmentalism. He is regularly considered as a man with profound
biological view. The thoughts of Gandhi have been generally utilized by various
floods of natural way of thinking like green, profound biology, and so on and
distinctive ecological developments across the globe. A prominent natural
mastermind Ramachandra Guha recognized three unmistakable strands in Indian
Environmentalism, the Crusading Gandhians, Appropriate Technologists and
Ecological Marxists. He saw that, not at all like the third one, the initial two strands
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Material 131
Forest Movements and depend intensely on Gandhi. The motivation behind this paper is to distinguish the
Effects of Urbanization,
Industrialization Gandhian components utilized by the Ecological Marxists in India. The Silent Valley
and Nationalism Movement from Kerala is taken as a contextual investigation to examine how
biological Marxists resort to Gandhian strategies to battle against natural unfairness.
NOTES The job of Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP), a People’s Science Movement
(PSM) from Kerala with a Marxist foundation is concentrated to comprehend
various techniques they utilized in the development. It is seen that the procedures
embraced all through the development are provoked by Gandhian techniques as
recently utilized by other natural developments like Chipko.
Ecological Movements in India is a reaction to the natural difficulties looked
by the country from the hour of expansionism to the present for the sake of
advancement and innovation. These developments are regularly immediate signs
of Gandhian peacefulness and harmony making. Gandhian peacefulness had been
acknowledged by the ecological developments as their great goal. Green
developments in India and outside have guaranteed a liking with Gandhi. Petra
Kelly, originator of German green coalition, wrote in 1990 that the green groups
had been straightforwardly affected by Gandhi in reasoning that “a way of life and
a strategy for creation which depend on an interminable stock of crude materials
and an extravagant utilization of these crude materials produce the rationale in the
rough appointment of crude materials from other countries.” Arne Naess, father
of ‘deep ecology’ additionally contends that his work for ecosophy, was created
out of his work on Spinoza and Gandhi. He clarifies that Gandhi showed the
inside connection between self-acknowledgment, peacefulness and has been called
bio-round populism, and brings up that he was unavoidably impacted by Mahatma’s
transcendentalism which added to keeping him (the mahatma) going until his death.
It was the commitment of Gandhi to the way of thinking of Deep Ecology that
made him a victor of environmentalism. Both Gandhi and Naess accepted that
‘self-acknowledgment’ is fundamental to see any sort of issues or clashes.
Environmentalism as a development began in India in 1970s and prospered
with the Chipko movement. Not all like the western ecological movements which
addressed the upper and working class. Indian environmental movements implied
the “environmentalism of the poor”. These movements are regularly driven by the
labourers and native individuals, particularly the woman. It “joins issues of ecology
with question of basic freedoms, identity and distributive justice”. Often it starts
with endeavours advancing local area improvement, education and political
strengthening and every now and then, moves to a fight to figure out who own/
controls the utilization of land. The majority of these movements depended on the
Gandhian estimations of natural reasonability and moderation and followed the
Gandhian model of decentralized vote based system and village Swaraj.
Simultaneously, a few movements like Silent Valley movement from Kerala
represent the blend of both Gandhian and Marxian philosophies.

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 Forest Movements and
Effects of Urbanization,
Check Your Progress Industrialization
and Nationalism
6. What made Gandhi a supporter of environmentalism?
7. Which three unmistakable strands in Indian Environmentalism did NOTES
Ramachandra Guha recognize?

6.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Liberalism held that all social problems, including environmental ones, could
and should be solved through the free market.
2. The participation of environmental parties in elections is essential because it
increases the public’s awareness of environmental issues and encourages
traditional political parties to address them.
3. The fundamental targets of Appiko Movement were afforestation just as
advancement, protection and legitimate usage of timberlands in the best
way.
4. Environmental changes may be driven by many factors including economic
growth, population growth, urbanization, intensification of agriculture, rising
energy use and transportation.
5. Population is an important source of development, yet it is a major source
of environmental degradation when it exceeds the threshold limits of the
support systems.
6. The natural concern was negligible during the time of Gandhi, however his
thoughts on Village Swaraj, decentralization, Swadeshi, Sarvodya, etc., made
him a supporter of environmentalism.
7. A prominent natural mastermind Ramachandra Guha recognized three
unmistakable strands in Indian Environmentalism, the Crusading Gandhians,
Appropriate Technologists and Ecological Marxists.

6.6 SUMMARY

 Pollution was associated with the spread of epidemic disease in Europe

between the late 14th century and the mid-16th century, and soil conservation
was practiced in China, India and Peru as early as 2,000 years ago.
 An early philosophy of resource conservation was developed by Gifford
Pinchot (1865–1946), the first chief of the U.S. Forest Service, for whom
conservation represented the wise and efficient use of resources.

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Forest Movements and  Environmental organizations established from the late 19th to the mid-20th
Effects of Urbanization,
Industrialization century were primarily middle-class lobbying groups concerned with nature
and Nationalism conservation, wildlife protection, and the pollution that arose from industrial
development and urbanization.
NOTES
 Beginning in the 1960s, the various philosophical strands of environmentalism
were given political expression through the establishment of “green” political
movements in the form of activist non-governmental organizations and
environmentalist political parties.
 The early strategies of the contemporary environmental movement were
self-consciously activist and unconventional, involving direct-protest actions
designed to obstruct and to draw attention to environmentally harmful policies
and projects.
 The electoral strategies of the environmental movement included the
nomination of environmental candidates and the registration of green political
parties.
 Green parties also have been formed in the former Soviet bloc, where they
were instrumental in the collapse of some communist regimes, and in some
developing countries in Asia, South America, and Africa, though they have
achieved little electoral success there.
 In developing party policy, the green parties attempted to apply the values
of environmental philosophy to all issues facing their countries, including
foreign policy, defense, and social and economic policies.
 Transnational coalition building was and remains another important strategy
for environmental organizations and for grassroots movements in developing
countries, primarily because it facilitates the exchange of information and
expertise but also because it strengthens lobbying and direct-action campaigns
at the international level.
 In the 21st century the environmental movement has combined the traditional
concerns of conservation, preservation, and pollution with more
contemporary concerns with the environmental consequences of economic
practices as diverse as tourism, trade, financial investment, and the conduct
of war.
 Bishnoi is a strict order found in the Western Thar Desert and northern
conditions of India. It was established by Guru Maharaj Jambaji in 1485
AD in the Marwar (Jodhpur) desert area of western Rajasthan, India. It is
peaceful local area of nature admirers.
 Environmental degradation is a result of the dynamic interplay of socio-
economic, institutional and technological activities. Environmental changes
may be driven by many factors including economic growth, population
growth, urbanization, intensification of agriculture, rising energy use and
transportation.
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  Population impacts the environment primarily through the use of natural Forest Movements and
Effects of Urbanization,
resources and production of wastes and is associated with environmental Industrialization
stresses like loss of biodiversity, air and water pollution and increased pressure and Nationalism
on arable land.
NOTES
 Inequality may foster unsustainability because the poor, who rely on natural
resources more than the rich, deplete natural resources faster as they have
no real prospects of gaining access to other types of resources.
 To a large extent, environmental degradation is the result of market failure,
that is, the non- existent or poorly functioning markets for environmental
goods and services. In this context, environmental degradation is a particular
case of consumption or production externalities reflected by divergence
between private and social costs (or benefits).
 The Ministry of Environment & Forests (MOEF) is responsible for
protection, conservation and development of environment. The Ministry
works in close collaboration with other Ministries, State Governments,
Pollution Control Boards and a number of scientific and technical institutions,
universities, non-Governmental organisations, etc.
 The breeze and downpour as common rescuers dissipated gases and washed
away the residue. Nonetheless, with expanding industrialization and
urbanization, the nature’s framework cannot adapt to contamination and
clean the climate normally.
 A prominent natural mastermind Ramachandra Guha recognized three
unmistakable strands in Indian Environmentalism, the Crusading Gandhians,
Appropriate Technologists and Ecological Marxists.
 Ecological Movements in India is a reaction to the natural difficulties looked
by the country from the hour of expansionism to the present for the sake of
advancement and innovation. These developments are regularly immediate
signs of Gandhian peacefulness and harmony making.
 Environmentalism as a development began in India in 1970s and prospered
with the Chipko movement.

6.7 KEY WORDS

 Liberalism: It refers to a political and social philosophy that promotes

individual rights, civil liberties, democracy, and free enterprise.
 Green political party: It is a formally organized political party based on
the principles of green politics, such as social justice, environmentalism and
nonviolence.
 Urbanization: It refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, the
decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in
which societies adapt to this change.
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Forest Movements and  Environmental degradation: It is the deterioration of the environment
Effects of Urbanization,
Industrialization through depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of
and Nationalism ecosystems; habitat destruction; the extinction of wildlife; and pollution.

NOTES
6.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. How and what were the early strategies of the contemporary environmental
movement?
2. How does population impact the environment?
3. What are the economic factors that influence the environment?
4. What do you mean by the environmentalism of the poor?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Explain how the environmental movement has influenced the agenda of
international politics.
2. Describe the forest developments in India that took place in history.
3. Analyse the impact of nationalism on environmentalism movements.

6.9 FURTHER READINGS

J. Donald Hughes. 2015. What is Environmental History?. London: Wiley.

Chakrabarti, Ranjan. 2020. Critical Themes in Environmental History of India.
New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Agnoletti, Mauro and Simone Neri Serneri. 2014. The Basic Environmental
History. New York: Springer International Publishing.
Isenberg, Andrew Christian. 2014. The Oxford Handbook of Environmental
History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rosencrazz, Armin. 2002. Environmental law & Policy in India. Noida: Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Appadurai, Susila. 2004. Environmental studies. New Delhi: New Century Book
House Pvt Ltd.
Porter, Goreth, Janet Welsh Brown. 2000. Global Environmental politics.
Colorado: Westview Press.

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 Environment Education

UNIT 7 ENVIRONMENT and Protection

EDUCATION AND
NOTES
PROTECTION
Structure
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Environmental Education
7.3 Formal and Informal Education in India
7.4 Organization for Environmental Protection
7.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
7.6 Summary
7.7 Key Words
7.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
7.9 Further Readings

7.0 INTRODUCTION

Environmental education is a process that allows individuals to explore environmental

issues, engage in problem solving, and take action to improve the environment. As
a result, individuals develop a deeper understanding of environmental issues and
have the skills to make informed and responsible decisions. Environmental education
does not advocate a particular viewpoint or course of action. Rather, environmental
education teaches individuals how to weigh various sides of an issue through critical
thinking and it enhances their own problem-solving and decision-making skills.
Environmental education increases public awareness and knowledge of
environmental issues, teaches individuals critical-thinking and enhances individuals’
problem-solving and decision-making skills. In this unit, we will study in detail
about the meaning, significance and scope of environmental education and the
methods to impart environmental education along with the institutions set up for
environmental protection.

7.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Describe the meaning and importance of environmental education
 Discuss the importance points made by various conferences and meetings
on the need of environmental education
 Explain the nature and scope of environmental education
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Environment Education  State the formal and informal methods of imparting environmental education
and Protection
in India
 List the organizations established for environmental protection
NOTES
7.2 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Environmental education is an important segment within the educational system.

In many countries government supported programmes are constituted which are
pursued by social groups, scientific community and educational institutions.
The main objectives of such programmes are:
 To overcome the environmental crisis
 To understand the factors, causes and find solutions to the environmental
problems
 To evaluate and analyse problems in the management of natural resources
 To evaluate the success and failure in implementing educational tasks
 To develop ability to assess environmental situations which are leading
to environmental damages
 To develop relationship between social, economic and physical factors
which are mutually responsible for various negative outcomes
 To provide feedback for the future generation
 To define economy and set up the limits of the use of natural resources
 To make behavioural changes in everybody’s life as a consumer,
industrial producer, employee, citizen, policymaker, traveller, tourist,
farmer, or student
 To integrate Gandhian principles and values as a part of environmental
education
Need for Environmental Education
The pursuit of sustainable development and environmental conservation policies,
objectives and targets requires the public to be sufficiently sensitized about the
multiple dimensions of environment and development. Awareness and understanding
of environmental issues provide the basis and rationale for commitment and
meaningful action towards environmentally sound and sustainable development.
Environmental education is now being seen as an instrument and a process
that enables participation and learning by people of all ages, based on two-way
communication rather than the old paradigm of a one-way flow of information,
from teachers to pupils. The content and substance of environmental education is
also undergoing review and change. Reorienting education as a whole towards
sustainability involves the various levels of formal, non-formal and informal education
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framework that emerged from the first international conference in Tbilisi (1977) Environment Education
and Protection
and is now seen as education for sustainability. This allowed environmental education
to address the broad range of issues and concerns included in Agenda 21 and
others which evolved through the meetings of the Commission on Sustainable
Development (UNESCO 1997). NOTES
The key international conventions on environment place a high value on
public awareness, education and training and obtaining information through
monitoring as essential elements for the success of the conventions. For example,
the Convention on Biological Diversity emphasizes the importance of public
education and awareness through promoting and encouraging measures required
for the conservation of biological diversity.
Since the convention came into force in December 1995, the contracting
parties (countries) have been motivated to address issues related to education and
awareness on biodiversity.
In addition, countries in the region recognize the immensity of the challenges
they face, and of the vital role that environmental education can play in meeting
these challenges. There is a growing perception by governments for the need to
integrate environmental education information and communication into the country’s
on-going programmes. As a result of the Agenda 21, the level of cooperation and
collaboration between environmental and the educational institutions has increased.
In some countries, governmental environmental agencies have statutory
requirements to engage in activities related to environmental education and
awareness. For example, the Malaysian Department of Environment has established
an educational division under the Environmental Quality Act, which is actively
engaged in promoting and implementing a variety of activities.
In many countries of the Asian and the Pacific Region environmental topics
have been included in education courses, through integrating environmental concerns
in other subjects and through specific courses for the environment. Government,
NGOs, educational institutions and media have undertaken some serious efforts
to meet the growing environmental challenges by promoting environmental
education, information and communication in their respective countries. Activities
such as green bank, green press, eco-clubs, eco-policies, eco-farming and eco-
harvesting; are emerging in the region. Special economic incentives (such as subsidy,
tax-exemption and other incentives) are provided to schools in some countries
where environmental education courses are offered.
There is greater recognition of the role of NGOs and civil society
organizations, and the need for meaningful community participation in debates and
action programmes aimed at education and training for sustainable development.
NGOs and governments are increasingly working together, reinforcing each other’s
strengths and outreach.
Linkages between governmental institutions and NGOs are improving in
most countries of the region, and in some cases, governments are actually depending
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Environment Education on mature and experienced NGOs to promote environmental awareness,
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communication, and training activities.
International Meets of Environmental Educations
NOTES
1. Stockholm Conference
Environmental education (EE) gained international recognition in 1972 with the
UN Conference on the Human Environment, in Stockholm, Sweden, which called
upon environmental education as the means to address environmental issues
worldwide. The Conference considered the need for a common outlook and for
common principles to inspire and guide the peoples of the world in the preservation
and enhancement of the human environment. It proclaimed that:
 Man is both creature and moulder of his environment, which gives him
physical sustenance and gives him the opportunity for intellectual, moral,
social and spiritual growth. In the long and tortuous evolution of the human
race on this planet, a stage has been reached when, through the rapid
acceleration of science and technology, man has acquired the power to
transform his environment in countless ways and on an unprecedented scale.
Both aspects of man’s environment, the natural and the man-made, are
essential to his well-being and to the enjoyment of basic human rights— the
right to life itself.
 The protection and improvement of the human environment is a major issue
which affects the well-being of people and economic development throughout
the world. It is the urgent desire of the people of the world and the duty of
all the governments.
 Man has constantly to sum up experience and go on discovering, inventing,
creating and advancing. Man’s capability to transform his surroundings, if
used wisely, can bring to all people the benefits of development and the
opportunity to enhance the quality of life. Wrongly or heedlessly applied,
the same power can do incalculable harm to human beings and the human
environment. We see around us growing evidence of man-made harm in
many regions of the earth: dangerous levels of pollution in water, air, earth
and living beings; major and undesirable disturbances to the ecological balance
of the biosphere; destruction and depletion of irreplaceable resources; and
gross deficiencies, harmful to the physical, mental and social health of man,
in the man-made environment, particularly in the living and working
environment.
 In the developing countries most of the environmental problems are caused
by under-development. Millions continue to live far below the minimum
levels required for a decent human existence, deprived of adequate food
and clothing, shelter and education, health and sanitation. Therefore, the
developing countries must direct their efforts to development, bearing in
mind their priorities and the need to safeguard and improve the environment.
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 For the same purpose, the industrialized countries should make efforts to Environment Education
and Protection
reduce the gap themselves and the developing countries. In the industrialized
countries, environmental problems are generally related to industrialization
and technological development.
NOTES
 The natural growth of population continuously presents problems for the
preservation of the environment, and adequate policies and measures should
be adopted, as appropriate, to face these problems. Of all things in the
world, people are the most precious. It is the people that propel social
progress, create social wealth, develop science and technology and, through
their hard work, continuously transform the human environment. Along with
social progress and the advance of production, science and technology, the
capability of man to improve the environment increases with each passing
day.
 A point has been reached in history when we must shape our actions
throughout the world with a more prudent care for their environmental
consequences. Through ignorance or indifference we can do massive and
irreversible harm to the earthly environment on which our life and well being
depend. Conversely, through fuller knowledge and wiser action, we can
achieve for ourselves and our posterity a better life in an environment more
in keeping with human needs and hopes. There are broad vistas for the
enhancement of environmental quality and the creation of a good life. What
is needed is an enthusiastic but calm state of mind and intense but orderly
work. For the purpose of attaining freedom in the world of nature, man
must use knowledge to build, in collaboration with nature, a better
environment. To defend and improve the human environment for present
and future generations has become an imperative goal for mankind-a goal
to be pursued together with, and in harmony with, the established and
fundamental goals of peace and of worldwide economic and social
development.
 To achieve this, environmental goal will demand the acceptance of
responsibility by citizens and communities and by enterprises and institutions
at every level, all sharing equitably in common efforts. Individuals in all walks
of life as well as organizations in many fields, by their values and the sum of
their actions, will shape the world environment of the future.
 Local and national governments will bear the greatest burden for large-
scale environmental policy and action within their jurisdictions. International
cooperation is also needed in order to raise resources to support the
developing countries in carrying out their responsibilities in this field. A
growing class of environmental problems, because they are regional or global
in extent or because they affect the common international realm, will require
extensive cooperation among nations and action by international organizations
in the common interest.
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Environment Education 2. Tbilisi Conference
and Protection
In 1975, in pursuance of the above recommendation of the United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972) UNESCO and the
NOTES United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) launched the International
Environmental Education Programme (IEEP). In 1977 the Intergovernmental
Conference on Environmental Education (Tbilisi, USSR), considering that there
was a sharply felt need in all countries for international cooperation in this field,
called upon UNESCO and UNEP to continue their efforts to further the
development of this education within the international community.
Environmental education (EE) is included among the objectives of
UNESCO’s Medium-Term Plan for 1977-1982, which was approved by the
UNESCO General Conference at its nineteenth session (Nairobi, 1976).
The Declaration and Recommendations of the Tbilisi Conference made it
possible to define the nature, objectives and pedagogical principles of environmental
education and to establish broad guidelines for action in this field at the national
and international levels. Since the Tbilisi Conference, the environment has been
seen as a whole, simultaneously comprising natural aspects and those that result
from human action. Environmental Education is viewed as a dimension of the
subject matter and practice of education directed towards the solution of practical
environmental problems through an interdisciplinary approach and the active and
responsible involvement of each individual and of the community.
The Tbilisi Conference considered that EE should be made an integral part
of the entire educational process and aimed at every category of the population
such as:
 General public and non-specialists
 Socio-occupational categories whose activities have a significant impact
on the environment
 Scientists and technicians whose fields, whether in the natural or the
social sciences concern the environment and who need to receive
specialized training.
3. The Earth Summit
The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro was unprecedented for a UN conference, in
terms of both its size and the scope of its concerns. Twenty years after the first
global environment conference, the UN sought to help Governments rethink
economic development and find ways to halt the destruction of irreplaceable natural
resources and pollution of the planet. Hundreds of thousands of people from all
walks of life were drawn into the Rio process. They persuaded their leaders to go
to Rio and join other nations in making the difficult decisions needed to ensure a
healthy planet for generations to come.

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 The Summit’s message — that nothing less than a transformation of our Environment Education
and Protection
attitudes and behaviour would bring about the necessary changes — was transmitted
by almost 10,000 on-site journalists and heard by millions around the world. The
message reflected the complexity of the problems facing us: that poverty as well as
excessive consumption by affluent populations place damaging stress on the NOTES
environment. Governments recognized the need to redirect international and national
plans and policies to ensure that all economic decisions fully took into account any
environmental impact. And the message has produced results, making eco-efficiency
a guiding principle for business and governments alike.
 Patterns of production — particularly the production of toxic
components, such as lead in gasoline, or poisonous waste — are being
scrutinized in a systematic manner by the UN and Governments alike.
 Alternative sources of energy are being sought to replace the use of
fossil fuels which are linked to global climate change.
 New reliance on public transportation systems is being emphasized in
order to reduce vehicle emissions, congestion in cities and the health
problems caused by polluted air and smog.
 There is much greater awareness of and concern over the growing scarcity
of water.
The two-week Earth Summit was the climax of a process, begun in December
1989, of planning, education and negotiations among all Member States of the
United Nations, leading to the adoption of ‘Agenda 21’, a wide-ranging blueprint
for action to achieve sustainable development worldwide. At its close, Maurice
Strong, the conference secretary-general, called the summit a ‘historic moment
for humanity’. Although Agenda 21 had been weakened by compromise and
negotiation, he said, it was still the most comprehensive and, if implemented, effective
programme of action ever sanctioned by the international community. Today, efforts
to ensure its proper implementation continue.
The Earth Summit influenced all subsequent UN conferences, which have
examined the relationship between human rights, population, social development,
women and human settlements — and the need for environmentally sustainable
development. The World Conference on Human Rights, held in Vienna in 1993,
for example, underscored the right of people to a healthy environment and the
right to development, controversial demands that had met with resistance from
some Member States until Rio.
Definitions of Environmental Education
‘Environmental Education is a way of implementing the goals of environmental
protection. It is not a separate branch of science of field of study. It should be
carried out according to the principle of life-long integral education.’ — Finnish
National Commission Education, UNESCO (1976) Seminar at Jammi, 1974.

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Environment Education According to Mishra (1993), ‘Environmental Education appears to be a
and Protection
process that equips human with awareness, knowledge, skill, attitude and
commitment to improve environment.’
International working meeting on environmental education in the school
NOTES
curriculum, Paris UNESCO, 1979: ‘Environmental Education is the process of
recognizing values and clarifying concepts in order to develop skill and attitude
necessary to understand and appreciate the interrelatedness among man, his culture
and his bio-physical surroundings. It also entails practice in decision making and
self formulation of a code of behaviour about problems and issues concerning
environmental quality.’
According to Cook and Hearu (1971), ‘Environmental education is problem
centered, interdisciplinary, value and community oriented, and concerns with man’s
survival as species, based on student initiated activities and involvements.’
As per R.A. Sharma (1996), ‘Environmental education refers to the
awareness of physical and cultural environment and perceives its relevance for
real life situations. The problems and issues are to be identified. The imbalances of
environment are to be improved in view of sustainable development.’
Reviewing all the definitions, environmental education can be summarized
as:
 A way to meet the goals of environmental protection.
 A process by which one develops awareness about environment.
Environment Education is significant because of the following reasons:
 Comprises of a learning process that increases people’s knowledge and
awareness about associated challenges
 Develops the necessary skills and expertise to face challenges
 Facilitates better attitude, motivations and commitments to take
responsible action
 Enhances critical thinking, problem solving and effective decision-making
skills
 Enables individuals to calculate various sides of environmental issues
 Encourages inquiry and investigation
 Ensures literate individuals to make healthy citizen and community
 Improves everyday life by protecting human health
 Encourages expansion of natural resources
 Establishes ecological equilibrium which explains proper use and
conservation of resources
 Controls environment pollution
 Understands the importance of balanced environment and remedial
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 Apart from this, some more objectives of environmental education have Environment Education
and Protection
been chalked out by various international seminars and conferences.
 ‘To create an awareness and an understanding of the evolving social
and physical environment as a whole, its natural, manmade, cultural,
NOTES
spiritual resources, together with the rational use and conservation of
these resources for development.’ – Report of a conference of African
educators, EDC and CREDO, Nairobi, African Social Studies
programmes, 1968.
 ‘In order to enable people to enjoy good health and a high quality of life,
it is vital to prevent harmful effects to human health or damage to the
environment caused by pollution of air, water, and soil, noise, vibration,
noxious, smells, etc., caused by firms and individuals. The environment
includes animals and plants and their ecological systems which are closely
bound to the livelihood of people.’ – National Anti Pollution Law, Japan,
1968.
 Environmental Education is an integral part of the education process. It
should be centered on practical problems and be interdisciplinary in
character. It should be aimed at building up a sense of values, contribute
to public well being and concern itself with the survival of the human
species. Its force should reside mainly in the initiative of the learners and
their involvement in action and it should be guided by both immediate
and future subjects of concern – Final report of the Tbilisi Conference,
1977.
Nature and scope of Environmental Education
The following points summarize the nature of the Environmental Education.
 Action against real problems
 Interdisciplinary in nature
 Solution for environmental situations and problems
 Modification of values in relation to environment
 Development of skills and attitude
 A continuous process
 An educational experience which provides solution for environmental
problems
 Newly created field for all socio-professional groups
 Vital to prevent harmful effects to human health
 Relationship between man, its culture and biophysical environment
 Decision-making practice
 Self-formulation of a code of behaviour
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Environment Education  Not a separate branch of science
and Protection
 An integral part of the educational process
 Formal as well as informal
NOTES  For all age groups
 A style and subject matter of education
Scope of Environmental Education
Environmental education is the need of the day. It is a part of education for society
in the developed, developing and least developed countries. It strives to improve
things through environment, about environment and for environment.
The scope of environmental education is designed under two categories:
(i) Scope in terms of subjects
(ii) Scope in terms of environmental issues and subject matter
According to Tbilisi conference, an environmental study as a subject has immense
opportunity. It includes a variety of subjects and arenas which can be listed as:
 Maintenance and protection of natural resources
 Natural science and biodiversity
 Management and reduction of environmental pollution
 Community related issues with respect to development and environment
 Human population and environment

Fig 7.1 Scope of Environmental Education for Different Categories of Individuals

These are the fundamental characteristics of environmental education which

have an immediate influence on society. Environmental Studies are also at times,
highly focused on more technological features like environmental science,
environmental engineering or environmental management.
In modern times, the range of environmental studies has increased
significantly. A number of career opportunities have become known in these fields
that are largely classified as:
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 (i) Research and Development (R&D) in Environment: Proficient Environment Education
and Protection
environmental scientists play a significant role in investigating numerous
environmental problems in a scientific manner. In this manner, they are
able to perform R & D activities for developing cleaner technologies
and ensuring that the present development is able to meet the needs of NOTES
the current generation without compromising on the needs of the future
generations. Environmental management and environmental engineering
are emerging as new career opportunities for environmental protection
and management. In India the pollution control boards (PCB) are
taking stringent action to execute pollution control laws.
(ii) Green Advocacy: Environment Studies as a subject now needs to
have advocates since several Acts and Laws related to environment
have been implemented. Advocates will need to fight for cases related
to water and air pollution, forests and wildlife.
(iii) Green Marketing: We now find products in the market which have
ISO 14001 Certification. This certification implies that the products
are environment friendly and will not adversely affect the environment.
As a result, environmental auditors and environmental managers are
the emerging career opportunities in the coming years.
(iv) Green Media: In the age of technology, awareness about the
environment can be easily spread not only by television, radio,
newspapers but also through the Internet, magazines, hoardings and
advertisements.
(v) Environment Consultancy: A lot of non-government organizations
(NGOs), corporate bodies and government organizations are hiring
the services of environmental professionals for thoroughly studying
and confronting environment related problems.
Universal vs Local Nature of Environment
Environment is one focus that is both global and local in nature. Issues like global
warming, diminution of ozone layer, declining forests and energy resources, loss of
diverse plants and animals at the global level are some of the problems which are
going to have a direct and indirect influence on human beings at the global level.
However, there are some environmental problems which have to be handled
at the local level. For example, impact of mining, or hydroelectric project in an
area, difficulty in disposal and management of solid waste, pollution of water bodies,
soil erosion, water logging, and salinization of soil, and arsenic pollution of ground
water have to be handled at the local level.
Individualistic Nature of Environment
Environmental studies is an indispensable subject matter. It deals with the most
commonplace problems of life which concern every human being such as provision
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Environment Education of safe and clean drinking water, clean living conditions, fresh air, fertile land,
and Protection
healthy food and sustainable development. If we want to lead a healthy life, live
long with less number of health problems and preserve the same for the future
generations, it is most essential to understand the basics of environment.
NOTES
Sustainable development requires public-private partnership. However, the
public can be encouraged to participate only when they are made conscious about
the environmental issues.
All individuals should be made conscious of their duty to keep the
environment neat and clean. This will ensure that the environment is conserved
and preserved for a better tomorrow.

Check Your Progress

1. What was the Earth Summit message?
2. Define environmental education.
3. Name the categories under which the scope of environmental education is
designed.

7.3 FORMAL AND INFORMAL EDUCATION IN

INDIA

Environmental education is a process that allows individuals to explore environmental

issues, engage in problem solving, and take action to improve the environment. As
a result, individuals develop a deeper understanding of environmental issues and
have the skills to make informed and responsible decisions. In other words,
environmental education is a study of nature. It helps us explore the problems
which environment faces and also in spreading the awareness about the causes of
such problems. A profound understanding of the environment will help us tackle
these issues efficiently. Meanwhile, building strategies to enhance and sustain nature
is also part of environmental education. It creates a positive impact on youth.
Environmental education helps us become conscious of our actions. Similarly, this
further assists us in making responsible choices.
Constituents of Environmental Education
1. Awareness: It makes us aware of the functioning of our environment. In
addition, it also throws light on environmental issues.
2. Empathy: Environmental education makes us empathetic towards such
problems. It gives us a deeper understanding.
3. Approach: How humans should approach the challenges is taught by
Environmental Education. It encourages a thoughtful approach to sustain
the environment.
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 4. Aid: It assists us in classifying environmental issues. Moreover, it gives us Environment Education
and Protection
the ability to resolve them.
5. Contribution: Environmental education motivates us to contribute our bit
for a greater cause. Above all, it inspires us to partake in bringing about a
NOTES
change.
Advantages of Environmental Education
Given below are the advantages of environmental education:
1. Encourages kids to respect mother earth and its animals: By teaching kids
how to respect our nature, we will pave way for a brighter future.
Environmental Education teaches us to be kind towards animals. This will
have a positive impact on our nature.
2. Cultivates critical thinking: In addition to making kids respectful of nature, it
also develops critical thinking in them. They become mindful of their actions
and their magnitudes. Therefore, good habits are instilled in kids, which will
influence our nature in a positive manner.
3. Promotes a healthy way of life: Nowadays when everyone is glued to their
phones, people hardly move their muscles. Environmental education
encourages kids to participate in outdoor activities. It teaches us about the
benefits of the environment and how we can use it to our advantage.
4. Environmental balance is restored: By teaching kids how their actions impact
nature, we can maintain environmental balance. For instance, if someone is
cutting down a tree in one corner, in the other corner a kid is learning to
plant one. It helps in creating a sustainable future.
5. Gives a much-needed break from monotony: The mundane routine of
studying theoretical subjects is tiring. Environmental Education gives the
kids a chance to engage in activities outside the class. It makes them active
and lively. Environmental education serves as a fun break for students.
In conclusion, environmental education is the need of the hour. Thousands of animals
and forests are dying due to human activities. Steps must be taken to preserve our
mother earth. Today’s world is going through a climatic crisis. Environmental
Education can bring much-needed change. When we teach kids early about the
importance of the environment, we pave way for a healthier and greener
environment.
Environmental education in India
Environmental education in India is imparted through formal and informal ways.
We will study about these two methods here.
(a) Formal Education: Formal education is given in schools, colleges and
universities, for a limited period of time. It has a well-defined and systematic
curriculum. The best methodology in any mindfulness program is to
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Environment Education proliferate through children and youth as they rapidly take to groundbreaking
and Protection
thoughts and are the future activists. Formal environmental education should
start at the school level.
Curriculum ought to be built considering the class and age of the students.
NOTES
They should be made understand about the environmental issues effectively
and the emphasis ought to be on developing the ecological awareness in
kids. In lower grades, kids are conscious about the physical and social
aspects of climate. At this stage and after it, inter-disciplinary methodology
should be used and the stress should be on expanding the knowledge about
ecological issues and preservation of environment.
The mode of giving environmental education is not just through books but
also through practical experiences in field activities and eco-development
camps. The exercises in environmental education system can be different
depending upon the environmental conditions of a place.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has
developed an educational program system on the basis of which, many
books, reading material and teaching aids have been prepared. University
Grants Commission (UGC) is vested with the responsibility of environmental
education at postgraduate level.
Usually, environment subject is taught under the biology course in colleges
but in many engineering colleges it is taught as environmental engineering.
Subjects like civil engineering, environment im-provement of urban slums,
town and country planning, human settlements, landscaping, industrial design,
designing environmental friendly technologies and environmental impact
assessment for sustainable development are included in Environmental
Engineering.
Environment education incorporates subjects like land-use, horticulture,
waste management, conservation of natural resources, forestry, national
parks, water resources management, biosphere reserves, etc. Moreover,
subjects like cleanliness, toxicology, word related wellbeing, sustenance,
etc., are also included under the studies.
At postgraduate level, environmental education training incorporates social
nature for example human environment, social science, brain research, cost-
benefit aspect and environmental ethics.
Case studies must be designed at known areas as dissertation and field
work reports and research must be carried out on certain environmental
issues related to the local environment. Environmental legislation is also a
part of the course and it includes environmental policies and environmental
protection laws.

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 Current Situation of Formal Environmental Education in India Environment Education
and Protection
There are about 200 departments of environmental studies in various Indian
universities and colleges. They offer degree or diploma courses that cover
all aspects of environmental sciences and engineering. Diplomas, bachelor’s
NOTES
degree, M.Sc, M.Phil and Ph.D programmes are also there in environ-mental
sciences. Moreover, M.E., M.Tech and Ph.D programmes in environmental
engineering are offered by Civil Engineering and Chemical Engineering
departments.
Post graduate degree programmes in environmental management and other
courses related to environmental studies, which lead to M.Sc in
environmental chemistry/biology/geology or environmental toxicology, are
also available.
Environmental education at Ph.D level is also offered by autonomous
Research and Development (R & D) institutions set up by central
government, state governments and other agen-cies such as CSIR, ICAR
and ICMR. It can be inferred that formal education in environmental sci-ence
or engineering is available in India up to the highest possible level.
There is a necessity of restructuring of environmental studies programmes
in order to produce instead of generalists, professionals whose expertise is
in Environmental Botany or Environmental Zoology/Chemistry/Economics/
Sociology etc.
These courses ought to have relatively specific curricula having provisions
for training students in specialisations such as forest ecology, Limnology,
marine ecology, environmental analysis, pollution studies, environmental
toxicology, etc.
(b) Informal Education: For a majority of the people that still have no access
to formal education, environmental education can be gained by pursuing
courses that fall outside the ambit of the formal education system.
Environmental education should be a lifelong learning and not just limited to
a particular course for a specific period of time in an institution.
This acknowledgment has resulted in an increase in non-formal education
which includes practices outside the domain of the pre-defined formal
education system. The process of non-formal environment education is sort
of an experiential and project-based learning that involves exercises of finding
solutions of environmental problems.
This provides the students an opportunity for out-of-school exposure. It
helps them in acquiring the skills related to natural processes of enquiring,
exploring, conjecturing, comparing, inferring, evaluating and decision making
regarding environmental issues in their locality. The most fundamental
characteristic of non-formal environmental education programmes is the
flexibility of approach.
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Environment Education Eco-development drives and camps aim at spreading awareness about basic
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ecological prin-ciples and addressing environmental issues after recognising
the causes of the ecological problems. Activities like tree plantation, trenching,
fencing, seed-banks, cleaning water-bodies, hygiene and promoting the use
NOTES of non-conventional energy are included in these eco-development drives
and camps.
The Vikram Sarabhai Community Centre, Ahmedabad, includes kids in
completing experiments and surveys, and, the Centre for Environmental
Education has created a water monitoring kit for school students under the
Ganga Pollution Control Program. Numerous institutions like Bal Bhawan
Society, Shantiniketan, etc., use methods such as arts and crafts, dance
and street plays to give informal environmental education to the students.

Check Your Progress

4. How does environmental education promote a healthy way of life?
5. How does informal environmental education help the student?

7.4 ORGANIZATION FOR ENVIRONMENTAL

PROTECTION

There are many international agencies set up to protect environment in various

conferences. These are playing a vital role in this direction.
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)
Set up in 1972, after the Stockholm Conference, the United Nations Environment
Program (UNEP) is the principal body of the UN in the field of environmental
protection. It reviews the state of the global environment, facilitates the progression
of international environmental law and coordinates the activities of the United
Nations.
The UNEP plays a significant role in facilitating global negotiations on MEAs
and also acts as a secretariat to a number of MEAs. It also organizes an annual
Global Ministerial Environment Forum, wherein environmental ministers from
around the world meet to discuss the issues of contemporary interest.
The UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)
The UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) was set up in 1992 as
a follow-up mechanism to the Earth Summit. It is a functional commission of the
economic and social council (ECOSOC) and is composed of 53 members elected
for three year terms by the ECOSOC from amongst the UN members. The CSD
acts as a catalyst for actions that support the objectives of sustainable development.
Its mandate is to monitor and report on the implementation of the Earth Summit
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agreements such as Agenda 21 and the Rio Declaration at the local, national, Environment Education
and Protection
regional and international levels.
After the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002, the CSD
now monitors the follow up of the Johannesburg Plan of implementation. It meets
NOTES
annually for a period of two to three weeks in order to address the issues relating
to sustainable development. The relationship between UNEP and CSD has not
always been clear, although their mandates are clearly different.
Global Environment Facility (GEF)
The GEF is an international funding mechanism that was set up in 1991 to facilitate
environmental protection in the developing countries by funding projects and
programs in these countries. The GEF addresses six environmental problems that
have been identified as critical for the global environment—loss of biodiversity,
climate change, ozone layer, depletion, degradation of international waters,
desertification and persistent organic pollutants (POPs). The GEF is the designated
financial mechanism for the Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992 and the UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992.
The GEF has given $4 billion in grants and generated $12 billion in co-
financing with other sources to support over 1000 projects in over 140 developing
countries. In 2002–03, a replenishment of $2.9 billion was agreed upon. The
United Nations Developing Program (UNDP), the United Nation Environment
Program (UNEP) and the World Bank are the Implementing agencies of the GEF,
i.e., manage the actual implementation of the projects. The GEF secretariat operates
from Washington D.C. The participating states meet at the GEF assembly every
3–4 years to assess the progress of the GEF projects.
There are also many other institutions working for environment protection
like the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, International Plant Protection
Convention, World Environment Organization, Codex Alimentaries and other
indirect agencies playing a suportive role in environment area like the IMF, World
Bank and other NGOs.

Check Your Progress

6. What is the work of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)?
7. Which six environmental problems are addressed by the GEF?

7.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. The Earth Summit’s message was that nothing less than a transformation of
our attitudes and behaviour would bring about the necessary changes.
2. ‘Environmental Education is a way of implementing the goals of environmental
protection. It is not a separate branch of science of field of study. It should Self-Instructional
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Environment Education be carried out according to the principle of life-long integral education.’ —
and Protection
Finnish National Commission Education, UNESCO (1976) Seminar at
Jammi, 1974.
3. The scope of environmental education is designed under two categories:
NOTES
(i) Scope in terms of subjects
(ii) Scope in terms of environmental issues and subject matter
4. Environmental education encourages kids to participate in outdoor activities.
It teaches us about the benefits of the environment and how we can use it to
our advantage.
5. Informal environmental education helps the students in acquiring the skills
related to natural processes of enquiring, exploring, conjecturing, comparing,
inferring, evaluating and decision making regarding environmental issues in
their locality.
6. The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) reviews the state of the
global environment, facilitates the progression of international environmental
law and coordinates the activities of the United Nations.
7. The GEF addresses six environmental problems that have been identified
as critical for the global environment—loss of biodiversity, climate change,
ozone layer, depletion, degradation of international waters, desertification
and persistent organic pollutants (POPs).

7.6 SUMMARY
 Environmental education is an important segment within the educational
system. In many countries government supported programmes are
constituted which are pursued by social groups, scientific community and
educational institutions.
 Awareness and understanding of environmental issues provide the basis
and rationale for commitment and meaningful action towards environmentally
sound and sustainable development.
 The key international conventions on environment place a high value on
public awareness, education and training and obtaining information through
monitoring as essential elements for the success of the conventions.
 Environmental education (EE) gained international recognition in 1972 with
the UN Conference on the Human Environment, in Stockholm, Sweden,
which called upon environmental education as the means to address
environmental issues worldwide.
 The Declaration and Recommendations of the Tbilisi Conference made it
possible to define the nature, objectives and pedagogical principles of
environmental education and to establish broad guidelines for action in this
field at the national and international levels.
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  The Earth Summit’s message reflected the complexity of the problems facing Environment Education
and Protection
us: that poverty as well as excessive consumption by affluent populations
place damaging stress on the environment.
 The Earth Summit influenced all subsequent UN conferences, which have
examined the relationship between human rights, population, social NOTES
development, women and human settlements — and the need for
environmentally sustainable development.
 Environmental education is the need of the day. It is a part of education for
society in the developed, developing and least developed countries. It strives
to improve things through environment, about environment and for
environment.
 The scope of environmental education is designed under two categories:
(i) Scope in terms of subjects
(ii) Scope in terms of environmental issues and subject matter
 Environmental education is a process that allows individuals to explore
environmental issues, engage in problem solving, and take action to improve
the environment. As a result, individuals develop a deeper understanding of
environmental issues and have the skills to make informed and responsible
decisions.
 Environmental education in India is imparted through formal and informal
ways.
 Formal education is given in schools, colleges and universities, for a limited
period of time. It has a well-defined and systematic curriculum.
 For a majority of the people that still have no access to formal education,
environmental education can be gained by pursuing courses that fall outside
the ambit of the formal education system.
 Set up in 1972, after the Stockholm Conference, the United Nations
Environment Program (UNEP) is the principal body of the UN in the field
of environmental protection.
 The GEF is an international funding mechanism that was set up in 1991 to
facilitate environmental protection in the developing countries by funding
projects and programs in these countries.

7.7 KEY WORDS

 Environmental education: It refers to organized efforts to teach how
natural environments function, and particularly, how human beings can
manage behavior and ecosystems to live sustainably.
 Agenda 21: It is a non-binding action plan of the United Nations with
regard to sustainable development. It is a product of the Earth Summit held
in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992.
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Environment Education  Sustainable development: It is the organizing principle for meeting human
and Protection
development goals while simultaneously sustaining the ability of natural
systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services on which
the economy and society depend.
NOTES
7.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. What are the main objectives of environmental education programmes?
2. List the categories of the population which the Tbilisi Conference considered
for making EE an integral part of.
3. What are the constituents of environmental education?
4. What is the purpose of eco-development drives and camps?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Explain why Environment Education is significant.
2. Describe the objectives of environmental education that have been chalked
out by various international seminars and conferences.
3. Discuss the scope of environmental education in today’s world.
4. Evaluate the nature of environmental education.
5. Describe the advantages of environmental education.
6. Write an essay on the ‘Environmental education in India’.

7.9 FURTHER READINGS

J. Donald Hughes. 2015. What is Environmental History?. London: Wiley.

Chakrabarti, Ranjan. 2020. Critical Themes in Environmental History of India.
New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Agnoletti, Mauro and Simone Neri Serneri. 2014. The Basic Environmental
History. New York: Springer International Publishing.
Isenberg, Andrew Christian. 2014. The Oxford Handbook of Environmental
History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rosencrazz, Armin. 2002. Environmental law & Policy in India. Noida: Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Appadurai, Susila. 2004. Environmental studies. New Delhi: New Century Book
House Pvt Ltd.
Porter, Goreth, Janet Welsh Brown. 2000. Global Environmental politics.
Colorado: Westview Press.
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 UNEP and Earth Summit

UNIT 8 UNEP AND EARTH SUMMIT

Structure NOTES
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 International Conferences and Agreements on Environment
8.2.1 Antarctic Treaty
8.2.2 The Basel Convention on Minimizing Hazardous Wastes
8.2.3 Stockholm Conference
8.3 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
8.4 Earth Summit of 1992
8.4.1 Agenda 21
8.4.2 Convention on Biological Diversity
8.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
8.6 Summary
8.7 Key Words
8.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
8.9 Further Readings

8.0 INTRODUCTION

An international environmental agreement, or sometimes an environmental protocol,

is a type of international law-binding treaty that helps them to accomplish an
environmental objective. A two-nation agreement is regarded as a bilateral
environmental agreement. If the agreement is signed among three or more countries,
this is referred to as a multilateral environmental agreement (MEA). Topics such
as atmospheric policies, freshwater policies, hazardous waste and material policies,
the aquatic environment, conservation policies, noise pollution and nuclear safety
are protected by such agreements, mostly developed by the United Nations. In
this unit, we will discuss the objectives of UNEP or United Nations Environment
Programme, along with the Earth Summit of 1992. We will also focus on other
significant international conferences and agreements on environment.

8.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Describe the significant international conferences and agreements on
environment
 Explain the objectives of UNEP or United Nations Environment Programme
 Discuss the significance of Earth Summit of 1992

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UNEP and Earth Summit
8.2 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCES AND
AGREEMENTS ON ENVIRONMENT

NOTES Let us begin with one of the first global treaties on the environment.
8.2.1 Antarctic Treaty
Antarctica is deeply covered with ice with an average thickness of about 1800
metres. With increase in distance from the sea, the thickness of the ice increases
and reaches up to about 4200 metres. The ice in this continent constitutes about
90 per cent of the world’s fresh water reserve. The ice gradually moves outwards
from the centre in the form of glaciers such as Lambort and Blardnoce glaciers.
After reaching the plateau edge, the large masses of ice break off forming icebergs,
also known as Ice Mountains; which are about 20–60 metres in height and from a
few hundred metres to about 50 km in length.
Antarctica, the vast plateau-continent, along with many scattered groups of
islands, has an area of about 14 million sq. km. It is assumed that Antarctica
initially was a part of a single great landmass called Gondwanaland which also
included Australia, South Africa, South America and the Indian subcontinent. About
200 million years ago, Gondwanaland began to break up and all the parts got
scattered. Antarctica has an extremely long (about 30,000 km) coastline and is
about 2000–2400 metres high. Since the continent is highly elevated, it is also
known as the highest continent. Antarctica is the driest, windiest and coldest of all
the continents. It is almost always in fruition state and air is always very dry. Wind
reaches here roughly at a speed of about 200 km per hour and frequent blizzards
occur in autumn and winter. The average temperature nearer to the coast varies
between 273K and 262K while the interior plateau has an average temperature
of about 185K. In winter, the land remains in darkness and in summer the sun
bathes the continent with the oblique rays during the daytime.
There are no living creatures including plants or trees in the interior of the
Antarctica. Mosses and lichens in small numbers are found only in the coastal
areas during the short summers. Small fishes, seeds and whales are found in the
sea around the continent. There are birds like gulls, terns, petrels and the flightless
penguins which live in rookeries in the coastal areas. Nature abounds in krills
which are the prey of seals and whales. The krills, on the other hand, survive on
microscopic plants called diatoms. The continent is a storehouse of minerals. It is
a vast reserve of off-shore oil and natural gas, coal, copper, gold, etc.
Different parts of Antarctica were claimed by seven countries, namely
Argentina, Chile, France, United Kingdom, Norway, Australia and New Zealand.
However, the Antarctic Treaty signed in 1959 froze all political claims. The Treaty
which came into force in June 1961 granted that the continent would only be used
for peaceful purposes. The later treaties, such as the Madrid Agreement in 1991,
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and the Protocol on Environmental Protection in 1998, strengthened the Antarctic UNEP and Earth Summit

Treaty further and imposed a ban on exploitation, prohibited future territorial claims
and preserved it only for non-military scientific research for all the countries in the
world and declared the continent as a ‘natural reserve’. There are about thirty-six
odd permanent research stations in the Antarctica and the United States station on NOTES
the Sofs Island can be termed as a town and has the only Jet airport of the continent.
The population here is only that of the scientists of different scientific stations
numbering 900 in winter, which rises to about 11,000 in summer due to arrival of
tourists and personnel in the summer research sites. India has set up two manned
research stations on Queen Maud in north-east Antarctica after her first expedition
in 1982. The two research stations are Dakshin Gangotri and Maitri. The fourteen
short articles of the treaty are summarized by Martin Glannere and can be given as
follows:
Antarctica is to be used for peaceful purposes only; no military activities of any
kind are permitted, though military personnel and equipment may be used for
scientific purposes. Freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall
continue and results of investigation shall be freely exchanged. No prior territorial
claim is recognized, disputed or established and no new claims may be made
while the Treaty is in force. Nuclear explosions and disposing of radioactive
wastes are prohibited.

8.2.2 The Basel Convention on Minimizing Hazardous Wastes

Industrialization has brought about modernization of lifestyle and its associated
benefits. Health-giving medicines, labour-saving household appliances, automobiles
and ships, paints and detergents, synthetic fibres and polythene packaging, personal
computers and TVs—the list of useful manufactured goods is almost endless. But
with the goods come the bad effects. Industrial production results in hundreds of
millions of tonnes of wastes every year. These wastes include chemical by-products
that are hazardous to human health and the environment because they are poisonous,
eco-toxic, explosive, corrosive, flammable, or infectious. Too often these wastes
pour out of smokestacks and outtake pipes or lie abandoned in dumps or leaky
storage drums. Sometimes wastes are shipped off illegally to faraway places,
exposing unsuspecting communities to terrible dangers. The cross-border transport
of hazardous wastes caught the public attention in the late 1980s. The misadventures
of ‘toxic ships’, such as the Karin B and the Pelicano, sailing from port to port
trying to offload their poisonous cargoes, made front page headlines around the
world. These tragic incidents were motivated in good part by tighter environmental
regulations in the industrialized countries. As the costs of waste disposal
skyrocketed, ‘toxic traders’ searching for cheaper solutions started shipping
hazardous wastes to eastern Europe and Africa and other regions.
Once on shore, unwanted shipments are typically dumped indiscriminately,
spilled accidentally or managed improperly, causing severe health problems—
even death—and poisoning the land, water and air for decades or centuries. These
criminal shipments must be stopped and their perpetrators brought to justice. But
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UNEP and Earth Summit toxic ships are just a symptom of a much more fundamental problem. If the
production of goods did not generate so much hazardous waste, if this waste were
not so dangerous, if wealthier communities did not resist new treatment plants and
dumps, and if the costs of detoxifying wastes were not so astronomical, there
NOTES would be less financial incentive to cheat and dump wastes illegally.
Recognizing the gravity of the problem and understanding that the industrial
society must fix this major flaw in their system, governments and many forward-
looking companies started exploring solutions as early as the 1970s. By the 1980s,
the international community launched treaty negotiations under the auspices of the
United Nations Environment Programme. In March 1989, they adopted the Basel
Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes
and their Disposal. The treaty entered into force in 1992 and now boasts over
160 parties.
Drawing on the principles of environmentally sound management (ESM),
the Convention seeks to protect human health and the environment from the dangers
posed by hazardous wastes. This will require changing the economic equation for
wastes in order to motivate the producers of hazardous wastes and people who
benefit from the associated goods to take action. To do this, the Convention sets
out a three-step strategy, the steps are as follows:
 Minimize the generation of wastes
 Treat wastes as near as possible to where they are generated
 Reduce international movements of hazardous wastes
At the seventh meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Basel
Convention, the parties shared concerns regarding the unprecedented increase in
the hazardous wastes and the challenges to manage these wastes in an
environmentally sound manner. As a consequence, the parties adopted the
Ministerial Statement on Partnerships for Meeting the Global Waste Challenge,
which builds upon the Basel Declaration and the Strategic Plan of the Basel
Convention. The statement sets four priority policy directions for the future: (i) the
regional approach, (ii) waste minimization, (iii) integrated waste management, and
(iv) the life cycle approach. The ultimate goal of activities resulting from this statement
is to make the environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes and other
wastes a reality on the ground. However, much more needs to be done. The
development and transfer of cleaner technologies and processes must be
accelerated. Without a dramatic increase in such technologies in the next ten to
twenty years, the generation of hazardous wastes by an expanding global economy
could reach unmanageable dimensions. Only by giving the issue a higher profile on
the international agenda can governments ensure that action under the Basel
Convention will lead to an environmentally sustainable future free from the dangers
of hazardous wastes.

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8.2.3 Stockholm Conference UNEP and Earth Summit

The UN conference on Human Environment was organized with the initiative of

the Government of Sweden, which was held in Stockholm. The conference was
attended by around 113 countries across the world. This episode was widely NOTES
recognized as the beginning of modern political and public awareness of global
environmental issues. Nonetheless, the conference discussed the problem of
relationship between development and environmental degradation peripherally. A
general framework was provided for conservation of human environment, by the
Stockholm conference. The Stockholm conference adopted the following three
non-binding instruments:
 A resolution on institutional and financial arrangement
 A declaration containing 26 principles
 An action plan containing 109 recommendations
These three non-binding instruments prepared the final stage of negotiations on
the environment. However, the most important contribution of the Stockholm
conference was the development of a set of principles that formed the backdrop
of all subsequent international negotiations on the environment. As per example,
the principle 24 of its declaration calls for international cooperation to effectively
control, prevent, cut down and eliminate adverse environmental impact in such a
way, so that it does not compromise the sovereignty of an individual state. All
states shall ensure that their activities pertaining to jurisdiction shall not cause any
further damage to other states. Environmental protection to human rights as the
norm is stated in Principle 1.
International negotiations on environmental protection were further motivated
regarding environmental issues. The principles stated were refined in the next
international conference on environment in Rio-de-Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. The
declaration of the Stockholm conference (1972) contained the following principles:
 Human rights must be asserted, apartheid and colonialism must be
condemned.
 Natural resources must be safeguarded.
 The earth’s capacity to produce renewable resources must be maintained.
 Wildlife must be safeguarded.
 Non-renewable resources must be shared and not exhausted.
 Pollution must not exceed the environment’s capacity to clean itself.
 Damaging oceanic pollution must be prevented.
 Development is needed to improve the environment.
 Developing oceanic pollution must be prevented.
 Developing countries need reasonable prices for exports to carry out
environmental management.
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UNEP and Earth Summit  The environment policy must not hamper development.
 Developing countries need money to develop environmental safeguards.
 Integrated development planning is needed.
NOTES  Rational planning should resolve conflicts between the environment and
development.
 Human settlement must be planned to eliminate environmental problems.
 Governments should plan their own appropriate population policies.
 National institutions must plan development of states’ natural resources.
 Science and technology must be used to improve the environment.
 Environment education is essential.
 Environmental research must be promoted, particularly in developing
countries.
 States may exploit their resources as they wish but must not endanger
others’ resources.
 Compensation due to states thus endangered.
 Each nation must establish its own standards.
 There must be cooperation on international issues.
 International organizations should help improve the environment.
 Weapons of mass destruction must be eliminated.
Some of the important recommendations made by the Stockholm conference
are as follows:
 Preparing short-term and long-term plans at regional, sub-regional and
sectoral levels for the study and identification of the countries of the
region concerned as well as the special problems of the least developed
countries of the region and of countries with coastlines and inland lakes
and rivers exposed to the risk of marine and other forms of pollution.
 Evaluating the administrative, technical and legal solutions of various
environmental problems in terms of both preventive and remedial
measures, taking into account possible alternatives and or multi-
disciplinary approaches to development.
 Preparation, within the framework of international agreements, of
legislative measures designed to protect marine and fresh water fisheries
resources within the limits of the national jurisdiction.
There are also many other important international conventions on environment
including Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Founa
and Flora (CITES) 1973, Kyoto protocol, Rotterdam convention, etc. In this
unit, let’s focus on UNEP and Earth summit.

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 UNEP and Earth Summit

Check Your Progress

1. Which is the driest, windiest and coldest of all continents?
2. When was the Stockholm Conference held? NOTES

8.3 UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT

PROGRAMME (UNEP)

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is the leading environmental

authority in the United Nations system. UNEP uses its expertise to strengthen
environmental standards and practices while helping implement environmental
obligations at the country, regional and global levels. UNEP’s mission is to provide
leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring,
informing, and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without
compromising that of future generations.
UNEP re-organised its work programme into six strategic areas as part of
its move to results based management. The selection of six areas of concentration
was guided by scientific evidence, the UNEP mandate and priorities emerging
from global and regional forums.
 Climate change: UNEP strengthens the ability of countries to integrate
climate change responses by providing leadership in adaptation,
mitigation, technology and finance. UNEP is focusing on facilitating the
transition to low-carbon societies, improving the understanding of climate
science, facilitating the development of renewable energy and raising
public awareness.
 Post-Conflict and disaster management: UNEP conducts
environmental assessments in crisis-affected countries and provides
guidance for implementing legislative and institutional frameworks for
improved environmental management. Activities undertaken by UNEP’s
Post-Conflict & Disaster Management Branch (PCDMB) include post-
conflict environmental assessment in Afghanistan, Côte d’Ivoire, Lebanon,
Nigeria and Sudan.
 Ecosystem management: Facilitates management and restoration of
ecosystems in a manner consistent with sustainable development, and
promotes use of ecosystem services. Examples include the Global
Programme of Action (GPA) for the Protection of the Marine
Environment from Land-Based Activities.
 Environmental governance: UNEP supports governments in
establishing, implementing and strengthening the necessary processes,
institutions, laws, policies and programs to achieve sustainable
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UNEP and Earth Summit development at the country, regional and global levels, and mainstreaming
environment in development planning.
 Harmful substances: UNEP strives to minimise the impact of harmful
substances and hazardous waste on the environment and human beings.
NOTES
UNEP has launched negotiations for a global agreement on mercury,
and implements projects on mercury and the Strategic Approach to
International Chemicals Management (SAICM) to reduce risks to human
health and the environment.
 Resource efficiency/sustainable consumption and production:
UNEP focuses on regional and global efforts to ensure natural resources
are produced, processed and consumed in a more environmentally
friendly way. For example, the Marrakesh Process is a global strategy
to support the elaboration of a 10-Year Framework of Programs on
sustainable consumption and production.

8.4 EARTH SUMMIT OF 1992

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED),

also known as the ‘Earth Summit’, was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 3-14
June 1992. This global conference, held on the occasion of the 20th anniversary
of the first Human Environment Conference in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972,
brought together political leaders, diplomats, scientists, representatives of the media
and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) from 179 countries for a massive
effort to focus on the impact of human socio-economic activities on the environment.
A ‘Global Forum’ of NGOs was also held in Rio de Janeiro at the same time,
bringing together an unprecedented number of NGO representatives, who
presented their own vision of the world’s future in relation to the environment and
socio-economic development.
The Rio de Janeiro conference highlighted how different social, economic
and environmental factors are interdependent and evolve together, and how success
in one sector requires action in other sectors to be sustained over time. The primary
objective of the Rio ‘Earth Summit’ was to produce a broad agenda and a new
blueprint for international action on environmental and development issues that
would help guide international cooperation and development policy in the twenty-
first century.
The ‘Earth Summit’ concluded that the concept of sustainable development
was an attainable goal for all the people of the world, regardless of whether they
were at the local, national, regional or international level. It also recognized that
integrating and balancing economic, social and environmental concerns in meeting
our needs is vital for sustaining human life on the planet and that such an integrated
approach is possible. The conference also recognized that integrating and balancing
economic, social and environmental dimensions required new perceptions of the
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way we produce and consume, the way we live and work, and the way we make UNEP and Earth Summit

decisions. This concept was revolutionary for its time, and it sparked a lively
debate within governments and between governments and their citizens on how to
ensure sustainability for development.
NOTES
One of the major results of the UNCED Conference was Agenda 21, a
daring program of action calling for new strategies to invest in the future to achieve
overall sustainable development in the 21st century. Its recommendations ranged
from new methods of education, to new ways of preserving natural resources and
new ways of participating in a sustainable economy. The ‘Earth Summit’ had many
great achievements: the Rio Declaration and its 27 universal principles, the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention
on Biological Diversity; and the Declaration on the principles of forest management.
The ‘Earth Summit’ also led to the creation of the Commission on Sustainable
Development, the holding of first world conference on the sustainable development
of small island developing States in 1994, and negotiations for the establishment
of the agreement on straddling stocks and highly migratory fish stocks.
8.4.1 Agenda 21
In 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED), held at Rio de Janeiro, adopted a declaration and a global agenda for
management of the environment in the next century. The declaration is known as
Agenda 21, which is a massive 800-page document. It contains the Action
Programme for attaining sustainable development. It also classifies several important
concepts of environmental management that have immediate relevance for the
marine environment.
Agenda 21 lays down 115 specific programmes. It is a key document but
not binding. Its recommendations are classified into different areas such as:
 Socio-economic issues to protect and promote human health;
 Conservation and management of resources such as combating
deforestation, desertification and drought;
 Promotion of sustainable agriculture and rural development;
 Strengthening of networks consisting of women, NGOs, business,
scientific and technological community, farmers through financial
resources,
 Transfer of environment-friendly technology,
 Training,
 International legal instruments and mechanisms.
At present, there is no binding international charter which contains general
principles of international environmental law. During the preparations for UNCED,
attempts were made to draft an earth charter which would have served this purpose.
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UNEP and Earth Summit However, no agreement could be reached on the desirability of such an approach.
Nevertheless, now there is an abundance of environmental instruments related to
environmental issues, and it is possible to identify a number of basic principles on
which these instruments are invariably based. Some of these principles, which we
NOTES have already described above, are:
 The polluter pays principle
 The principle of non-discrimination
 The precautionary principle
 The principle of common but differentiated responsibility
 The principle of intergenerational equity
Most of these principles are reflected in the Rio Declaration on environment
and development. A brief account of these principles is given Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Basic Principles underlying International Instruments

Principle Description
The polluter pays The polluter should bear the expenses of carrying out
principle anti-pollution measures decided by the public
authorities. The costs of these measures should thus be
reflected in the costs of goods and services which cause
pollution.
Principle of non- Polluters causing trans-boundary pollution should be
discrimination treated no less severely than they would be if they
caused similar pollution within their own country.
Precautionary principle Lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a
reason for postponing measures to prevent
environmental degradation.
Principle of common States should divide the costs of measures to protect
but differentiated the environment on the basis of the fact that they have
responsibilities made different contributions to global environmental
degradation.
Principle of States are obliged to take into account the long-term
intergenerational effects of their actions affecting the environment. This
equity principle attempts to emphasize that attention should
not only be paid to long-distance effects but also to the
long-term effects of human activity.

8.4.2 Convention on Biological Diversity

Biological diversity is the variety and variability among living organisms and the
ecological complexes in which they occur. The Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD) is an international treaty adopted in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992
with the following three main objectives: (i) Conservation of biodiversity (ii)
Sustainable use of the components arising from it, and (iii) Sharing of benefits of
genetic resources in a fair and equitable way.
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 The Convention was signed at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on 5 June UNEP and Earth Summit

1992 by 154 countries and entered into force on 29 December 1993. It is

understood that biological diversity (the ecosystem, species and genes) is ‘a
common concern of human kind’ and is an integral part of the developing process.
The Convention links traditional conservation efforts to the economic goal of using NOTES
biological resources in a sustainable manner. The Convention also deals with the
‘Cartagena protocol on biosafety’.
It reminds the decision-makers (governments, private organizations) that
natural resources are not infinite and can be exploited for the benefits of human at
a rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biodiversity. Substantial
investments are therefore required to conserve biodiversity and which in turn will
bring about substantial environmental, economic and social benefits.
Issues dealt with in the convention
Some of the issues dealt with in the Convention include:
 Measures and incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of bio-
diversity
 Fair and equitable ways of sharing results of research and development and
the benefits arising from commercial as well as other utilization of genetic
resources
 Access to and transfer of technology including biotechnology to government
as well as to local communities
 Scientific and technical cooperation
 Provision of financial resources
 Education and public awareness
 Impact assessment and implement treaty commitments
The Cartagena Protocol
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (Biosafety Protocol) was adopted in January
2000 and entered into force on 11 September 2003. The main aim of the Protocol
was to protect biodiversity from potential risks posed by living modified organisms
which is the gift of modern biotechnology.

Check Your Progress

3. What is the mission of UNEP?
4. Where did the Earth Summit happened?
5. What were the aims of the Convention on Biological Diversity?

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UNEP and Earth Summit
8.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS

NOTES 1. Antarctica is the driest, windiest and coldest of all the continents.
2. The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, also known
as the Stockholm Conference, was an international conference convened
under United Nations auspices held in Stockholm, Sweden from June 5-
16, 1972.
3. UNEP’s mission is to provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring
for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and peoples
to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations.
4. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED),
also known as the ‘Earth Summit’, was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from
3-14 June 1992.
5. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international treaty
adopted in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992 with the following three main
objectives: (i) Conservation of biodiversity (ii) Sustainable use of the
components arising from it, and (iii) Sharing of benefits of genetic resources
in a fair and equitable way.

8.6 SUMMARY

 Antarctica is deeply covered with ice with an average thickness of about

1800 metres. With increase in distance from the sea, the thickness of the ice
increases and reaches up to about 4200 metres.
 There are no living creatures including plants or trees in the interior of the
Antarctica.
 Different parts of Antarctica were claimed by seven countries, namely
Argentina, Chile, France, United Kingdom, Norway, Australia and New
Zealand. However, the Antarctic Treaty signed in 1959 froze all political
claims.
 Industrialization has brought about modernization of lifestyle and its
associated benefits. Health-giving medicines, labour-saving household
appliances, automobiles and ships, paints and detergents, synthetic fibres
and polythene packaging, personal computers and TVs—the list of useful
manufactured goods is almost endless. But with the goods come the bad
effects.
 By the 1980s, the international community launched treaty negotiations under
the auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme. In March 1989,

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 they adopted the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary UNEP and Earth Summit

Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal.

 The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (also known
as the Stockholm Conference) was an international conference convened
NOTES
under United Nations auspices held in Stockholm, Sweden from June 5-
16, 1972.
 The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is the leading
environmental authority in the United Nations system.
 UNEP re-organised its work programme into six strategic areas as part of
its move to results based management. The selection of six areas of
concentration was guided by scientific evidence, the UNEP mandate and
priorities emerging from global and regional forums.
 The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED), also known as the ‘Earth Summit’, was held in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, from 3-14 June 1992.
 The Rio de Janeiro conference highlighted how different social, economic
and environmental factors are interdependent and evolve together, and how
success in one sector requires action in other sectors to be sustained over
time.
 The ‘Earth Summit’ concluded that the concept of sustainable development
was an attainable goal for all the people of the world, regardless of whether
they were at the local, national, regional or international level.
 In 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED), held at Rio de Janeiro, adopted a declaration and a global agenda
for management of the environment in the next century. The declaration is
known as Agenda 21.
 Biological diversity is the variety and variability among living organisms and
the ecological complexes in which they occur.
 The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international treaty
adopted in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992.
 The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (Biosafety Protocol) was adopted in
January 2000 and entered into force on 11 September 2003. The main aim
of the Protocol was to protect biodiversity from potential risks posed by
living modified organisms which is the gift of modern biotechnology.

8.7 KEY WORDS

 Transboundary Movement: It means any movement of hazardous wastes
or other wastes from an area under the national jurisdiction of one State to
or through an area under the national jurisdiction of another State or to or
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UNEP and Earth Summit through an area not under the national jurisdiction of any State, provided at
least two States are involved in the movement.
 Hazardous Wastes: It means waste that has substantial or potential threats
to public health or the environment.
NOTES  Biodiversity: It means the variety of plant and animal life in the world or in
a particular habitat, a high level of which is usually considered to be important
and desirable.

8.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. Write a short note on the Antarctic Treaty.
2. What was the importance of the Stockholm conference?
3. What is the significance of Earth summit of 1992?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Discuss the three-step strategy adopted in the Basel Convention on
minimizing hazardous wastes.
2. Describe the strategic areas of work programme of UNEP.
3. Explain the various issues dealt with in the Convention on Biological Diversity.

8.9 FURTHER READINGS

J. Donald Hughes. 2015. What is Environmental History?. London: Wiley.
Chakrabarti, Ranjan. 2020. Critical Themes in Environmental History of India.
New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Agnoletti, Mauro and Simone Neri Serneri. 2014. The Basic Environmental
History. New York: Springer International Publishing.
Isenberg, Andrew Christian. 2014. The Oxford Handbook of Environmental
History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rosencrazz, Armin. 2002. Environmental law & Policy in India. Noida: Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Appadurai, Susila. 2004. Environmental studies. New Delhi: New Century Book
House Pvt Ltd.
Porter, Goreth, Janet Welsh Brown. 2000. Global Environmental politics.
Colorado: Westview Press.

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 Environment Threats-I

BLOCK III
ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS AND THE REASON
NOTES
UNIT 9 ENVIRONMENT THREATS-I
Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Water Pollution
9.2.1 Nature
9.2.2 Wastewater Management
9.3 Air Pollution
9.3.1 Nature
9.3.2 Management
9.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
9.5 Summary
9.6 Key Words
9.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
9.8 Further Readings

9.0 INTRODUCTION

Global environmental changes can also be very hard to see—they often occur
slowly or intermittently, sometimes almost imperceptibly, and on global scales,
and they can be obscured by normal fluctuations in things like temperatures or
rainfall, which are changing naturally and often abruptly and with large swings all
the time. In this unit, we will study about two such environmental threats, viz.,
water pollution and air pollution. Water pollution occurs when harmful substances,
usually chemicals or microorganisms, contaminate a stream, river, ocean or an
aquifer, degrading water quality and rendering it toxic to humans or the environment.
Water being a universal solvent, is able to dissolve more substances than any other
liquid on earth. That is why water is so easily polluted. Toxic substances from
farms, towns, and factories readily dissolve into and mix with it, ultimately causing
water pollution. These pollutants that mix with water can be of varying kinds:
organic, inorganic, radioactive and so on. Degrading water quality is damaging the
environment, health conditions and the global economy. Some of the effects of
water pollution are destruction of biodiversity, contamination of food chain, lack
of potable water, spreading of diseases like cholera, hepatitis A and dysentery and
high infant mortality rate. Similarly, living beings also bear the repercussions of air
pollution. A toxic substance, living or non-living, at an undesirable limit is called a
pollutant. Such a substance when present in air is called air pollutant. The process
of polluting the air and making it unsafe for living is called pollution of air. Car
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Environment Threats-I emissions, chemicals from factories, dust, pollen and mold spores may be
suspended as particles. Ozone, a gas, is a major part of air pollution in cities.
When ozone forms air pollution, it’s also called smog. Some air pollutants are
poisonous. Inhaling them can increase the chance you’ll have health problems.
NOTES People with heart or lung disease, older adults and children are at greater risk
from air pollution. Air pollution is not just outside - the air inside buildings can also
be polluted and affect your health. In this unit, we will study in detail about water
pollution and air pollution.

9.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Describe the sources of water pollution and the preventive measures to
control it
 Explain the impurities present in water and their harmful impact on living
beings
 Discuss the wastewater treatment methods
 State the causes and effects of air pollution
 Illustrate the methods and devices used to remove pollutants from air

9.2 WATER POLLUTION

Water pollution can be defined as an alteration in physical, chemical or biological

characteristics of water, making it unsuitable for the designated use in its natural
state.
Sources of Water Pollution
Water is an essential commodity for survival. We need water for drinking, cooking,
bathing, washing, irrigation and for all industrial operations. Water has the property
to dissolve many substances in it. Therefore, it can easily get polluted. Pollution of
water can be caused by point sources or non-point sources. Major point sources
of water pollution are industries, power plants, underground coal mines, offshore
oil wells, etc.
On the basis of location, water pollution is divided into two types.
1. Groundwater Pollution
2. Surface Water Pollution
Groundwater pollution
Groundwater forms about 6.2 per cent of the total water available on planet earth,
and is about thirty times more than surface water, i.e., streams, lakes and estuaries.
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Septic tanks, industry (textile, chemical, tanneries), deep-well injection, mining, Environment Threats-I

etc., are mainly responsible for ground water pollution which is irreversible. Ground
water pollution with arsenic, fluoride and nitrate pose serious health hazards.
Surface water pollution NOTES
The major sources of surface water pollution are:
1. Sewage
2. Industrial effluents
3. Synthetic detergents
4. Agrochemicals
5. Oil
6. Waste heat
Effects of Water Pollution
The following are some of the important effects of various types of water pollutants:
1. Oxygen-demanding wastes
2. Nitrogen and phosphorus compounds (nutrients)
3. Pathogens
4. Toxic compounds
5. Waterborne diseases
6. Reduction in dissolved oxygen in water resources
Pesticides in drinking water ultimately reach humans and are known to cause various
health problems. DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, etc., have therefore, been banned. Recently,
in Andhra Pradesh, people suffered from various abnormalities due to the
consumption of endosulphan contaminated cashew nuts.
Control of Water Pollution
It is easy to reduce water pollution from point sources by legislation. However,
due to absence of any defined strategies it becomes difficult to prevent water
pollution from non-point sources. The following points may help to reduce water
pollution from non-point sources.
1. Judicious use of agrochemicals like pesticides and fertilizers which will reduce
their surface run-off and leaching. Avoid the use of these on sloped lands.
2. Use of nitrogen-fixing plants to supplement the use of fertilizers.
3. Adopting integrated pest management to reduce reliance on pesticides.
4. Prevent run-off of manure. Divert such run-offs to basin for settlement. The
nutrient rich water can be used as fertilizer in the fields.
5. Separate drainage of sewage and rain water should be provided.
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Environment Threats-I 6. Plantation of trees would reduce pollution and will also prevent soil erosion.
7. Industrial effluents to be allowed only after treatment.
9.2.1 Nature
NOTES
Water the most abundant and wonderful of all natural resources, is extremely
essential for the survival of all living organisms. Water that is found in nature is
called natural water. The natural water (sea water, rivers, lakes, polar ice and
glaciers) contains numerous organisms like phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish and
many other things. Water contains dissolved gases like oxygen, essential for aerobic
aquatic organisms, carbon dioxide for small plants to bloom so as to be utilized by
aquatic animals. Pure water on the other hand, means water free from living
organisms, especially microbes, all sort of toxic substances, having salts in the
tolerable limits. The pure water is absolutely necessary for drinking and cooking,
besides for industry, agriculture and various other activities. But today, pure water
has become a precious commodity and its quality is threatened due to pollution.
The water pollution thus, can be defined as the deterioration of physical, chemical
and biological characteristics of water through natural as well as anthropogenic
activities, to such an extent that it has become harmful for all living organisms
including man. Water pollution has now become a global problem affecting both
the developed and developing countries.
The following are the signs of water pollution:
(a) Bad taste and offensive odour
(b) Unchecked growth of aquatic weeds
(c) Decreased number of fish
(d) Floating of oil and grease on water surfaces
Water Pollutants: Their Origin and Effects
There are large number of water pollutants. For our convenience, they have been
classified into five different categories:
(i) Organic pollutants (ii) Inorganic pollutants (iii) Suspended solids and
sediments (iv) Radioactive pollutants and (v) Thermal pollutants
Organic pollutants
The organic pollutants present in water may be classified into five different categories
such as: (i) oxygen demanding waste (ii) disease causing waste (iii) synthetic
organic compounds (iv) oil (v) sewage and agricultural runoff.
Oxygen demanding wastes: One of the most important measures of water
quality is the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) present in it. The saturated value
of DO in water is in the order of 8 to 15 mg /l. Optimum DO required for healthy
fish and other aquatic life in natural water is 5 to 8 mg/l. If DO drops, fish and
other aquatic life is threatened and in extreme cases, killed. The other effect of
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reduced DO is undesirable taste, odour and colour, prohibiting its use for domestic Environment Threats-I

and recreational purposes. The oxygen demanding wastes are generally

biodegradable organic matter contained in sewage, industrial wastes from food
processing, paper mills and tanneries, agriculture return, etc. These organic wastes
provide a good substrate for the luxuriant growth of aerobic bacteria which NOTES
decompose the waste and deplete the oxygen.
The two most important measures of oxygen demand are: (1) chemical
oxygen demand (COD) (2) biological oxygen demand (BOD). Chemical oxygen
demand (COD) is the amount of oxygen required to oxidize the wastes chemically.
BOD is the amount of oxygen required by micro- organism to decompose the
wastes biologically.
Pathogens
Pathogens are disease causing microorganisms which grow and multiply within the
host. The resulting growth of microorganisms in a host is known as infection. Water
is the carrier of such pathogenic micro-organisms, causing immense harm to public
health. The pathogenic micro-organisms enter water mainly from domestic sewage
and other wastes. Generally, these microorganisms occur in the faeces or urine of
the infected person and finally discharge into the water body. The discharge of an
infected individual may contain billions of these pathogens and if they enter the
water body, epidemics might occur. Epidemics of infectious diseases generally
occur in a crowded population and under poor sanitary conditions. The infectious
diseases associated with water can be classified into four groups according to the
mechanism of transmission.
1. Waterborne diseases: They spread through ingestion of contaminated
water. Example: cholera, typhoid, paratyphoid, bacillary dysentery.
2. Water-wastes diseases: They spread through unclean water. Example:
trachoma and scabia.
3. Water based diseases: They spread through water contact, where the
larva of the parasitic worm get attached to the human skin, penetrate it
and ultimately enter the blood stream. They get mature in liver and lay
eggs in the intestine. The intestinal discharge contaminates the water and
large number of parasitic worms spread causing epidemics.
Example: schistosomiasis and dracunculiasis.
4. Water-related diseases: In such diseases, human contact with water is
not needed. It is the host which depends on water for its habitat.
Example: Malaria, filaria, dengue, etc.
Different diseases are caused by different pathogens. For example, virus is
responsible for hepatitis, meningitis, myocarditis, etc. Bacteria are responsible for
cholera, typhoid, paratyphoid, etc. Protozoa are responsible for diarrhoea,
dysentery, etc. Parasitic worms such as helminthes are responsible for diseases
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Environment Threats-I Nutrients
Nutrients are chemicals essential for the growth of living things. For plants there
are sixteen elements required for their healthier growth. They are carbon, hydrogen,
NOTES oxygen, (obtained mainly through CO2 and water from the soil), nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur and micronutrients such as
iron, cobalt, manganese, boron, molybdenum and copper.
The nutrients can become a pollutant when their enrichment allows thick
growth or blooms of aquatic weeds, especially algae that cover up water. This
prevents the entry of sunlight into water bodies. Aquatic plants, along with algae,
thus die, the bacteria present in water now decompose all these dead plants and
ultimately reduce the dissolved oxygen (DO) in water. The decayed organic matter
adds unwanted colour, odour, taste and turbidity to the water and acceptability
for domestic purpose is reduced. The depletion of dissolved oxygen leads to the
death of fishes, other aquatic animals and plants. The process of nutrient enrichment
is known as eutrophication.
Among the sixteen elements, carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus are the most
important nutrients which control the growth of algae blooms. Carbon is available
from the atmosphere as CO2 and decaying of other organic matter cannot be
controlled. It is nitrogen and phosphorus which can be controlled to check algae
growth rates.
The major sources of nitrogen and phosphorus polluting water bodies are
soaps and detergents, chemical fertilizers like urea, ammonium sulphate or nitrate,
super phosphate, etc. Besides eutrophication problems, if water contains enough
nitrates (NO3–) and is consumed by children, certain bacteria in the intestinal tract
of infants can convert nitrates to highly toxic nitrites (NO2–). Haemoglobin has
higher affinity for nitrites compared to oxygen, therefore it leads to replacement of
oxygen by nitrites causing a bluish discoloration of the infant and is commonly
referred to as ‘blue baby’ syndrome.
The phosphorus from chemical fertilizers as well as detergents help algae
growth, resulting in enormous blooms. In detergents, the phosphates are in the
form of tripolyphosphate. This tripolyphosphate slowly reacts with water forming
orthophosphate and is used by plants for their growth.
Salts
Water accumulates a variety of dissolved solids or salts while passing through
soils and rocks and on its way to the sea. Generally, the cations in the salt are
sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium and the anions are chloride, sulphate
and bicarbonate. The measure of salinity of water is usually the measure of
concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS). Water having less than 1500 mg/l of
TDS is considered to be fresh water, and above 5000 mg/l saline water.
Drinking water has the recommended maximum TDS concentration of 500
mg/l. With concentration of TDS exceeding 2100 mg/l, irrigation becomes difficult.
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Again, if the sulphate and chloride salts of calcium and magnesium are present in Environment Threats-I

excess amount, it is very expensive to wash clothes as it consumes excess soap.

Again, if such water is used in the steam boilers, it will cause scaling due to
precipitation of salts resulting in reduced lifetime of the boilers due to corrosion.
NOTES
Thermal Pollution
Heat cannot be completely converted into work. Hence, waste heat will always
be produced where heat is converted into mechanical work. In thermal power
plants, nuclear power plant, etc., where water from the nearby river or lakes is
used as a coolant, the waste hot water is returned to the original water body and
on an average the temperature is raised by 10°C. The rise in temperature decreases
the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) in water, adversely affecting the aquatic life.
With rise in temperature the metabolic rate increases, whereas supply of DO
decreases (with rise in temperature, solubility of O2 decreases and the dissolved
O2 escapes, further bacterial decomposition of organic wastes goes on a rapid
rate).
Furthermore, the fish and other aquatic animals may be sucked into the
intake pipe killing them in large numbers. In case of nuclear power plants, there
always remains the possibility of release of radioactive elements into the water
body and with prolonged time it may build up to a dangerous level.
Heavy Metals
Heavy metals are referred to as metals with specific gravity greater than about 4 to
5. The most important heavy metal pollutants are mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), cadmium
(Cd) and arsenic (As).
Pesticides
Chemicals which prevent, destroy or mitigate any pest (insects, fungus, bacteria,
viruses, etc.) are called pesticides. Pesticides are classified on the basis of (i)
chemical structure (ii) biological action (iii) class of pests they combat.
Some chemicals, however, fall into more than one category. For example,
parathion, while being an insecticide, is also a nematicide and acaricide.
The main groups of pesticides of our concern are insecticides. With increase
in population growth man had to increase agricultural productivity. Use of
insecticides, like DDT has not only improved the productivity of agricultural goods
by protecting crops from pests but has also contributed in curbing diseases, like
malaria which once was an epidemic. However, the extensive use of insecticides
has proved that its use is not entirely in the interest of man due to its harmful side
effects. There are three main groups of pesticides namely organochlorines,
organophosphates and carbamates.
A great variety of insecticides, under different technical and trade names are
used. Although the targets of pesticides are insects, fungus, nematodes and rodents
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Environment Threats-I which damage crops, they also target non-target beneficial organisms like earth
worms, fish, birds, mammals and man. The killing of such species disturbs the
balance of natural cycle and also the evolution of new species, necessitating more
severe environmental control measures. The harmful effects of insecticides thus,
NOTES have been a great cause of concern and persistence of insecticides in the environment
after application is not at all desirable from environmental considerations.
The most widely used organochlorine pesticide is DDT (dichloro diphenyl
trichloroethane), which has controlled insects carrying diseases like malaria
(mosquitoes), plague (fleas) and typhus (body lice). The organochlorine insecticides
are highly toxic to insects, but acute human toxicity is low. It is the bio-accumulation
of organochlorine pesticides such as DDT in the food chain which creates toxicity.
Such type of insecticides persist longer in the environment before undergoing
degradation to other substances and are quite soluble in hydrocarbons and, easily
accumulate in the fatty tissues. And so, because of their build up in the food chain,
they get magnified to higher trophic level. Birds are high on the food chain and
thus, more accumulation of DDT has adverse effects, interfering with enzyme
regulating distribution of calcium, resulting in thinning of egg shell that supports its
weight. The resulting difficulty to reproduce due to high levels of DDT, has brought
the hunting birds like bald eagle, ospreys and brown pelicans on the verge of
extinction.
The accumulation of DDT in human body is through food chains, i.e.,
vegetables (foliar spray of DDT is absorbed on the leaf), fish , milk (animals like
cows, buffaloes eating DDT accumulated vegetables and so the milk also gets
contaminated, humans consume milk, thus get severely affected and breast fed
babies ultimately get affected).
The other organochlorines widely used are chlordane, aldrin, endrin,
dieldrine, kepone, etc.
Some of these types of insecticides show birth defects in mice, hamster and
some cause liver cancer. Kepone, a class of plant insecticide, finds its application
in controlling tobacco wire worm, ants and cockroaches. Exposures to this
insecticide can cause severe neurological damage and when they undergo de-
composition and are discharged into water, they can ultimately be incorporated
into the food chain.
As far as the effect of organochlorines is concerned, they pose a serious
threat to the eco-system, human health and moreover, the long term use of such
chemicals is no longer found to be effective in controlling the pests due to the
biological assistance development in these pests against the pesticides. Thus, another
class of insecticides which are not persistent have been developed and are being
replaced. Some examples of this class are Malathion, Phosdrin, Guthion, Diorom,
etc. Although these insecticides are not accumulated in the food chain, they pose
direct threat. They get absorbed rapidly through skin, lungs and gastro-intestinal
tract and become acutely toxic than the organo chlorines that they have replaced.
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Excessive amount of such types of insecticides cause chest discomfort, vomiting, Environment Threats-I

headache, nervous disorder, etc.

The third category of insecticides, carbamates, is derived from carbamic
acid (NH2 COOH). These insecticides are not persistent like organo chlorines,
NOTES
but they get absorbed as organo phosphate insecticides, causing acute toxicity.
Some of the carbamate insecticides are aldicarb, carbaryl, etc. Exposures to such
chemicals cause blurred vision, nausea, vomiting. The accumulation of DDT in the
body tissue of an average Indian is much greater than anyone in the world.
Some other pesticides commonly used to kill pests are:
Fumigants: The insects die inhaling poisonous gaseous or fumigants like
HCN vapour, CH3Br, PH3, para dichlorobenzene, nicotine, chloropicrin, etc.
Fungicides: Fungus on plants and crops are killed by quinones,
organomercury and its compounds and phenols.
Bactericides or antibiotic: Bacterial growth in plants is checked or
removed completely by streptomycin spray.
Rodenticides: Rats like animals are killed by thallium sulphate, zinc
phosphide, etc.
Pesticide Poisoning
The indiscriminate use of pesticides in agriculture has posed a serious threat to
human and animal life. Non-biodegradable pests accumulating in the food chain
and biodegradable pests leaving behind more toxic side products, have produced
health hazards with concentration exceeding the safe tolerance level.
Thus, a new technology must be introduced to safeguard the ecology. New
types of chemicals having no side effects or minimum side effect should come.
Neem-based insecticides could be a good alternative. If proper research is carried
out it could be utilized as eco-friendly substitute of other commonly used pesticides.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)
As the name implies these organic compounds have low boiling point and evaporate
quickly into the atmosphere. These chemicals are either synthesized directly or
may be obtained as side product. From the atmosphere it comes down to the
surface along with rain or from the industry it can go directly into the nearby river
or sea or other water resources. From the surface it can get evaporated into the
atmosphere causing air pollution and if it seeps underground, its evaporation process
will slower down resulting in high degree of ground water pollution. Chlorinated
hydrocarbons can also be used as herbicides. For example, 2, 4, 5-
trichlorophenoxy acids or 2, 4-dichlorophenoxy acid. They are used for killing
weeds and undesirable vegetation. However, such types of chemicals are banned
or need to be banned as the side-products obtained during their synthesis are
highly toxic dioxin. Herbicide like paraquat used to destroy marijuana.
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Environment Threats-I The volatile organic compounds are found to be either carcinogens or
mutagens. Five such compounds are generally found to be highly toxic:
Vinyl chloride: It is used to produce polyvinyl chloride resins and is most
toxic as it is a suspected carcinogen.
NOTES
Trichloroethylene: A commonly used cleaning agent and is a suspected
carcinogen and ground water contaminant.
Tetrachloroethylene: Major component in the production of
chlorofluorocarbons and causes tumors in animals.
Carbon tetrachloride: Finds application in fire extinguisher, synthesis of
various chemicals, fumigants. Insoluble in water and trace amount found in water
and is toxic when ingested.
1, 2-Dichloroethylene: Used to produce various products including vinyl
chloride, tetraethyl lead and soap compounds. It can effect central nervous system,
liver and kidney if it exceeds tolerance level.
Eutrophication
The word eutrophication is originated from Greek words eu = ‘well’ and trophes
= ‘food’. Thus, it means ‘well fed’ or ‘nutrient rich’. So, we can define
eutrophication as excessive nutrient load in a water body or enrichment of water
body by nutrients.
Nutrients may become pollutants if their concentration is sufficient to allow
excessive growth of aquatic plants, especially algae. An aquatic system may be
categorized into three classes in accordance with the nutrient status, i.e.,
concentration of nutrients and productivity of aquatic plants.
(i) Oligotrophic: Water with poor nutrient status and very low
productivity of aquatic plants.
(ii) Mesotrophic: Water with moderate (not low not high) nutrient status
and moderate productivity of aquatic plants.
(iii) Eutrophic: Water with rich (sufficient concentrations) nutrient status
and high productivity of aquatic plants.
A young lake or a newly formed lake has low nutrient content and thus, low
plant productivity. Such types of lakes (oligotrophic lakes) with time acquire nutrients
from surface runoff, drainage basins, excreta and exudates of animals using the
water source, which ultimately increase aquatic growth. In this way, the oligotrophic
water bodies turn gradually into mesotrophic water bodies.
With time, the nutrient status of the water bodies gradually increases. The
biological productivity thus enhanced, leads water to become murky with
phytoplankton, i.e., algae blooms to occur. The lake thus, becomes eutrophic
(well-fed).

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 Eutrophication is a natural process and may take thousands of years. Environment Threats-I

However, this is greatly enhanced through human activities and is termed as

accelerated or cultural eutrophication. The industrial wastes, municipal waste water,
run-off from agricultural lands, provide plenty of phosphates, nitrates and various
minerals stimulating algal growth. Due to which, the water body becomes green. NOTES
In due course of time, the algal blooms may die abruptly. The decaying organic
matter causes depletion of oxygen level, destroying fish habit and other aquatic
species. Bad taste, bad odour, turbidity, thereby, greatly reduce its acceptability
as a domestic water source. Again, because of the silt and organic debris the lake
slowly becomes shallower and shallower, more plants spread roots along the shallow
edges and the lake slowly transforms into a marsh and finally converts into a dry
land. Thus, a water body so useful for us becomes totally useless within a short
span of time, due to anthropogenic activities.
Controlling Eutrophication
The main causes for the production of algae are the available nutrients. The three
main nutrients are carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus. If the supplies of such nutrients
are restricted, growth will be reduced. Carbon is usually available from natural
sources and can be less restricted, so is nitrogen, as certain bacteria and blue-
green algae fix atmospheric nitrogen. However, it is phosphorus which has least
available natural sources and can be restricted. Anthropogenic activities provide
enough phosphorous for algae bloom. The main anthropogenic sources of
phosphorous are agricultural runoff and domestic sewage. In domestic sewage,
the source of phosphorus is the human faeces and detergents. Human faeces cannot,
however, be restricted but the use of phosphorus in detergents can be limited.
The other steps used in controlling eutrophication are recycling of nutrients
through harvest, removal of algal blooms by drudging, applying algaecides like
copper sulphate, chlorine, etc., on water bodies.
It is observed that phosphorus in excess of 0.015 mg/l and nitrogen in excess
of 0.3 mg/l are sufficient to cause algal bloom.
9.2.2 Wastewater Management
Wastewater treatment methods are practices followed to purify the polluted water
from an industry before it is disposed of into a large water body. One might assume
that such a treatment is not necessary and the disposal into a large body would
sufficiently dilute the pollution in the industrial water to render it harmless. In reality,
this is not the case because the untreated industrial water contains insoluble wastes
like plastic and chemicals which get released into streams and rivers. Such insoluble
wastes pose a major threat to the aquatic life and may lead to its depletion.
Therefore, wastewater treatment is essential to keep natural water sources
pollution-free.

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Environment Threats-I Generally, wastewater is stored and then subjected to treatment in batches.
This ensures that every batch, which is treated in a treatment plant, has been
cleared of harmful pollutants and chemicals.
Convenient methods for wastewater treatment are the basic methods used
NOTES
to treat the water collected from industries and sewers. These methods are
categorized according to three stages of water treatment: primary methods
(physical) for primary stage of water treatment, secondary methods (biological)
for secondary stage and advanced methods (chemical) for advanced stage. The
following sections describe these stages in detail.
Primary Treatment
This is the most basic form of treatment that is given to wastewater of any kind.
Through primary processes, coarse solids and large materials are separated from
wastewater. For primary treatment, wastewater is sent to a large tank where its
constituent solids and impurities are allowed to settle at the bottom. Primary
treatment is restricted to separation of large impurities only because small particles
take too long to settle. Smaller particles are removed by other processes. In primary
treatment, wastewater is subjected to very calm circular currents because turbulent
currents won’t allow the pollutants to settle down. Primary treatment does not
remove organic soluble impurities. The waste that is collected through this process
is called primary sludge and is sent elsewhere for treatment and processing. Many
impurities which might linger on water surface after primary treatment are collected
through skimming. The scum so collected also needs treatment before it could be
disposed of.
Through primary treatment the following can be removed: between 25–
50% of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), 50–70% of total suspended solids
and 65% of oil and grease. A certain amount of organic nitrogen, organic phosphorus
and other heavy metals are also removed through this settling method. The tanks,
used for the primary treatment process, usually have circular or rectangular shapes
and are four metres in depth. The settling time for wastewater impurities in these
tanks is usually between two and three hours.
Secondary Treatment
Primary treatment is followed by secondary treatment to remove organic or
biodegradable wastes. Secondary wastewater treatment is also called biological
wastewater treatment because it allows micro-organisms to feed on the organic
waste in the water for its removal. The removal of organic waste is carried out in
two ways: through aerobic treatment and anaerobic treatment of wastewater. In
aerobic treatment, bacteria devour the organic wastes in the presence of oxygen.
In anaerobic treatment, bacteria devour the organic wastes in the absence of oxygen.
In the secondary treatment of wastewater, organic impurities are removed
through aerobic treatment. For aerobic treatment, wastewater is subjected to an
army of starved micro-organisms along with a gush of air, as depicted in Figure
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9.4, e.g., many municipalities use this method for treating wastewater in India. Environment Threats-I

These organisms use this stream of air to breathe and convert the organic and
biodegradable wastes into their food. This basic activity, carried out to support
the metabolism of micro-organisms, converts the waste into more similar micro-
organisms which can be collected and used again for the same purpose. NOTES
The tanks used for secondary treatment are similar to those used in primary
treatment. The sedimentation or waste, resulting in secondary treatment, comprises
the old as well as new micro-organisms from the water. The collected waste is
called secondary sludge which is mixed with primary sludge for further treatment.
Three different methods or processes, used for secondary treatment, are described
below:
(a) Activated sludge: In this process, wastewater is collected in a basin
and it is constantly moved. The air is pumped into the water using
aeration devices submerged in the water. Then a mix of liquor and
micro-organisms is introduced in the water to carry out the secondary
treatment procedure. The extra micro-organisms produced in the water
are regularly removed to make sure there is a balance in the level of
micro-organisms and liquor in comparison to the amount of water.
The time spent by wastewater in this tank can vary from three to eight
hours.
(b) Trickling filters: A trickling filter is an aerobic treatment system that
is used to remove organic matter from wastewater. It is also called
trickling biofilter, biological filter and biological trickling filter.Atrickling
filter is filled with a high specific surface-area material such as rocks,
gravel, shredded PVC bottles, or special pre-formed filter-material.
Both ends of the filter are ventilated to allow oxygen to travel the
length of the filter. A perforated slab supports the bottom of the filter
to facilitate collection of the effluent and excess sludge.
The pre-treated wastewater containing organic matter is ‘trickled’
through the filter surface. As wastewater trickles through the filter pores,
its organic load is oxidized into carbon dioxide and water by the
organisms that grow in a thin bio-film over the filter surface. In the
process, a slime layer of microorganisms is developed over the filter
surface. With time, the slime layer will grow thick and will be deprived
of oxygen. Consequently, it will lose its ability to stay attached and
will slough off as effluent. The effluent should be clarified in a settling
tank to remove any biomass that may have dislodged from the filter.
Trickling filters are known as attached-growth processes. In contrast,
systems in which microorganisms are sustained in a liquid are known
as suspended-growth processes.
(c) Rotating biological contractors: These consist of rotating discs
which are layered with micro-organisms. The rotating mechanism
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Environment Threats-I supplies air required for aerobic treatment of organic matter in
wastewater. Parts of the disc which have been covered in sludge are
removed and put aside either for further treatment or use in other
micro-organism treatment.
NOTES
After secondary treatment by any of the above-mentioned processes, the
treated water can be sent for advanced treatment or can be used for secondary
purposes.

Fig. 9.1 Secondary Wastewater Treatment

Source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e07.htm#TopOfPage
Advanced Treatment
This is the final phase in wastewater treatment. Advanced treatment is used to
remove any impurities left in the water after primary and secondary treatments
and to alter the mineral or nutrient content of the water. It is also called tertiary
treatment. In advanced methods, chemicals are used as catalysts to carry out
reactions required to get the water of desired contents. Nutrients like nitrogen,
phosphorus and heavy metals are removed from water through advanced treatment.
Sometimes wastewater is subjected directly to advanced treatment without first
going in for primary and secondary treatment.
Eco-Friendly Methods
The above methods of water pollution management are heavily dependent on
technology infrastructure and sometimes also use chemicals for water cleaning. In
contrast, eco-friendly methods of water pollution management use resources from
the environment for water decontamination. Eco-friendly methods combine human
efforts with the environment’s cleansing capabilities to decontaminate wastewater.
Actually, recent researches have found that the environment itself is equipped with
necessary tools to rid water of its impurities. Therefore, efforts are being made to
integrate human efforts with the environmental capability to decontaminate water
in an eco-friendly way. Some of the eco-friendly methods of water pollution
management are as follows: Constructed wetlands and anaerobic treatment.

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Wastewater Collection and Maintenance Environment Threats-I

Wastewater collection and maintenance is the first step in the integrated water
treatment plants. This is the basic preparation of wastewater for treatment. It
involves bringing all the water from different parts of the industry to the treatment NOTES
plant and collecting it in one single tank. The wastewater could even be collected
in smaller tanks to treat it in batches as per its use. This collection of wastewater
allows the workers at the integrated treatment plant to see the kind of wastes they
would be dealing with and then take appropriate decisions.
Maintenance of wastewater involves taking preparatory steps to ensure its
proper treatment. This initial stage includes removal of large impurities from the
water which can simply be picked off using a large sieve. If the water is acidic, it
needs to be balanced to get a more neutral PH level before it could be sent for
treatment. Also, in this stage, water remains stagnant for a considerable time before
being sent in batches for processing. This facilitates settling down and removal of
large impurities such grit, grease and coarse materials.
Wastewater Treatment
This treatment is a combination of physical, chemical and biological treatments
that the water is subjected to for cleaning its impurities. These treatments can be
used individually or in combination with one another depending on the required
level of treatment and the kind of impurities in the water. The end use of the treated
water also determines the kind of treatment it needs to be subjected to.
Once sludge has been treated, it is sent for disposal. It can either be disposed
of at sludge landfills or dehydrated and turned into solid cakes. These cakes are
picked up by other manufacturing companies and turned into fertilizer pellets. With
the use of fertilizer pellets in agriculture, sludge is returned to the environment.
Wastewater Reuse
The terms ‘wastewater reuse’, ‘wastewater recycling’ and ‘wastewater reclamation’
are used synonymously. The main objective of wastewater reuse is to find economic
and environment-friendly alternatives to meet the present demand for water without
compromising with the nature’s need for maintaining a certain amount of clean
water as well.
The treated wastewater is used for many purposes some of which are
described below:
 Urban Reuse: Wastewater after treatment is used in water public parks,
school yards, flushes, drain cleaning and in a number of commercial
buildings. It is also used for landscaping in houses and in public and
commercial air conditioners which need large amounts of hydration.
 Agricultural reuse: It is used in the irrigation of non-food crops. It is
not used for food crops because it is not completely treated and is not fit
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Environment Threats-I to be mixed with anything which will be consumed by humans. However,
after high-quality treatment, wastewater could be fit for food crops as
well as used in local nurseries and small plantations.
 Recreational impoundment: Wastewater can be used to rebuild small
NOTES
water bodies in certain areas where drought has destroyed the natural
and scenic beauty.
 Environment reuse: Wastewater can be used in the construction of
wetlands and for enhancing existing natural and man-made wetlands. It
is also used to regulate water flow in a number of streams.
 Industrial reuse: Wastewater is pumped into cooling towers to
maintain a certain temperature of machinery or it is used in makeup
water.

Check Your Progress

1. Define water pollution.
2. List the major sources of surface water pollution.
3. What are pathogens?
4. What are heavy metals?
5. What do you mean by wastewater treatment methods?
6. What is the main objective of wastewater reuse?

9.3 AIR POLLUTION

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 defines ‘air pollutant’ and
with reference to them defines air pollution. ‘Air pollutant’ means any solid, liquid
or gaseous substance (including noise) present in the atmosphere in such
concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living
creatures or plants or property or environment. Air pollution means the presence
in the atmosphere of any air pollutant. In this connection, the definition of ‘emission’
is also relevant. ‘Emission’ means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance coming
out of any chimney, duct or any other outlet. There are ‘standards’ and legislation
that exist for emissions.
Approximately 95 per cent of earth’s air occurs in the lower levels, the
troposphere. In the natural state, air contains 78 per cent nitrogen, 21 per cent
oxygen, 0.4 per cent carbon dioxide plus small amounts of other gases and water
vapour. The remaining 0.5 per cent of the planet air occurs in the upper levels, the
stratosphere together with gases like ozone.
Air pollutants can be primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are carbon
dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide (all formed from the
combustion of fossil fuels), CFC and particulate matter. Secondary pollutants are
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acid rain and ozone. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide combine with water in Environment Threats-I

the atmosphere and react with sunlight forming acid droplets. These acid droplets
constitute acid rain.
The sources of air pollution are both natural and man-made (anthropogenic).
NOTES
Natural sources: The natural sources of air pollution are volcanic eruptions,
forest fires, sea salt sprays, biological decay, photochemical oxidation,
extraterrestrial bodies, pollen grains of flowers, etc. Radioactive minerals present
in the earth crust are the sources of radioactivity in the atmosphere.
Man-made: Man-made sources include thermal power plants, industrial
units, vehicular emissions, burning of fossil fuel, agricultural activities, etc. Thermal
power plants have become the major sources for generating electricity in India.
The main pollutants emitted are fly ash and SO2. Metallurgical plants also consume
coal and produce similar pollutants. Fertilizer plants, smelters, textile mills, chemical
industries, paper and pulp mills are other sources of air pollution.
Automobile exhaust is another major source of air pollution.
Indoor air pollution: The most important indoor air pollutant is radon gas.
This is responsible for a large number of lung cancer deaths each year. These
could be emitted from building materials like bricks, concrete and tiles. Many
houses in the underdeveloped countries including India, use fuels like coal, dung-
cakes, wood and kerosene in their kitchens. Complete combustion of fuel produces
carbon dioxide which may be toxic; however, incomplete combustion produces
the toxic gas, carbon monoxide.
Effects of Air pollution
1. Effects on human health: Years of exposure to air pollutants including
cigarette smoke adversely affect the natural defenses of the body and can
result in lung cancer, asthma, chronic bronchitis, etc. Many other pollutants
may have toxic metals which can cause mutations, reproductive problems
or even cancer.
2. Effects on plants: Air pollutants affect plants by entering the cells through
stomata. The damage results in the death of the plant.
3. Effects on aquatic life: Air pollutants mixing up with rain can cause high
acidity in fresh water lakes, which affects aquatic life especially fish. Some
of the freshwater lakes have experienced total death of fishes.
4. Effects on materials: Because of their corrosiveness, particulates can cause
damage to exposed surfaces.
Control of Air Pollution
Air pollution can be minimized by the following methods:
1. Setting up of industries after proper environmental impact assessment studies.
2. Using low sulphur coal in industries.
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Environment Threats-I 3. Removing sulphur from coal (by washing or with the help of bacteria).
4. Removing NOx during the combustion process.
5. Removing particulate from stack exhaust gases by employing electrostatic
NOTES precipitators, bag-house filters, cyclone separators, scrubbers, etc.
6. Vehicular pollution can be checked by regular tune-up of engines, converters,
by engine modification to have fuel effective (lean) mixtures to reduce CO
and hydrocarbon emissions and slow and cooler burning of fuels to reduce
NOx emission (Honda Technology).
7. Using mass transport system, bicycles, etc.
8. Shifting to less polluting fuels (hydrogen gas).
9. Using non-conventional sources of energy.
10. Using biological filters and bio-scrubbers.
11. Planting more trees.
9.3.1 Nature
Air is precious and life cannot be sustained on this planet without it. In the
troposphere, it provides oxygen for respiration, nitrogen to synthesize amino acids
and proteins, carbon dioxide for carbohydrates through photosynthesis by plants,
which is ultimately consumed by animals. Water vapours are required to form
clouds leading to the formation of rain and snow.
Carbon dioxide absorbs infrared radiations to keep the earth warm. Thus,
troposphere controls the weather conditions.
In the stratosphere, the dense layer of ozone and oxygen acts as a policeman
to protect living beings from the harmful UV rays coming from the sun.
An alteration of the composition of the atmosphere by the introduction of
potentially harmful substances will cause pollution and affect life on the earth
severely.
The major cause of air pollution is the result of emissions of high
concentrations of sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon oxides and particulate
matter. The excessive amount of sulphur oxide and nitrogen oxide is due to the
burning of fossil fuels, especially coal used in power plants. The sulphur oxides
form sulphurous smog.
On the other hand, the oxides of carbon, oxides of nitrogen, volatile organic
compounds react with each other in the presence of sunlight to form photochemical
smog. This major problem is also closely associated with motor vehicles.
There is a set of six substances, called criteria pollutants which have
contributed in the formation of sulphurous and photochemical smog.
We are also getting exposed to hazardous air pollutions at home and
workplace, where we spend most of our time. In the rural area people cooking
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 In India, about 100 million tons of pollutants are poured into the atmosphere Environment Threats-I

and the amount is increasing every year.

Criteria Pollutants
There are six pollutants which have the main contribution in creating air pollution. NOTES
They are primary pollutants like carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2),
nitrogen dioxide (NO2), lead (Pb), and particulate matters (PM), with secondary
pollutants like ground level ozone (O3).
 Carbon monoxide: It is a colourless, odourless, tasteless, poisonous gas.
It combines with haemoglobin, the oxygen carrier of the blood in the body,
to form carboxy haemoglobin, a stable compound. The oxygen
transportation is thus, disturbed and in extreme cases it can be fatal. However,
it is a blessing that soil fungi and higher plants absorb it and destroy it by
converting it into CO2.
Sources:
• Incomplete combustion of coal, wood, petrol in steel plants, automobiles,
thermal power plants, jet engines
• Mid ocean surface water
• Oxidation of CH4 formed through anaerobic decomposition of organic
matter
• Tobacco smoking
 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2): It is a reddish brown gas and exists at room
temperature. At low temperature it dimerises to N2O4. Nitrogen dioxide is
paramagnetic.
At a lower concentration of NO as found in atmosphere, there are no
adverse effects on health and green plants also absorb it without damage.
But NO, which is oxidized subsequently, to form NO2 accumulating in a
higher concentration, has much adverse effect on health.
Effects:
• Respiratory irritation
• Impairment of lung defense
• Headache
• Bronchitis
• Loss of appetite
• Corrosion of teeth
• Leaf damage to sensitive plants
NO and NO2 also react with volatile organic compounds in the presence of
sunlight to produce photochemical oxidants, which have high adverse effect
on health.
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Environment Threats-I Besides human health, NO2 has other environmental consequences too. It
reacts with the hydroxyl radical in the atmosphere to form nitric acid,
contributing to acid rain problems and corrosion of metal surfaces. It might
cause significant damages to eutrophication and terrestrial plants.
NOTES
NO is also known to be responsible for ozone layer depletion in the
stratosphere.
 Sulphur dioxide (SO2): It is a colourless, poisonous gas, highly soluble in
water. It has a pungent and suffocating odour.
Sources:
• Burning of fossil fuels
• Thermal power plants
• Fertilizer plants
• Textile industry
• Steel plants
• Sulphuric acid plants
• Petroleum industry
• Oil refining
• Smelting of sulphide ores
On an average, about 25 million tons of sulphur dioxide is emitted into the
atmosphere annually.
The main source of sulphur is fossil fuels like coal that has the maximum
content of sulphur, about 1 to 6 percent. When fossil fuels are burnt, the
main gas released into the atmosphere is SO2 along with trace amount of
SO3.
In the atmosphere we may obtain significant amount of sulphur (SO4)
aerosols.
Effect of SO2 on Human Health
• High solubility in water allows it to get absorbed in the moist passages of
upper respiratory tract, causing increased breathing rate and feeling of air
starvation.
• Suffocation.
• Respiratory irritation.
• Asthma and chronic bronchitis.
• Irritation of throat and eyes.
The dangerous effect of this gas is that by combination with particulate
matter it can act synergistically and the effect of both together being much
more detrimental than either of them separately.
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 SO2 affects plants severely. SO2 gas enters plants through the stomata and Environment Threats-I

gets oxidized to SO3 there. This SO3 reacts with H2O and forms H2SO4.
The acid interferes in metabolic process and productivity falls.
Acid rain causes soil pH to go down, dissolving aluminium compounds,
NOTES
which ultimately hampers the uptake of nutrients.
SO2 causes yellowing of paper and reduces its mechanical strength, affecting
the storage of books. It discolours paint, causes organic fiber to weaken.
Even metals get corroded easily by SO2.
Prolonged exposure to sulphate causes damage to buildings and marble
monuments, as the carbonates like lime stone and CaCO3 react with H2SO4
to produce gypsum (CaSO4), which is washed away leaving behind the
eroded surface. It is now believed that there is a severe acid rain threat on
the Taj Mahal.
 Particulate Matter: Small solid particles and liquid droplets are collectively
known as particulates. In this case, the individual components aggregate to
form molecular clusters (diameter 0.005 m – 100 m) like fumes, dust,
ash, smoke, fog, oil, fly ash. Particulates are categorized on the basis of size
and phase (liquid or solid). The most general term is aerosol, which is a
suspension of tiny solid particles (1 m to 50 m) or liquid droplets,
dispersed in the atmosphere. Examples of particulate matter can be listed
as follows:
• Dust – Solid particles dispersed in air.
• Fume – Solid or liquid particles formed when vapours condense.
• Fog – Liquid dispersed in gas medium.
• Smoke – Carbon resulting from incomplete combustion.
• Smog – Particulate matter originated from smoke and fog.
The chemical nature and size of the particles are very important from the
pollution point of view. The particles possess large surface area and act as
nuclei for many chemical reactions.
Sources:
• Volcanic eruptions, dust and soil blowing by the wind.
• Stone crushing, mineral crushing, combustion of fuels like woods, oil,
coal, natural gas.
• Combustion of leaded gasoline, producing Pb particles.
• Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH).
• Biological materials like virus, bacteria, algae, etc.
Effects:
• Blocking of solar radiation causes the lowering of earth’s temperature
and affects the overall weather conditions.
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Environment Threats-I • Deposition on plant leaves affect photosynthesis.
• Respiratory disease, neural disorders, cancer.
 Lead: It is also known as plumbum (Pb). The important ores are galena
NOTES (PbS), anglesite (PbSO4), cerusite (PbCO3) and lanarkite (PbO, PbSO4).
It is bluish grey metal (mp 327°C). It is very soft.
Sources of lead pollution
• Mainly automobile emissions, due to the burning of gasoline containing
the anti-knock additive tetraethyl lead Pb(C2H5)4.
• Burning of gas and oil.
• Glass manufacturing.
• Mining and plumbing.
• Metal smelters and plants, manufacturing lead–acid batteries.
• White paint containing Pb3(CO3)2(OH)2 and red paint containing Pb3O4.
• Lead is emitted into the atmosphere primarily in the form of inorganic
particulates. The maximum portion of it however, settles down in the
immediate vicinity of the source. The soil, water and food however get
contaminated.
• Water pipes made of lead can get leached, further causing lead pollution.
Effects:
• Liver and kidney damage.
• Mental retardation in children.
• Abnormalities in fertility and pregnancy.
 Ground Level Ozone (O3): We have discussed the role of (O3) in the
stratosphere. In the stratosphere, ozone acts as a policeman by protecting
us from harmful ultraviolet radiations.
In the troposphere, ozone is a secondary pollutant. The mechanism of
formation can be given as:
NO2 + h  NO + O
where, large concentration of NO2, exposed to the atmosphere from various
sources are photo dissociated by photons (? < 390 nm) to form NO and
atomic oxygen. The atomic oxygen thus, produced reacts with O2 gas in the
presence of a third body, especially N2, which is abundant in air and forms
ozone.
O + O2 + N2  O3 + N2
Without the third body, the so formed O3 would not have been stable and
would have reverted back to O and O2. When we inhale air containing O3,
it poses a threat.
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Volatile Organic Compounds Environment Threats-I

This class of compounds are unburnt hydrocarbons (fossil fuels not completely
combusted) that enter the atmosphere when solvents, fuels and other organics
evaporate. The decomposition of organic wastes and garbage also produces NOTES
hydrocarbons. Examples are many—there are aliphatic hydrocarbons like methane,
ethane, propane, etc., aromatic hydrocarbons like benzene, toluene, m–xylene
that are derived from motor vehicles exhaust and industries. Aromatic hydrocarbons
are more toxic than aliphatic, as they reduce WBC counts in the blood causing
leukaemia and are carcinogenic. Poly-nuclear aromatic compounds also are
carcinogenic.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are also an important group of hydrocarbons
causing ozone layer depletion. The aldehydes which are emitted due to incomplete
combustion of fossil fuels, wood, etc., like formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acrolein
are associated with photochemical smog that causes eye and lung irritation.
Toxic Chemicals
These are the pollutants that are known to be carcinogenic, neurotoxic, mutagenic
and teratogenic. There are hundreds and hundreds of toxic chemicals in the
environment. These are poisonous substances, entering into the living system causing
disturbances in its functioning, leading to harmful effects and even to death.
Toxin can originate from plants, animals, microbial origin and can also be a
synthetic substance. The toxicants can be:
(i) Air pollutants (CO, NOx, SO2, CFCs, chlorinated solvents, Pb,
particulate matter, etc.)
(ii) Water pollutants (industrial effluents, pesticides, etc.)
(iii) Soil pollutants (pesticides, insecticides, etc.)
(iv) Food contaminants (Mercury, cadmium, arsenic, etc.)
9.3.2 Management
In this section, you will learn about the management of air polution from the angles
of particulate matter, vehicular emission and planning air quality for a region.
Particulate Air Pollution Control Systems
Particulate air pollution occurs when particles of unwanted substances like dust,
smoke or chemicals enter the atmosphere, making it unhealthy for the environment
and living organisms. To control or eradicate particulate air pollution, certain systems
or technologies are installed in the technology infrastructure of industries. These
systems are referred to as particulate air pollution control systems. These systems
consist of large and small air purifiers which clean industrial gaseous emissions
before they are released into the atmosphere thus preventing any environmental
damage. Some of the technologies used in particulate matter removal are: settling
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Environment Threats-I chambers, cyclone separators, electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, scrubbers,
gaseous control technology and carbon capture technology.
Settling Chambers
NOTES Settling chambers are large containers which are used to separate coarse particulate
matter from the air to reduce its pollution. The structure of a settling chamber is
similar to that of a cylinder placed in a horizontal position. The bottom of this
cylinder is connected to a number of hoppers where the particulate matter is
collected. The air enters the chamber from one end. The velocity at which the air
enters is slowed down in the chamber. Coarse particulates are the heaviest among
all particulates and can’t be carried forward by the slow-speed air. Therefore,
they part company with the air and settle down in the hoppers, and clean, fresh air
is then blown out from the other end of the cylinder.
A major limitation of settling chambers is that they are effective in removing
only coarse particulates from the air. They cannot be used to clean the air of fine
particles. Normally, settling chambers are used as the first step in the air cleaning
process. Thereafter, other techniques and systems are used to rid the air of fine
and ultra-fine particles.
Figure 9.2 depicts a settling chamber used in the air cleaning process.

Fig 9.2 Structure of a settling chamber

Fabric Filters
A fabric filter, also known as baghouse, is used to separate dust particulates from
dusty gases through filtration before the gases’ emission into the atmosphere. A
fabric filter unit, shown in Figure 9.3, consists of one or more isolated compartments
containing rows of fabric bags which serve as filters. These bags could be round,
flat, or shaped tubes, or pleated cartridges. The fabric bags trap fine particulates
in their crevices, allowing the air to pass through. One of the most efficient and
cost-effective dust collectors, fabric filters can achieve 99 per cent efficiency in
the fine particulates collection.
The kind of fabric used in filters and their layout are crucial for the efficiency
and effectiveness of fabric filters. Both the characteristics must facilitate passage
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of maximum air through these filters with minimum particulates being carried with Environment Threats-I

it. Fabrics for the filters must be carefully chosen not only to combat the dust and
particulates, but also to be able to withstand high gas temperatures and the effects
of harmful chemical compounds gases may carry. Most gases before sending to
fabric filters need to be cooled down to facilitate their easy processing and cleaning. NOTES
Fabric filters are used in combination with other filters, such as settling chambers,
which first remove the larger to reduce the strain on fabric filters. Clearing the
gases of larger particulates beforehand increases the life of the fabric which is used
as a sieve and does not get blocked too quickly.

Fig. 9.3 A fabric filter unit

Cyclone Separators
Cyclone separators are long cylindrical containers that thin down at the bottom,
forming a cone. A cyclone separator is attached to a hopper at the bottom end for
gathering the particulates separated from the polluted air. Like settling chambers,
cyclone separators are also used to separate course particulates from the polluted
air. They function on the principle of inertia. When the polluted air enters the
cylindrical-cum-conical separator, it is turned into a cyclone through constant
rotation. The air starts to move at a very high speed. This change in the air speed
causes inertia to sustain in the particulates. Consequently, the particulates get
separated from the gas and run down the cone to the hopper, and the clean air is
allowed to exit from the top of the container.
As the particulates collected in the hopper are coarse ones, therefore, the
air exiting the cyclone separator needs to be pumped through other cleansing
systems to make it totally pollution-free. Since the collected particulates are large
in size, their accumulated collection is required to be sent for treatment and disposal.
The accumulated particulate collection is mostly disposed of in a landfill.
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Environment Threats-I Scrubbers
Scrubbers use a jet of liquid, mainly water, to treat a stream of gas to remove fine
particulates. Like settling chambers, scrubbers use the technique of altering the
NOTES polluted air speed to separate particulates from it. The scrubber consists of a tube
which is normally thick on both ends and thin at the centre (throat). When a stream
of the polluted air passes through the scrubber throat, it speeds up. A jet of liquid
is also injected in the throat just before the entry of the polluted air stream. Because
of change in the polluted air speed and the liquid interruption, fine particulates
automatically attach themselves to the heavier, slow-moving liquid stream and the
pollution-free air gas flows out of the scrubber. Water droplets along with the
particulates are slower and trickle down away from the air. They are collected and
sent for disposal.
The scrubber method shows 99 per cent accuracy and is used commonly
for its good results. A major disadvantage of the scrubber method is the production
of waste water which needs to be sent to a separate treatment plant before putting
it to secondary use or allowed to flow into the drain.
Electrostatic Precipitators
Electrostatic precipitators are devices that use electricity to separate particulate
matter from a stream of gas. In an electrostatic precipitator, a gas stream is pushed
through electrical charges. The particulates that need to be removed are charged
with these electrical impulses and thus get attracted to oppositely charged metallic
plates. After completion of one cycle, the metal plates are cleaned by rapping and
then replaced for another cycle. The residue thus collected from the plates is sent
for treatment. Later on, it is broken down into easily bio-degradable products and
removed from the industrial premises.
This electrostatic precipitator method is extensively used to separate fine
and ultra-fine particles from a gas before it is sent into the atmosphere. It can also
be used in combination with other methods which remove large particles first to
save the plates from damage. The efficiency of the electrostatic precipitator method
depends on the compatibility of particulates with electrical charges and their
attraction to the metallic plates. With a correct particulate charge combination,
this method can give 99 per cent results. Hence, this method is very reliable.
Gaseous Control Technologies
Gaseous control technologies are used to clean an emitted gas of its harmful
impurities before releasing the gas into the atmosphere. A gaseous control
technology cleans an emitted gas by introducing a new compound into it. The
compound would alter the chemical composition of the gas for making it pollutants-
free. Due to the change in the gas’s chemical composition, its pollutant content is
transformed into certain compounds which can be collected as residue. Depending
on the gaseous control technology being used, the machinery of the industrial unit
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is designed to alter the chemical composition of the emitted gas to get its Environment Threats-I

contaminants as residue. This rearrangement facilitates the release of safe gases in

the environment.
The various techniques used for gaseous control are: absorption, adsorption,
NOTES
biological treatment, oxidation, reduction, condensation. All of these processes
are carried out at different temperatures which could range between –320ºF and
2000ºF. Thus the machinery being designed for a particular gaseous control
technology should not only assist in the process but also be able to withstand
extreme temperatures of the emitted gases. Absorption and adsorption are used
to remove acidic gases and organic compounds. Biological treatment, oxidation
and condensation are used to remove organic compounds only and thus need to
be used in combination with other methods. Reduction is used particularly with
nitrogen and oxygen compounds and is used as an independent process.
Carbon Capture Technologies
Whenever an industry uses fossil fuels to generate power to fulfil its needs, the
result is the production of carbon dioxide in high amounts which would go into the
atmosphere. Carbon capture technologies are used to release the carbon dioxide,
produced in various industrial processes, in a controlled manner in the atmosphere.
These technologies are designed to refine the fossil fuel emission to reduce its
carbon dioxide content before its release into the atmosphere. The amount of
carbon dioxide removed from the industrial emission is stored and then released in
a place where it can be processed. Generally, it is released in heavily forested
lands where the trees can easily take in the increased amount of carbon dioxide
and use it well. Otherwise, it is introduced into the coal beds under the earth or the
depleting oil and gas reservoirs deep into the mining sites. The carbon capture
technologies, by reducing the carbon dioxide emission, help in controlling global
warming. Besides, the extracted carbon dioxide can also be used to restore the
environment where it has been depleted. The carbon capture technologies mainly
rely on the use of scrubbers to remove carbon dioxide from a gas stream. Besides,
carbon dioxide can also be removed by allowing it to mix with water and then
condensing the same to remove the water vapour from the mixture. Some of the
carbon dioxide runs off with water, therefore water must be treated before sending
it into the environment. Carbon capture is carried out in gasifiers in three different
methods: pre-combustion, post-combustion and oxy-fuel combustion.
• In the pre-combustion method, fuel is partially oxidized before its use. This
facilitates almost pure emission of carbon dioxide when the fuel is burnt.
The emitted carbon dioxide can be collected and sent for treatment
immediately. This is commonly used for fertilizers and chemical gas fuel.
• The post-combustion method is used to collect the carbon dioxide emission
from fossil fuels directly at a large point source.

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Environment Threats-I • In the oxy-fuelling method, the fuel is burnt in oxygen instead of air. The
resulting emission contains only carbon dioxide and water which can be
separated through condensation and then sent to separate treatment plants.

NOTES 2. Vehicular Emission and Control

The increasing mobility of people around the world has led to enormous deterioration
in the air quality, and the resultant air pollution has emerged as a major concern for
human health. In the last few decades, harmful vehicular emissions have shot up
exponentially due to the rising mobility of people. These emissions are a major
cause of air pollution. These emissions arise because of two main reasons: one,
the nature of fuel being used in vehicles and the technology of vehicles. Besides,
the quality of traffic management also plays a crucial role in emission control and
reduction. Efforts are being made to control the air pollution caused by vehicular
emissions to provide clean air for the humans to breathe. The following sections
describe some of these efforts related to use of new technology, such as catalytic
converters, particulate traps and CNG engines.
Catalytic Converter
A catalytic converter is a device which is fixed in the exhaust of an automobile’s
emission system. The catalytic converter with the help of a catalyst carries out
chemical reactions within the automobile to rid automobile emissions of gases or
pollutants which are harmful to the environment, such as carbon monoxide, unburned
hydrocarbons, etc. Vehicles with catalytic converters emit only carbon dioxide,
nitrogen and oxygen. All these gases can be released into the environment in
moderate quantities without any adverse effect. However, extremely high carbon
dioxide emissions from vehicles are a new threat to the environment. Thus,
techniques and technologies are being developed to reduce carbon dioxide
emissions from vehicles.
The most common catalytic converter is a three-way device. It is named
thus because it simultaneously carries out three different chemical reactions, each
used to stop one particular harmful pollutant from entering the air. One oxidizing
reaction converts carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide. Another oxidization
process converts unburned hydrocarbons to water. And, the third reaction is a
reduction reaction in which oxides of nitrogen are turned into nitrogen and then
released into the air.
Particulate Traps
Particulate traps or particulate filters are used to reduce particulate or soot emissions
from automobiles. These are particularly meant for diesel engines because diesel
emissions result in soot formation which is harmful to the environment. Particulate
traps reduce engine soot emissions by up to 80 per cent, thus making the engine
emission cleaner and environment- friendly. In a diesel engine, when the combustibles
run through the exhaust pipe, the particulate traps catch hold of the soot, stopping
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its release into the environment. Since soot particles are large, the traps need to be Environment Threats-I

cleaned regularly for good performance and for adherence to standard emission
norms.
The process of cleaning the particulate traps is called regeneration. In this
NOTES
process, the collected soot is heated to high temperatures to burn it off and turn it
into ash which would not block the traps and ensure constant cleaning of the air.
Regeneration is of two types: passive and active.
• In passive regeneration, a vehicle is fitted with a mechanism to heat up
the gas enough to break down the soot.
• In active regeneration, a vehicle is sent for servicing and its exhaust is
exposed to heat to break down soot into ash
If timely regeneration is not carried out, expensive repairs would be required.
In such repairs, the exhaust would be opened and the trap would be replaced.
CNG Engines
Vehicles fitted with Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) engines are becoming more
and more popular. A good number of vehicles today run exclusively on CNG,
while some use CNG as an additional option along with petrol and diesel. One
main reason of CNG popularity is its abundant availability. Besides, it is a natural,
renewable source of energy which is cheaper and easily available to all.
Governments in many countries have made it mandatory for public transport to
use CNG engines only.
The biggest reason behind the popularity of CNG is the fact that it does not
let out pollutants when it is burnt. In other words, CNG combustion is not injurious
to the environment. Therefore, CNG vehicles’ emissions do not need treatment
before their release into the environment.
Though the CNG use is being encouraged worldwide, there are still a few
disadvantages associated with it which need to be taken care of. For example, the
tank required for CNG storage is heavy and bulky even in comparison to LPG
tanks which use a huge amount of space. Also CNG refuelling is not convenient
because its distribution infrastructure is still in a state of development.
3. Air Quality Management Plan for a Region
An Air Quality Management Plan (AQMP) is a set of sub-plans which are laid out
periodically for defining new standards to be met by using technology to improve
the environment quality. AQMPs are region-specific, as they take into account the
deterioration in the air quality of a region and focus on the techniques which could
prove useful for that region. These plans integrate the efforts of central and state
governments to enforce new standards legally and also supplement the efforts of
different industries to help them adhere to high standards of emissions. An AQMP
for a region deals with the following region specific aspects of the environment.
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Environment Threats-I Air Quality Monitoring
Air quality monitoring is carried out using a measuring tool known as the Air Quality
Index (AQI). This index measures emissions and the presence of particular
NOTES pollutants on a scale of 0-100 to judge air quality. On this scale, the range 0-15
represents the benchmark for the lowest pollution level, that is, the lowest amounts
of pollutants present in the air, and thus the highest level of air quality. The value
100+ indicates alarming levels of the pollutants present and thus low air quality.
AQI is used to measure the following six main pollutants:
• Ozone
• Fine particulate matter
• Nitrogen dioxide
• Sulphur dioxide
• Carbon monoxide
• Total reduced sulphur compounds
Emission Inventory Study
This study focuses on the source of emission as well as the method of managing
the emission. Knowing the emission source would help one come up with suitable
techniques to combat high emission levels, reduce them and even eradicate them
altogether. This study is used to adequately represent the presence of pollutants in
the air and measure the time of their presence in the air. It also sees how the
pollutant levels have changed with time and how the applied solutions or techniques
have been able to bring about these changes. The simulations and models, used in
the emission inventory study, are also used to depict the possible amount of air
pollution in future depending on the increase or decrease of the source it comes
from. This helps prepare the environment as well as people for the speculated
change.
Health Impact/Study
The health impact study focuses on building of models for speculating and assessing
the health issues that the population would be subjected to in future because of
increase in the amount of air pollutants. The World Health Organization (WHO)
organizes a similar study, called Health Impact Assessment (HIA), which takes
into consideration the deterioration of health standards with the deterioration of
the environment. HIA encourages individuals, institutes and government bodies to
take initiatives for bringing about substantial changes so as to prevent the speculated
health impacts.
Emission Control Strategy Update
Emission control strategies need to be dynamic in nature and must have potential
to combat new and revised forms of pollution emission. With the advent of every
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new technology, the emission system changes itself and often becomes immune to Environment Threats-I

emission control measures, thus destroying the environment. Therefore, emission

control strategies need constant upgrading and revision to cope with new forms of
emission. Also, new chemical reactions resulting from the use of a new technology
may lead to new chemical formations, which could prove deadly for the atmosphere. NOTES
In this case, one must come up with suitable alternative techniques to reduce those
emission impurities in the atmosphere or control them at the source itself, which
cause harmful chemical reactions. With every upgrade in an emission control strategy,
we ensure a better future for ourselves as well as the environment.
Cost–Benefit Analysis
Cost–benefit analysis is a study to weigh the financial rewards expected from an
AQMP against the cost to be incurred on it. This analysis takes into account all the
factors which would require financial outgo and then speculates a result that how
the project would prove to be beneficial financially in the long run. Looking through
the financial success of alternative strategies and plans is a part of the cost–benefit
analysis. This is done to arrive at a plan which would be most suitable according
to the situation and resources available in a particular region.
Institutional Mechanism
This part of an AQMP addresses the need of setting up institutions to monitor the
plan implementation. These institutions would be designed particularly to have a
comprehensive look into the working of the plan, analyse its success at all levels
and then suggest changes to higher authorities for the same. The number of
institutions needed as well as the kind of training and education required for the
employees of the proposed institutions comes under this section of the plan. Having
the right staff to monitor the success or failure of the plan would prove to be a
great help in bringing timely improvements in the plan. If the staff involved is not
interested or does not have full understanding of the importance of the plan, , they
would not be able to appreciate its success or account for its failure.

Check Your Progress

7. What are volatile organic compounds?
8. What is AQI?

9.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Water pollution can be defined as an alteration in physical, chemical or

biological characteristics of water, making it unsuitable for the designated
use in its natural state.

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Environment Threats-I 2. The major sources of surface water pollution are: sewage, industrial effluents,
synthetic detergents, agrochemicals, oil and waste heat.
3. Pathogens are disease causing microorganisms which grow and multiply
within the host.
NOTES
4. Heavy metals are referred to as metals with specific gravity greater than
about 4 to 5.
5. Wastewater treatment methods are practices followed to purify the polluted
water from an industry before it is disposed of into a large water body.
6. The main objective of wastewater reuse is to find economic and environment-
friendly alternatives to meet the present demand for water without
compromising with the nature’s need for maintaining a certain amount of
clean water as well.
7. This class of compounds are unburnt hydrocarbons (fossil fuels not
completely combusted) that enter the atmosphere when solvents, fuels and
other organics evaporate.
8. Air quality monitoring is carried out using a measuring tool known as the Air
Quality Index (AQI). This index measures emissions and the presence of
particular pollutants on a scale of 0-100 to judge air quality.

9.5 SUMMARY

 Water pollution can be defined as an alteration in physical, chemical or

biological characteristics of water, making it unsuitable for the designated
use in its natural state.
 Pollution of water can be caused by point sources or non-point sources.
Major point sources of water pollution are industries, power plants,
underground coal mines, offshore oil wells, etc.
 Water that is found in nature is called natural water. The natural water (sea
water, rivers, lakes, polar ice and glaciers) contains numerous organisms
like phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish and many other things. Water contains
dissolved gases like oxygen, essential for aerobic aquatic organisms, carbon
dioxide for small plants to bloom so as to be utilized by aquatic animals.
 Pathogens are disease causing microorganisms which grow and multiply
within the host. The resulting growth of microorganisms in a host is known
as infection. Water is the carrier of such pathogenic micro-organisms, causing
immense harm to public health.
 Nutrients are chemicals essential for the growth of living things. For plants
there are sixteen elements required for their healthier growth. They are
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, (obtained mainly through CO2 and water from

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 the soil), nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur and Environment Threats-I

micronutrients such as iron, cobalt, manganese, boron, molybdenum and

copper.
 Heavy metals are referred to as metals with specific gravity greater than
NOTES
about 4 to 5. The most important heavy metal pollutants are mercury (Hg),
lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd) and arsenic (As).
 The word eutrophication is originated from Greek words eu = ‘well’ and
trophes = ‘food’. Thus, it means ‘well fed’ or ‘nutrient rich’. So, we can
define eutrophication as excessive nutrient load in a water body or enrichment
of water body by nutrients.
 Eutrophication is a natural process and may take thousands of years.
However, this is greatly enhanced through human activities and is termed as
accelerated or cultural eutrophication. The industrial wastes, municipal waste
water, run-off from agricultural lands, provide plenty of phosphates, nitrates
and various minerals stimulating algal growth.
 Wastewater treatment methods are practices followed to purify the polluted
water from an industry before it is disposed of into a large water body.
 Primary treatment is restricted to separation of large impurities only because
small particles take too long to settle. Smaller particles are removed by
other processes.
 In the secondary treatment of wastewater, organic impurities are removed
through aerobic treatment.
 Advanced treatment is used to remove any impurities left in the water after
primary and secondary treatments and to alter the mineral or nutrient content
of the water.
 Eco-friendly methods of water pollution management use resources from
the environment for water decontamination. Eco-friendly methods combine
human efforts with the environment’s cleansing capabilities to decontaminate
wastewater.
 Maintenance of wastewater involves taking preparatory steps to ensure its
proper treatment. This initial stage includes removal of large impurities from
the water which can simply be picked off using a large sieve.
 The terms ‘wastewater reuse’, ‘wastewater recycling’ and ‘wastewater
reclamation’ are used synonymously. The main objective of wastewater
reuse is to find economic and environment-friendly alternatives to meet the
present demand for water without compromising with the nature’s need for
maintaining a certain amount of clean water as well.
 ‘Air pollutant’ means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance (including noise)
present in the atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be

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Environment Threats-I injurious to human beings or other living creatures or plants or property or
environment. Air pollution means the presence in the atmosphere of any air
pollutant.
 The natural sources of air pollution are volcanic eruptions, forest fires, sea
NOTES
salt sprays, biological decay, photochemical oxidation, extra-terrestrial
bodies, pollen grains of flowers, etc.
 The most important indoor air pollutant is radon gas. This is responsible for
a large number of lung cancer deaths each year. These could be emitted
from building materials like bricks, concrete and tiles.
 Carbon dioxide absorbs infrared radiations to keep the earth warm. Thus,
troposphere controls the weather conditions.
 The major cause of air pollution is the result of emissions of high
concentrations of sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon oxides and
particulate matter. The excessive amount of sulphur oxide and nitrogen oxide
is due to the burning of fossil fuels, especially coal used in power plants.
 This class of compounds are unburnt hydrocarbons (fossil fuels not
completely combusted) that enter the atmosphere when solvents, fuels and
other organics evaporate. The decomposition of organic wastes and garbage
also produces hydrocarbons.
 To control or eradicate particulate air pollution, certain systems or
technologies are installed in the technology infrastructure of industries. These
systems are referred to as particulate air pollution control systems. These
systems consist of large and small air purifiers which clean industrial gaseous
emissions before they are released into the atmosphere thus preventing any
environmental damage.
 Settling chambers are large containers which are used to separate coarse
particulate matter from the air to reduce its pollution.
 Electrostatic precipitators are devices that use electricity to separate
particulate matter from a stream of gas. In an electrostatic precipitator, a
gas stream is pushed through electrical charges.
 The various techniques used for gaseous control are: absorption, adsorption,
biological treatment, oxidation, reduction, condensation.
 The catalytic converter with the help of a catalyst carries out chemical
reactions within the automobile to rid automobile emissions of gases or
pollutants which are harmful to the environment, such as carbon monoxide,
unburned hydrocarbons, etc.
 The biggest reason behind the popularity of CNG is the fact that it does not
let out pollutants when it is burnt.

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  An Air Quality Management Plan (AQMP) is a set of sub-plans which are Environment Threats-I

laid out periodically for defining new standards to be met by using technology
to improve the environment quality. AQMPs are region-specific, as they
take into account the deterioration in the air quality of a region and focus on
the techniques which could prove useful for that region. NOTES
 Emission control strategies need to be dynamic in nature and must have
potential to combat new and revised forms of pollution emission. With the
advent of every new technology, the emission system changes itself and
often becomes immune to emission control measures, thus destroying the
environment.

9.6 KEY WORDS

 Eutrophication: It is a limnological term for the process by which a body

of water becomes progressively enriched with minerals and nutrients.
 Emission: It is the production and discharge of something, especially gas
or radiation.
 Air Quality Index: It is an index for reporting air quality on a daily basis.
It is a measure of how air pollution affects one’s health within a short time
period.

9.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. Which factors are responsible for water pollution?
2. How can we control water pollution from non-point sources?
3. Under what circumstances do the nutrients that are essential for the growth
of living beings become pollutant?
4. What are the sources of air pollution?
5. Name natural and man-made sources of air pollution.
6. What are the effects of air pollution?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Illustrate the wastewater treatment methods.
2. Discuss the sources and effects of various criteria pollutants.
3. Explain the systems or technologies used in particulate matter removal.
4. How is Air Quality Management Plan (AQMP) carried out? Explain.
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Environment Threats-I
9.8 FURTHER READINGS

J. Donald Hughes. 2015. What is Environmental History?. London: Wiley.

NOTES Chakrabarti, Ranjan. 2020. Critical Themes in Environmental History of India.
New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Agnoletti, Mauro and Simone Neri Serneri. 2014. The Basic Environmental
History. New York: Springer International Publishing.
Isenberg, Andrew Christian. 2014. The Oxford Handbook of Environmental
History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rosencrazz, Armin. 2002. Environmental law & Policy in India. Noida: Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Appadurai, Susila. 2004. Environmental studies. New Delhi: New Century Book
House Pvt Ltd.
Porter, Goreth, Janet Welsh Brown. 2000. Global Environmental Politics.
Colorado: Westview Press.

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 Environment Threats-II

UNIT 10 ENVIRONMENTAL
THREATS-II
NOTES
Structure
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Noise Pollution
10.2.1 Effects of Noise Pollution
10.2.2 Noise Control
10.3 Land Degradation
10.3.1 Land Pollution Due to Solid Waste Problem
10.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
10.5 Summary
10.6 Key Words
10.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
10.8 Further Readings

10.0 INTRODUCTION

Sound is an important and valuable part of everyday life. But when sound becomes
noise, it can negatively affect our mental and physical health. The realities of modern
life mean the noises created in our world are not going to suddenly fall silent.
Instead, we need to recognise that noise pollution is a serious health concern
worthy of our attention, and find realistic and sustainable ways to manage and
reduce it. Exposure to prolonged or excessive noise has been shown to cause a
range of health problems ranging from stress, poor concentration, productivity
losses in the workplace, and communication difficulties and fatigue from lack of
sleep, to more serious issues such as cardiovascular disease, cognitive impairment,
tinnitus and hearing loss. Another persisting issue which authorities find difficult to
tackle with is solid waste management. We will discuss three methods of solid
waste management, namely landfill, incineration and composting in this unit along
with noise pollution.

10.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Describe the meaning and causes of noise pollution
 Explain the control measures to reduce the noise levels
 Discuss the methods of solid waste management

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Environment Threats-II
10.2 NOISE POLLUTION

Noise is an unwanted, irregular, unpleasant and annoying sound, i.e., sound with
NOTES no musical quality. The definition however, is subjective because one man’s sound
may be another man’s noise. Noise can thus be defined as ‘wrong sound, in the
wrong place, at the wrong time’. However, it is always true that if the sound is loud
and it prolongs for a longer period of time, it becomes noise for all. A given sound
is pleasant when soft, but noisy when loud, pleasant when rhythmic, but noisy
when repeated randomly. The word ‘noise’ comes from the Latin word nausea
meaning ‘seasickness’ or from a derivative of Latin noceo = ‘I do harm’.
Whereas sound is a pure tone, harmonically related, occurring at regular
intervals and produces meaningful communications, noise is a complex mixture of
a number of pure tones of varying frequencies and amplitudes.
Sound is a form of invisible energy, generated by a vibrating object and
requires an elastic medium, which may be gas (air), liquid (water) or solid (metals,
plastics, etc.) for its propagation, as it comprises wave motion. Sound waves are
longitudinal waves, because the medium particles have periodic changes in
displacement and pressure in the same direction of the waves.
A loudspeaker diaphragm which moves to and fro generates sound. As the
diaphragm moves forward, it compresses the air near it. Now, due to the forces
developed by this compression, the air further away is progressively set in motion
as the inertia of the air molecules is overcome. Now when the diaphragm reverses
its direction of motion, it produces a rarefaction of air near it and a movement of
the air molecules further away occurs progressively in the opposite direction. Thus,
simultaneous compression and rarefaction set in, leading to pressure changes and
we get sound.
The poor elasticity of air causes the disturbance (the pressure variation)
which causes sound to travel at a slow speed of around 330 ms–1. The extent of
disturbance depends upon the rate of vibration of the vibrating object, the dissipative
losses in the air molecules, the pressure of wind, temperature gradient and turbulence
on the boundary surfaces.
Noise pollution can be defined as the unwanted sound dumped into the
environment, unwanted due to the adverse effects it may have in relation to physical
and mental health, displeasing effect, human communication, etc.
The unit of sound intensity is decibel (dB). Generally, the sound intensity
from 0 to 100 dB is considered to be pleasant, but when the intensity exceeds
120 dB, it causes noise. Sound intensity of 130 dB is the upper limit of hearing
and beyond this is the threshold of noise, causing pain to ear. The sound more than
130 dB causes noise pollution. However, the sound intensity received by the ear
will be noise or not, depends on the distance, the listener is from the source and
for how long he hears it. The distance is taken as one meter and time varies from
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Mechanism of Hearing (Human Acoustics) Environment Threats-II

NOTES

Fig. 10.1 Human acoustics

The science of human hearing sound is called human acoustics. Human

acoustics specifically indicates the different processes that are involved in the
perception of some sound by our ears.
Sound waves set up oscillations in the eardrum made up of tympanic
membrane in the upper ear. The oscillations in the eardrum induce movements of
the three small soft bones in the middle ear behind the eardrum.
The movements or oscillations in the middle ear pass through viscous fluid
in the inner ear, creating oscillations of the fluid. These oscillations then reach the
auditory nerves and are finally transmitted to the brain.
The oscillations or sounds are identified and interpreted in the brain, which
has the capacity to analyze sound into different frequency components.
Human detectable frequency ranges are 2 to 20,000 Hz.
An eighteen year old person, with normal hearing, has audio range between
20 to 20,000 Hz. The audio sense is most sharp in the frequency range of 2000 to
5500 Hz.
Sensitivity of the ear varies from person to person. With ageing, hearing
power decreases progressively. The ear is susceptible to damage if it receives
high intensity noise. However, the ear has some natural protective device for short
durations.
Intensity
Two important parameters of sound are sound pressure and intensity. They are
measured in different units of different magnitudes. The common unit is decibel
(dB). It is not an absolute value like kilogram, second, meter, etc., it is a ratio
expressed in terms of logarithmic scale and is mathematically given as

Thus, decibel measures how much intense is the sound compared to

reference intensity. Human beings can receive a vast range of intensities from around
1 × 10–12 W/m2 to 1000 W/m2.The reference intensity I0 is taken as 1 × 10–
12 W/m2 , which is considered to be an intensity level just audible to man. This,
thus can be said to be threshold of hearing. Unfortunately, there are practical
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Environment Threats-II the consequence of the energy passage and the pressure variation. Since the intensity
is directly proportional to the square of the pressure, that is

NOTES The sound pressure level (SPL) in dB is defined by

P
P0

where, P is the measured pressure in Nm–2 and P0 the reference pressure,

usually equals to 2 × 10–5 Nm–2 and is the nearest whole number corresponding
to the reference intensity. Sound pressure level (SPL) or sound level is thus, the
logarithmic measure of the RMS value of sound pressure of a sound relative to a
reference value.
Measurement of Noise Levels
Noise level in decibel is measured with an instrument called sound level meter. It
consists of three internationally accepted weighting networks, namely A, B and C.
Noise level measured with network A is designated as dBA. In this scale, the
frequencies to which human beings are more sensitive are given more weightage,
in the assessment of effects on human hearing.
Noise surveys must be made in the entire area for evaluation of overall
noise level and in the vicinity of individual noise sources under different environmental
conditions. The noise emitted by individual sources must be carried at specified
distance.
The disadvantage of dBA scale is that it is not related to human ear frequency
response as well as environmental conditions, on which noise is measured. In case
of dBA scale, although it is a characteristic of human ear capacity, it does not take
account of peak noise levels, duration of noise and its quality. Therefore, other
scales of measurement of noise levels with proper refinements of dBA scale are
done. These are:
L10 (18 hours) Index
It is the arithmetic average hourly values of the noise level exceeded for 10 per
cent of the time over 18 hours between 06:00 and 24:00 hours on any normal
week day. This scale is used to measure road traffic noise in the UK. This scale of
measurement considers peak noise level, fluctuation of noise due to nature of
vehicle and traffic density.
Equivalent Perceived Noise Level (Lepn)
It is the noise level measured in dBA scale and the value is taken to be (dBA scale
+13). Lepn is used for measuring noise level of aircraft, recommended by
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The measurement takes care of
both the peak frequency of the aircraft and duration of flyovers.
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Equivalent Noise Level (Leq) Environment Threats-II

It is the weighted average sound level over the time of measurement and is
represented as Leq and given in dBA unit. The time of measurement is specific
and measured for a short duration usually when the noise level is most prominent. NOTES
If the measurement is done for different time durations the value will differ. If the
measurement is done for a specific period of time started at the same time but in
different place, it may not be same. Equivalent noise level is accepted by
International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Leq is used for measurement
of noise level in the industrial, traffic as well as residential areas.
Noise Classification
Noise may originate from natural sources as well as through anthropogenic activities.
The natural sources are cyclone, thunder, roaring of sea, volcanic eruption, etc.
The anthropogenic sources are heavy machineries used in the industry, mechanized
automobiles, trains, aeroplanes, washing machine, television, etc. The
anthropogenic noise can be classified into
(i) Transport noise
(ii) Occupational noise
(iii) Neighbourhood noise
(i) Transport Noise
For simplification, transport noise is subdivided into three categories:
(a) Road traffic noise (b) Rail traffic noise (c) Aircraft noise
(a) Road Traffic Noise: The main causes of road traffic noise are the number
of road vehicles and their high traffic speed. Heavy vehicles with faster
speed create the maximum noise on the road. For example, heavy diesel
engine trucks are the nosiest vehicles. All around the world, the traffic peak
hour is from 10:00 a.m. in the morning to 6:00 p.m. evening. The traffic
noise level is measured on the L10 (18 hours) index. The limit of noise level
prescribed in India is 80 dBA, but is never followed. (a) Road Traffic
Noise: The main causes of road traffic noise are the number of road vehicles
and their high traffic speed. Heavy vehicles with faster speed create the
maximum noise on the road. For example, heavy diesel engine trucks are
the nosiest vehicles. All around the world, the traffic peak hour is from
10:00 a.m. in the morning to 6:00 p.m. evening. The traffic noise level is
measured on the L10 (18 hours) index. The limit of noise level prescribed in
India is 80 dBA, but is never followed.
(b) Rail Traffic Noise: It is not that serious like road traffic noise and aircraft
noise. The noise is of lower frequency compared to road traffic noise.
Introduction of diesel or electrical engines in place of steam engine, welded
tracks and improved coaches has contributed a lot in reducing noise.
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Environment Threats-II Moreover, most railway tracks run through rural areas which are wider
places surrounded by plants and trees. However, buildings located near
railway tracks are exposed to noise menace. The rail traffic noise is measured
on Leq scale.
NOTES
(c) Aircraft Noise: Aircraft noise is not created continuously but is intermittent.
The noise is produced during takeoff, landing and flight. The faster and
larger the aircraft, the more is the noise and thus, jet engines create the most
noise. Although lesser in number, the aircrafts like fighter aircrafts which fly
supersonically, become the noisiest source. The aircraft noise level is
measured in Lepn scale (dBA scale +13).
(ii) Occupational Noise
This is mainly produced by industrial machines and processes like blasting
operations, shipbuilding, factories and mills producing different kinds of products.
Occupational noises are also due to machines used for domestic purposes such as
television, washing machines, vacuum cleaners, etc. In industries, factories or mills,
the workers are exposed for five days with 8 hours per day. In their houses, they
are getting exposed for a longer duration, although frequency is lower compared
to industry and factories. Millions of people working in industries are the main
victims. The high degree of noise causes lowering of hearing capacity to a great
extent.
Table 10.1 Some Industrial Noise Levels

Industrial source Noise Level (dBA)

Steel plate riveting 130
Boiler marker’s shop 120
Farms tractor 103
Newspaper press 101
Milling machines 82

(iii) Neighbourhood Noise

There is a variety of sources of noise that disturb and annoy people by interfering
with their comfort. The sources are loud TV, stereo, radio sets, barking of dogs,
garaging the automobiles, starting of the two wheelers used by people, without
considering the harmful effects which they might have on the nearby neighbours.
The use of machines for building construction and building demolition are also
sources of serious nuisance. Use of loud speakers at public functions, in disco
music and dance in late evenings also causes noise nuisance to the nearby residents.
The prescribed permissible sound level for cities by Central Pollution Board of
India is given below in table 10.2.

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 Table 10.2 Permissible Sound Level Environment Threats-II

Area Day (dBA) Night (dBA)

Industrial 75 65
Commercial 65 55 NOTES
Residential 50 45
Educational Institution, 50 40
courts, hospitals (most sensitive area)

10.2.1 Effects of Noise Pollution

Let us discuss the effects of noise pollution.
Physiological Effects
(a) Acute effects: Such effects by noise depend upon the pressure and
frequency. As is known, a sound of 65 (dBA) is the noise level for
conversation heard at a distance of one meter. Sound of 110 (dBA) gives
discomfort and 135 (dBA) is painful and 150 (dBA) might kill a person. A
sound level in the range of 110–150 (dBA), affects respiratory system,
causes loss of physical control and other physiological changes might occur.
Loud sounds can cause an increased secretion of various hormones of the
pituitary gland, leading to increased blood sugar level, reducing immune
system capability, effecting liver, heart, brain and kidney.
(b) Chronic effects: The major effect is hearing loss. A person exposed to
high noise levels goes deaf more quickly compared to the person exposed
to relatively noise free environment. Such effects depend on pressure,
frequency and period of exposure. The hearing loss starts in the frequency
range of about 4000 Hz.
Mental Health
Noise affects mental capability, thereby reducing mind concentration and at higher
frequencies leads to mental disorientation.
Work Efficiency
Noise causes chronic headache and irritability, thereby reducing work efficiency.
Industrial Accidents
Noise interfering with sound system might mask the warning signals, thereby
increasing the incidence of errors making accidents more likely.
Communication
The sound signal is distorted if the frequency of noise coincides with it. Thus, we
have to raise the volume of our TV set or radio set to overcome the interferences
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Environment Threats-II Personal Comfort
To maintain a healthy body and a healthy mind, one needs a minimum specific
period of proper sleep. Noise may contribute to distress and emotional disturbance.
NOTES This effect is more severe on old people and children. For old people it might
cause neurotic problems and for children, it might affect their behavioural pattern.
Effects on Birds
Migratory birds are now found to be the victims of noise pollution. The high noise
pollution, along with high-rise buildings around a place can reduce the number of
migratory birds. Such an effect is already observed in Alipore Zoo in Calcutta.
Whereas, the number of migratory birds was 15,000 in 1982 it became 2,000 in
1990.
Table 10.3 Psychological and Physical Effects of Noise

Noise Level (dBA) Effects

135 Painful
110 Discomforting
80 Annoying
65 Heard at a distance of 1 meter
150 Significant change in pulse rate
160 Minor damage of hearing
190 Major damage in a short time

Noise Threshold Limit Values

The noise threshold limit values as per the American National Standard Specification
of sound level meters, SI (197) TYPE 52A, is given in the table 10.4.
Table 10.4 Noise Threshold Limit Values

Duration Per Day (Hour) Sound Level (dBA)

16 80
8 85
4 90
2 95
1 100
½ 105
¼ 110
1/8 115
When daily noise exposure is composed of two or more periods of noise exposure
of different levels, their combined effect needs to be considered rather than the
individual effect of each. When the sum of following fractions exceeds unity, then
the mixed exposure is considered to exceed the threshold limit values. Cn indicates
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the total duration of exposure at a specific noise level and Tn indicates the total Environment Threats-II

duration of exposure permitted at that level.

NOTES
Impulsive or Impact Noise
There are some recommended threshold limit values of impact or impulsive noise
levels. For time intervals, greater than one second is considered as impulsive or
impact noise and less than one second as continuous. Exposure to more than 140
dBA peak sound pressure level is never permitted.
Table 10.5 Threshold Limit Values having Impulsive or Impact Noise

Sound Level (dBA) Permitted Number of Impulses or Impact Per Day

140 100
130 1,000
120 10,000

Monitoring
It is very essential to monitor environmental conditions continuously to minimize
the risk of noise exposure. The long-term program undertaken to see that the
measured noise level does not vary and protective action taken remains effective,
more preventive measure can be introduced when necessary. For better
confirmation, medical examinations of workers can ascertain whether the preventive
action taken has proved satisfactory or not.
10.2.2 Noise Control
The noise generated in the environment can never be eliminated completely,
however, it can be controlled. Many new technologies are introduced to curb
noise. There are, however, some easy ways to curb noise besides introduction of
new technology. The basic difference of noise pollution from other types of pollution
is that it does not leave any residue in the environment, but it creates enormous
physical and mental health problem in persons continuously exposed to it for a
considerable time. As we cannot see the sound wave and as it does not leave any
residue, it is not given that importance and people are continuously exposed to it.
Thus, it is the demand of the hour to implement new stringent laws, such as motor
vehicle act, introduce new regulation to lower speed limits of vehicles, promote
education and research creating awareness among the public about the harmful
effects of noise pollution through radio, television and newspapers.
The noise created from the heavy machinery used in the industry as well as
other community can be curbed by taking measures at the source, at the noise
transmission path and at the receivers. Source is the main route of noise generation.
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Environment Threats-II If noise is completely abated at the source the other two need less nourishment.
However, due to various machinery parts involved in the source, noise cannot be
abated completely. So if we take care of the three areas all together, noise can be
eliminated to a maximum level.
NOTES
(a) Control at Source
In the industrial establishment, it can be done by proper design, proper operation
and regular maintenance of the machines. The industry should be located at open
spaces far off from the residential areas.
As far as community noise is concerned, the loud speakers, radio and music
system should not be allowed to cross the threshold intensity.
(b) Control at Path
The noise transmission path can be covered with such material, which can absorb
the sound, can insulate the sound. Sound absorbers can be glass wool, porous
panels, perforated panels, tiles, carpets, curtains, etc. These materials are generally
porous which reduce reflection of sound.
Sound insulators reduce sound transmission through barriers. Sound
insulating materials could be glass, steel, ceramic materials, concrete, etc.
Vibration control of the machinery is generally done by mounting the machine
on a base plate or an inertia block like concrete block.
The various other measures of path control resources are:
(i) Acoustic enclosures: This can be done by putting close fitting
enclosure around the machine, keeping high noise generating machine
in a separate room at a relatively long distance. The walls of the
enclosures are also made with acoustically lined materials, such as
glass fiber or fiber wool inside the wall.
(ii) Noise barriers: This can be done by constructing walls with hard
and dense materials to reflect sound or porous material to absorb
sound and by placing them closest to the noise source. To achieve
high degree of efficiency, the gaps or the joints of barriers are
eliminated, so that the sound does not leak through and reduce
efficiency. However, sound will lead the machine operator to get
exposed to the noise. Some common examples of noise barriers are
glass fibers, brickwork, fiberboard, etc.
(iii) Silencers: Silencer is a hollow material, shaped in such dimensions
that it reduces sound transmission, but allows the gases (incoming as
well as outgoing) to pass through it. The silencer may absorb the sound
or reflect the sound or if designed properly can function in both ways
in a single system, thereby reducing noise intensity.
The materials generally used are stainless steel, tin plate, stainless iron
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which acts as a reflector of sound and when coated with fiberglass the
216 Material
 sound intensity reduces to a large extent due to the absorption of Environment Threats-II

sound. Silencers are generally used in automobiles and transport

vehicles.
(iv) Reduction of noise produced due to vibration of machine:
NOTES
Installation of a machine on the floor contributes to high noise pollution
to a large area around it. The best way to solve such problem is to
place the machine on a thick steel plate, isolated from the other by a
thick block of rubber.
(c) Control at Receiver (Personal protection)
No matter how much precaution be taken, how much technology is introduced, it
is not possible to nullify noise. Thus, personal protection is very essential for the
safety of the workers. For such cases, ear protection and in extreme cases personal
isolation will help a lot. The commonly used hearing protectors are earplugs, ear
muffs, etc.
In an extreme case, the person can be isolated from the source to stay in an
air conditioner enclosure or a thick walled sound absorbing room, with a viewing
window and occasionally, can go to the operating room thus, minimizing noise
exposure. In an industrial establishment, administrative control helps a great deal.
The workers should be given shift duties, so that an individual or groups are not
exposed to the noise for a longer period of time.
Lastly, it should be mentioned that plants and trees have a greater capacity
for reduction of noise. Plants are efficient absorbers of noise, especially noise of
high frequency. Thus, plantations along highways, streets and industrial areas should
be done. This is one of the reasons due to which rail traffic noise or other road
transport noise is less when they run through highways having green plantation on
both sides. Air traffic noise can be curtailed by growing green vegetation belt of
short to medium height around the airport.

Fig 10.2 Noise Control

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Environment Threats-II Prevention of Noise Pollution
Noise pollution has harmful effects on both our body and mind. The safe intensity
level of sound, as prescribed by World Health Organization (WHO) is 45 dB. But
NOTES in the present era, it is rarely maintained and the result is ‘Noise Pollution’. In
order to lead a healthy life, abatement of noise pollution should also be considered
seriously. The various sources of noise pollution are road traffic noise, rail traffic
noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise and neighbourhood noise, etc. There are a
variety of effective strategies for abating noise levels, such as use of noise barriers,
limiting vehicle speeds, improving tire design, limiting heavy duty vehicles and use
of silencers in the vehicles for road traffic noise, designing quieter jet engines,
altering flight paths for aircraft noise, improving technology for electric locomotives
for rail traffic noise, redesigning of industrial equipment, using acoustic screens
and barriers for industrial noise. One of the best ways of reducing noise pollution
is through making green belt around the residential areas, around airport and on
the sides of the road where the vehicles and trains run.
Besides all the above measures, following steps should be followed to
prevent noise pollution to the highest extent.
• raising public awareness about the effect of noise pollution.
• distributing up-to-date information regarding noise pollution.
• strengthening laws and governmental efforts to control noise pollution.
• establishing networks among environmental professionals, governmental
and all other activist groups working on noise pollution issues.
• helping and protecting activists working against noise pollution.
Lastly, it can be mentioned that two very simple measures can help a lot in
abating noise pollution.
The cities can be developed in a planned manner. Industry and transport
areas can be separated into zones, residential areas may be made at least 20
meters away from the main streets and the space be thickly planted. Heavy vehicles
should not be allowed to use narrow streets and the use of horns and pressure
horns be prohibited.

Check Your Progress

1. Define noise pollution.
2. How much sound intensity causes noise pollution?
3. What do you mean by human acoustics?
4. What are the two important parameters of sound?

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 Environment Threats-II
10.3 LAND DEGRADATION

Because of increase in population, the demand for arable land for producing food
and fuel wood is also increasing. Hence, there is more and more pressure on the NOTES
limited land resources which are being depleted due to overexploitation. Soil
erosion, waterlogging, salinization and contamination of the soil with industrial wastes
like fly ash, press mud or heavy metals all cause degradation of land.
Soil erosion: Soil erosion means wearing away of soil. It is defined as the
movement of soil components, especially surface-litter and top soil from one place
to another. It results in the loss of fertility.
It is basically of two types, viz, normal erosion or geological erosion and
accelerated erosion. The agents that cause such erosions are climatic agents and
biotic agents.
Wind is also responsible for land erosion through saltation, suspension and
surface creep.
In order to prevent soil erosion and conserve the soil, the following
conservation practices are employed:
• Conservational till farming
• Contour farming
• Terracing
• Strip cropping
• Alley cropping
• Wind breaks or shelterbelts
• Waterlogging
Landslides: A landslide is defined as the movement of a mass of rock,
debris, or earth down a slope. Landslides are a type of “mass wasting,” which
denotes any down-slope movement of soil and rock under the direct influence of
gravity. Various anthropogenic activities like hydroelectric projects, large dams,
reservoirs, construction of roads and railway lines, construction of buildings and
mining are responsible for clearing of large forested areas.
Desertification: It is a process whereby the productive potential of arid
or semiarid lands falls by ten per cent or more. Desertification is characterized by
devegetation and loss of vegetal cover, depletion of groundwater, salinization and
severe soil erosion. The causes of desertification are deforestation, overgrazing
and mining and quarrying.
It should be kept in mind that land degradation can occur due to
landpollution, urbanization, poor forming practices and many other reasons. In
this section, our focus will be only on one aspect that is, land pollution due to solid
waste problem.
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Environment Threats-II 10.3.1 Land Pollution due to Solid Waste Problem
The quantity of solid wastes generation in big cities of India is almost 400-600 gm
per person and is increasing day by day at an enhanced rate. Again, due to high
NOTES illiteracy, indiscipline and carelessness in our basic character, we prefer to throw
the waste in the street rather than collection and proper disposal. We never think
about the consequences of such things at all. These wastes, either alone or under
prevalent conditions, can combine with other secondary wastes creating high degree
of health hazardous problem. As far as municipal solid waste is concerned, the
vegetables, leaves and fish remnants are the major constituents.
The biological decomposition of vegetable wastes, fish remnants and the
dead animals release hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and many other organic-sulphur
gases, creating objectionable odour. The garbage is an ideal place for flies,
mosquitoes, insects, rats and other rodents to live in. They live, grow and reproduce
in garbage. Mosquitoes bring diseases like malaria, filaria and enchephalities. The
flies carry contaminated food from the garbage and finally to human beings, causing
dysentery, diarrhea, etc. Rats cause plague, leptospirosis, tularemia, trichinosis,
and many more diseases. The open burning or fire generation due to organic
decomposition may lead fire to continue for a longer period and may cause high
degree of water and air pollution due to the release of leachable toxic materials
into water, exerting oxygen demand and other pathogen along with noxius gases,
creating health hazard problem. Again the workers handling the garbage are directly
affected with roundworm and whip-worm.
Hence, disposal of solid wastes needs special attention. It is only through
scientific, disciplined and effective solid waste management, that the four problems
can be minimized or abated to the maximum possible extent. The present day
management follows: (1) collection (2) storage (3) transportation (4) recycling (5)
treatment (6) disposal.
Collection
At present there is an organized door to door collection system. This practice was
not followed in an organized manner previously, causing dumping of garbage in the
open spaces and streets causing insanitary conditions. However, it cannot be said
that the collection system has efficiency of hundred percent. Sometimes, on Sunday,
people do not collect the garbage, creating unhygienic condition at home and
force people to throw the garbage into the open space and street. The road
sweepers still sometimes burn or throw the garbage into open spaces. All these
matters need special consideration.
Storage
Storage facilities, although have been developed significantly, we still require more
storage. At the same time, the garbage should not be stored for a prolonged time,
otherwise it can cause unhygienic conditions.
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Transportation Environment Threats-II

The garbage is nowadays, collected frequently from the storage and transported
to places far away from the community. However, many problems still remain.
The trucks are found to be overloaded and the garbage spills creating foul odour. NOTES
Many times, the drivers throw off the loaded garbage in nearby open space.
Recycling
We all know that all wastes are not complete waste. Proper recycling can generate
materials of use. In India, a proper recycling process has not been achieved yet.
There still exists door to door collection, collection from disposal sites, from
collection bins by the people from the weaker section of society. These people
store these materials in slum for prolonged time causing insanitary conditions.
Moreover, they clean the materials in their water resources causing greater degree
of water pollution.
Generation of waste can be minimized and the generated waste can be
converted to wealth with the help of four R principle of waste management. The
four R principle stands for: (1) Refuse (2) Reuse (3) Recycle (4) Reduce.
Refuse: Buying of new containers should be refused. The same containers
in the house can be used again and again.
Reuse: Waste generated from home may not actually be waste. So items
like cans, glass, bottles, should not be thrown away, instead they can be used as
flower vase, pencil and pen stand, after proper decoration. Instead of plastic
bags, if jute or cloth bags are purchased, they can be used again and again. All
these lead to reduction in waste generation.
Recycle: The used and discarded wastes contain valuable materials like
aluminium, steel, glasses, etc. During the recycling process, the wastes are collected,
materials are processed and newer products are generated. Before recycling, the
wastes are segregated to separate out biodegradable wastes from non-
biodegradable waste. The biodegradable waste, such as household garbage, leaves,
flowers, fruits from gardens can be used in compost pit and used as fertilizers. The
non-biodegradable waste such as plastics, glass, paper, bulbs, pesticide containers,
batteries, again can be segregated to separate toxic waste from non- toxic waste.
The non-toxic waste can be recycled for reuse and toxic wastes can be disposed
of. Recycling thus, reduces environmental pollution to a greater extent as well as
saves money as lesser amount of newer materials need to be generated.

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Environment Threats-II Reduce: Unnecessary waste generation can be reduced if one’s own
shopping bags are used and various items purchased from the market can be put
in it, instead of taking several carry packs for several items.

NOTES Disposal
Disposal is the final step in solid waste management system. Unfortunately, there is
no organized disposal system in our country. There are several methods of solid
waste disposal but only a few are followed in our country and that too without
proper care. The three processes of solid waste disposal are:
1. Landfill: Disposing solid wastes in an ‘open dump’, i.e., in an uncovered,
usually a low lying area results in contamination of land and water, thereby spreading
bad odours and diseases. The problems associated with ‘open dump’ are minimized
to a large extent through ‘Landfill’.
In case of sanitary landfill, an ideal site is chosen first. The site is generally
selected at a distance of 1 to 2 km from the community. A site lying above the
ground water table to prevent pollution of underground water is preferred. It is
always beneficial to select a site containing soil having low permeability, to use it as
an effective cover material. After selecting the proper site, a pit is dug in the ground.
Mixed solid wastes with varying degree of composition are delivered to the site by
trucks or trailer units. For effective landfilling, the wastes are hand sorted, pulverized
or compacted by high pressure and baling for volume reduction is done. The loose
material is placed in the lower part of the pit. It is then spread homogenously and
compacted by machines such as bulldozers, in a layer of thickness of about 0.5 m.
This layer structure is usually called a cell. After several operations when the cell
depth is about 2 m, it is covered with 20 to 30 cm of earth. If the wastes contain
large irregular shaped materials, it is necessary to increase the thickness of the
cover. After several operations of cell-cover layering, the final cell is covered with
fresh earth of about 1 m in height and again compacted.
The covering of waste (cell) each time with fresh earth prevents the waste
from decaying. The waste is also prevented from being blown off by fast winds.
The covering of fresh earth prevents the breeding of flies and mosquitoes.
Landfilling with wastes that are not hand sorted, may not be economical for
a site with limited capacity. The reduction of waste volume is economical, as well
as it enhances the life of the landfill.

Fig 10.4 Sanitary landfilling

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 Problems in Landfill: There always remains a problem with older landfills Environment Threats-II

as far as ground water pollution is concerned. Pollutants seeping out from the
bottom of a sanitary landfill generally percolate down to the ground water aquifer,
no matter how thick the under lying soil layer be. Some care regarding this matter
is taken and in many landfills, particularly in foreign countries, there are suitable NOTES
bottom liners and leachate-collection system along with monitoring system to detect
underground water pollution.
The landfill operation (particularly new landfill) is essentially a biological
method of waste treatment. The organic material in the buried solid waste
decomposes due to the action of microorganisms. The whole process of waste
treatment takes place in five phases.
Phase 1: The waste decomposes aerobically, until the oxygen that was
present in the freshly-placed fill is used up by the aerobic microorganisms.
Phase 2: The anaerobic conditions prevail and H2 and CO2 are evolved.
Phase 3: Methanogenic population of bacteria takes place and is the
beginning of methanogenic activity. The bacteria decompose the matter to methane
and CO2. Methane is highly poisonous and highly explosive when mixed with air
in concentrations from 5 to 15 per cent.
Phase 4: The methanogenic activity becomes stabilized.
Phase 5: The methanogenic activity decreases, representing depletion of
organic matter and finally, the system returns to aerobic conditions again.
The hazardous potential of methane should thus, be given due consideration.
The carbon dioxide so produced reacts with water to form carbonic acid. The
acidic environment thus, produced helps in dissolution of minerals and salts of Ca,
Mg, Fe, Pb, Cd, Hg, Zn and various elements present in the wastes. These dissolved
salts if percolate to ground water, they increase hardness and heavy metal toxicity
of water.
The rate of decomposition in sanitary landfills depends on several factors.
The weather condition, however, is not in our hand. The other factors however,
can be controlled by introduction of proper technology. The aerobic decomposition
rate will decrease if the wastes are compressed too tightly, so the wastes should
be compacted in such a manner so as to have adequate amount of oxygen available.
Also, the generation of methane and carbon dioxide should not get reduced. Again,
there should be proper ventilation, a venting system to collect and vent the blocked
gas to the outer surface in a controlled manner, in order to prevent explosion. The
large amount of methane that is produced in the landfill can be tapped and used as
a fuel.
Advantages of Landfill
• Flies, mosquitoes, many other insects, rats and other rodents cannot breed
in the sanitary landfill and thus, infectious diseases are minimized.
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Environment Threats-II • Air pollution is prevented to a large extent as open burning is not employed
and fire hazards are minimized.
(2) Incineration: The process of burning municipal solid waste in a properly
designed furnace under suitable temperature (850° to 1100°C) and operating
NOTES
conditions is known as incineration. The modern municipal incinerator is of
continuously burning type. The old technology of using refractory lining is replaced
by water fall construction in the combustion chamber. In this system, the water is
circulated through, steel made vertical boiler tubes. The circulated water absorbs
the heat of combustion of waste and is successively used for space heating, power
generation and can also be re-utilised for steam generation and heating the waste.
There are however, various other types of incinerators, namely (1) rotary
kiln (2) open pit incinerators (3) controlled-air incinerators.
Incineration may reduce the volume of (MSW) by 90 per cent and weight
by 75 per cent. In incineration, the process involved is oxidation. At the end of
incineration, there remains bottom ash as well as solid residue and during the
process there is a disposal of fly ash (ash floats out with hot air) into the atmosphere.
Fly ash consists of finely divided particulate matter, mineral dust and soot. Both,
the fly ash and bottom ash have high concentrations of toxins like dioxins, as well
as heavy metals. The other types of gases exposed to air are sulphur dioxide,
oxides of nitrogen, hydrochloric acid gas and many other organic acids. Disposal
of ash is again a great problem. If buried, there remains the possibility of leaching,
causing health hazard.
To reduce the problems associated with incinerations, first of all substances
like glass and other non-combustible batteries, plastics, etc., containing heavy
metals which can be recycled, should be removed. Equipment such as controlled-
air-incinerator can be used, scrubbers (a device used to neutralize acid gases by
spraying liquid) to prevent gases to enter atmosphere, filters to absorb tiny fly ash
particles and lastly, extensive air-pollution control equipment should be used. Skilled
labourers are required for proper maintenance.
The advantages associated with incineration thus are, utilization of energy
generated through oxidation reaction and reduction of volume. But due to
production of toxic materials, incineration is kept as the last resort and is used
mainly to treat infectious waste such as biomedical waste.
(3) Composting: One effective way of disposing waste materials is composting.
It is to be noted that all types of waste materials like plastic, glass wastes, building
materials, etc., cannot be used for composting. The (MSW) thus, generated must
be hand sorted, the other methods subsequently used can be gravity separation,
electric and magnetic separation, as well as chemical or thermal separation, when
required.

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 The municipal solid waste, such as cow dung, vegetable leaves, contains Environment Threats-II

about 35–40 per cent of organic matter. For composting, a pit is dug in a large
wasteland. All the required wastes are put into the pit and covered. The compositing
waste is an aerobic biodegradation process. The microorganisms such as fungi
and bacteria convert the degradable organic waste into humus like substance. NOTES
At the initial stage, mesophillic bacteria oxidize the organic substances in
the waste to liberate CO2 and heat. The temperature rises to about 45°C and at
this point the bacteria take over and continue decomposition. During this process,
the temperature attains about 60°C, high pressure is created and sufficient oxygen
penetrates homogenously to support aerobic life. After about three weeks compost
gets stabilized. The typical compost is dark brown in color with an earthy smell.
The compost is high in carbon and nitrogen. When the composting is done
in a biogas unit (limited supply of oxygen), methane (biogas) is generated in a
controlled way and is used for energy production as such and the residue is used
as manure.
Another technology of compositing is vermicomposting. In this method,
worms and insects are added to the compost. The idea has been obtained through
long experience with nature. In nature it is seen that the wastes are degraded in a
beautiful way through insects and worms. The leaves, dead animals, twigs are
broken down by worms and insects and finally by bacteria and fungi to form
compost.
Advantages of Composting
• Foul smell is eliminated.
• Flies and insects cannot breed.
• Gases like H2S, CH4 are reduced.
• Maximum nutrient (N, P, K) is obtained in a usable form.
• Harmful pathogens are killed.
• Excessive use of chemical fertilizer is reduced.
• Nutrient retention is enhanced.
Thus, through composting, pollution is abated, manure is generated, and biogas is
produced.

Check Your Progress

5. Define soil erosion.
6. What is R principle of waste management?
7. What are the advantages associated with incineration?

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Environment Threats-II
10.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS

NOTES 1. Noise pollution can be defined as the unwanted sound dumped into the
environment, unwanted due to the adverse effects it may have in relation to
physical and mental health, displeasing effect, human communication, etc.
2. The sound more than 130 dB causes noise pollution.
3. The science of human hearing sound is called human acoustics.
4. Two important parameters of sound are sound pressure and intensity.
5. Soil erosion means wearing away of soil. It is defined as the movement of
soil components, especially surface-litter and top soil from one place to
another.
6. Generation of waste can be minimized and the generated waste can be
converted to wealth with the help of four R principle of waste management.
The four R principle stands for: (1) Refuse (2) Reuse (3) Recycle (4) Reduce.
7. The advantages associated with incineration thus are, utilization of energy
generated through oxidation reaction and reduction of volume.

10.5 SUMMARY

 Noise is an unwanted, irregular, unpleasant and annoying sound, i.e., sound

with no musical quality. The definition however, is subjective because one
man’s sound may be another man’s noise. Noise can thus be defined as
‘wrong sound, in the wrong place, at the wrong time’.
 The poor elasticity of air causes the disturbance (the pressure variation)
which causes sound to travel at a slow speed of around 330 ms–1. The
extent of disturbance depends upon the rate of vibration of the vibrating
object, the dissipative losses in the air molecules, the pressure of wind,
temperature gradient and turbulence on the boundary surfaces.
 The sound more than 130 dB causes noise pollution.
 The science of human hearing sound is called human acoustics. Human
acoustics specifically indicates the different processes that are involved in
the perception of some sound by our ears.
 Two important parameters of sound are sound pressure and intensity.
 Noise level in decibel is measured with an instrument called sound level
meter. It consists of three internationally accepted weighting networks,
namely A, B and C.
 Noise may originate from natural sources as well as through anthropogenic
activities. The natural sources are cyclone, thunder, roaring of sea, volcanic
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 eruption, etc. The anthropogenic sources are heavy machineries used in the Environment Threats-II

industry, mechanized automobiles, trains, aero planes, washing machine,

television, etc.
 Occupational noise is mainly produced by industrial machines and processes
like blasting operations, shipbuilding, factories and mills producing different NOTES
kinds of products. Occupational noises are also due to machines used for
domestic purposes such as television, washing machines, vacuum cleaners,
etc.
 Loud sounds can cause an increased secretion of various hormones of the
pituitary gland, leading to increased blood sugar level, reducing immune
system capability, effecting liver, heart, brain and kidney.
 There are some recommended threshold limit values of impact or impulsive
noise levels. For time intervals, greater than one second is considered as
impulsive or impact noise and less than one second as continuous. Exposure
to more than 140 dBA peak sound pressure level is never permitted.
 The noise generated in the environment can never be eliminated completely,
however, it can be controlled.
 In the industrial establishment, control at source can be done by proper
design, proper operation and regular maintenance of the machines. The
industry should be located at open spaces far off from the residential areas.
 Sound insulators reduce sound transmission through barriers. Sound
insulating materials could be glass, steel, ceramic materials, concrete, etc.
 It should be mentioned that plants and trees have a greater capacity for
reduction of noise. Plants are efficient absorbers of noise, especially noise
of high frequency. Thus, plantations along highways, streets and industrial
areas should be done.
 Soil erosion means wearing away of soil. It is defined as the movement of
soil components, especially surface-litter and top soil from one place to
another. It results in the loss of fertility.
 Various anthropogenic activities like hydroelectric projects, large dams,
reservoirs, construction of roads and railway lines, construction of buildings
and mining are responsible for clearing of large forested areas.
 The open burning or fire generation due to organic decomposition may lead
fire to continue for a longer period and may cause high degree of water and
air pollution due to the release of leachable toxic materials into water, exerting
oxygen demand and other pathogen along with noxius gases, creating health
hazard problem.
 It is only through scientific, disciplined and effective solid waste management,
that the four problems can be minimized or abated to the maximum possible
extent. The present day management follows: (1) collection (2) storage (3)
transportation (4) recycling (5) treatment (6) disposal.
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Environment Threats-II  Generation of waste can be minimized and the generated waste can be
converted to wealth with the help of four R principle of waste management.
The four R principle stands for: (1) Refuse (2) Reuse (3) Recycle (4) Reduce.
 During the recycling process, the wastes are collected, materials are
NOTES processed and newer products are generated. Before recycling, the wastes
are segregated to separate out biodegradable wastes from non-
biodegradable waste. The biodegradable waste, such as household garbage,
leaves, flowers, fruits from gardens can be used in compost pit and used as
fertilizers.
 Disposal is the final step in solid waste management system.
 Disposing solid wastes in an ‘open dump’, i.e., in an uncovered, usually a
low lying area results in contamination of land and water, thereby spreading
bad odours and diseases. The problems associated with ‘open dump’ are
minimized to a large extent through ‘Landfill’.
 For effective landfilling, the wastes are hand sorted, pulverized or compacted
by high pressure and baling for volume reduction is done. The loose material
is placed in the lower part of the pit. It is then spread homogenously and
compacted by machines such as bulldozers, in a layer of thickness of about
0.5 m.
 The process of burning municipal solid waste in a properly designed furnace
under suitable temperature (850° to 1100°C) and operating conditions is
known as incineration.
 One effective way of disposing waste materials is composting. It is to be
noted that all types of waste materials like plastic, glass wastes, building
materials, etc., cannot be used for composting. The (MSW) thus, generated
must be hand sorted, the other methods subsequently used can be gravity
separation, electric and magnetic separation, as well as chemical or thermal
separation, when required.

10.6 KEY WORDS

 Noise pollution: It is the regular exposure to elevated sound levels that
may lead to adverse effects in humans or other living organisms.
 Oscillation: It is the regular variation in magnitude or position around a
central point.
 Soil erosion: It is the displacement of the upper layer of soil; it is a form of
soil degradation.
 Landfill: It is a place to dispose of refuse and other waste material by
burying it and covering it over with soil, especially as a method of filling in or
extending usable land.
 Composting: It is an aerobic method (meaning that it requires the presence
of air) of decomposing organic solid wastes.
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 Environment Threats-II
10.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions NOTES

1. What are the applications of sound waves?

2. State the effective strategies for abating noise levels.
3. List the conservation practices to prevent soil erosion and conserve the
soil.
4. What are the advantages of composting?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Classify the anthropogenic noise. Explain its types with examples.
2. Describe the effects of noise pollution.
3. Explain the solid waste management strategy.
4. Illustrate the landfill process of solid waste management system.

10.8 FURTHER READINGS

J. Donald Hughes. 2015. What is Environmental History?. London: Wiley.
Chakrabarti, Ranjan. 2020. Critical Themes in Environmental History of India.
New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Agnoletti, Mauro and Simone Neri Serneri. 2014. The Basic Environmental
History. New York: Springer International Publishing.
Isenberg, Andrew Christian. 2014. The Oxford Handbook of Environmental
History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rosencrazz, Armin. 2002. Environmental law & Policy in India. Noida: Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Appadurai, Susila. 2004. Environmental studies. New Delhi: New Century Book
House Pvt Ltd.
Porter, Goreth, Janet Welsh Brown. 2000. Global Environmental politics.
Colorado: Westview Press.

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Environmental
Threats-III
UNIT 11 ENVIRONMENTAL
THREATS-III
NOTES
Structure
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Deforestation
11.3 Hazardous Waste
11.4 Industrial Pollution
11.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
11.6 Summary
11.7 Key Words
11.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
11.9 Further Readings

11.0 INTRODUCTION

Over the last few decades, the condition of the environment has deteriorated at an
unprecedented rate. Some of the most pressing environmental issues today are
deforestation, generation of hazardous waste and industrial pollution. All of these
have an adverse effect on not just the environment but also on the health and lives
of humans and other living organisms. In order to tackle these issues, a sincere
effort towards their containment as well as a proper plan to manage these is required
on the part of the authorities concerned and also on the level of every individual. In
this unit, a discussion of the causes and management of the aforementioned
problems has been undertaken.

11.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Discuss the causes and consequences of deforestation
 Analyse the disposal and management of hazardous waste.
 Describe the causes and effects of industrial pollution

11.2 DEFORESTATION

Forest resource is the dense growth of trees, together with other plants, covering
a large area of land. Forests are one of the most natural resources found on earth.
Covering earth like a green blanket, these forests not only produce innumerable

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material goods, but also provide several environmental services which are essential Environmental
Threats-III
for life.
About one-third of the world’s land area is forested, which includes closed
as well as open forests. Former USSR accounts for about one-fifth of the world’s
NOTES
forests, Brazil for about one-seventh and Canada and USA each has 6–7 per
cent. However, it is a matter of concern that almost everywhere the cover of the
natural forests has declined over the years. The greatest loss occurred in tropical
Asia, where one-third of the forest resources have been destroyed.
Uses of Forests
Commercial uses: Forests provide us a large number of commercial goods which
include timber, firewood, pulpwood, food items, gum, resins, non-edible oils,
rubber, fibres, lac, bamboo canes, fodder, medicine, drugs and many more items,
the total of which is estimated to cost more than $300 billion per year.
Half of the timber that is cut each year is used as fuel for heating and cooking.
One-third of the wood harvest is used for building materials as lumber, plywood
and hardwood, particle board and chipboard. One sixth of the wood harvest is
converted into pulp and used for paper industry. Many forest lands are used for
mining, agriculture, grazing, and recreation and for development of dams.
Ecological uses: While a typical tree produces commercial goods worth about
$590, it provides environmental services worth nearly $196 to $250.
The ecological services provided by forests may be summed up as follows:
1. Production of oxygen: Trees produce oxygen by photosynthesis which is
so vital for life on this earth. They are rightly called earth’s lungs.
2. Reducing global warming: The main greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide
(CO2), is absorbed by the forests as a raw material for photosynthesis.
Thus, forest canopy acts as a sink for CO2, thereby reducing the problem
of global warming caused by greenhouse gases such as CO2.
3. Wild life habitat: Forests are the homes of millions of wild animals and
plants. About 7 million species are found in the tropical forests alone.
4. Regulation of hydrological cycle: Forested watersheds act like giant
sponges, absorbing the rainfall, slowing down the run-off and slowly releasing
the water for recharging of the springs. About 50-80 per cent of the moisture
in the air above tropical forests comes from their transpiration, which helps
in bringing rains.
5. Soil conservation: Forests bind the soil particles tightly in their roots and
prevent soil erosion. They also act as windbreaks.
6. Pollution moderators: Forests can absorb many toxic gases and can
help in keeping the air pure and clean. They have also been reported to
absorb noise and thus, help in preventing air and noise pollution.
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Environmental Overexploitation of Forests
Threats-III
Since time immemorial, humans have depended heavily on forests for food,
medicine, shelter, wood and fuel. With growing civilizations, the demands for raw
NOTES materials like timber, pulp, minerals and fuel wood shooted up resulting in large-
scale logging, mining, road-building and clearing of forests. Our forests contribute
substantially to the national economy. The international timber trade alone is worth
over US $40 billion per year. Excessive use of fuel wood and charcoal, expansion
of urban, agricultural and industrial areas and overgrazing have together led to
overexploitation of our forests leading to their rapid degradation.
Deforestation
According to the World Bank, the total forest area of the world in 2000 was
estimated to be 40737562 Sq km, which was reduced to 40204180 in 2010.
Deforestation rate is relatively less in temperate countries, but it is very alarming in
tropical countries, where it is as high as 40-50 per cent; at the present rate, it is
estimated that in the next sixty years we would lose more than 90 per cent of our
tropical forests.
According to the India State of Forest Report (ISFR), 2015, the total forest
and tree cover is 79.42 million hectare, which is 24.16 per cent of the total
geographical area. India’s forest and tree cover has increased by 5, 081 sq km.
While the total forest cover of the country has increased by 3, 775 sq km, the tree
cover has gone up by 1, 306 sq km. The report states that the majority of the
increase in forest cover has been observed in open forest category mainly outside
forest areas, followed by Very Dense Forest. While Open Forest area has increased
by 4, 744 sq km, which is 9.14 per cent of the geographical area, the area under
Very Dense Forest has increased by 2, 404 sq kms, which is 2.61 per cent of the
geographical area. About 40 per cent forest cover is in 9 big patches of 10, 000
sq km and more. The increase in total forest cover also includes an increase in the
mangrove cover.
However, we are still far behind the target of achieving 33 per cent forest
area.
Major causes of deforestation
1. Shifting cultivation: There are an estimated 300 million people living as
shifting cultivators who practice slash and burn agriculture. In India, we
have this practice in the north-east and to some extent in Andhra Pradesh,
Bihar and MP, which contribute to nearly half of the forest clearing annually.
2. Fuel requirements: Increasing demands for fuel wood by the growing
population in India alone has shooted up to 300-500 million tonnes in 2001
as compared to just 65 million tonnes during independence, thereby
increasing the pressure on forests.

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 3. Raw materials for industrial use: Wood for making boxes, furniture, Environmental
Threats-III
railway-sleepers, plywood, match boxes, pulp for paper industry, etc., have
exerted tremendous pressure on forests. Plywood is in great demand for
packing tea, while fir tree wood is exploited greatly for packing apples.
NOTES
4. Development projects: Massive destruction of forests occurs for various
development projects like hydroelectric projects, big dams, road
construction and mining.
5. Growing food needs: In developing countries, this is the main reason for
deforestation. To meet the demands of a rapidly growing population,
agricultural lands and settlements are created permanently by clearing forests.
6. Overgrazing: The poor in the tropics mainly rely on wood as a source of
fuel leading to loss of tree cover and the cleared lands are turned into grazing
lands. Overgrazing by cattle leads to further degradation of these lands.
Major consequences of deforestation
Deforestation has far reaching consequences, which may be detailed as follows:
1. It threatens the existence of many wild life species due to destruction of
their natural habitat.
2. Biodiversity is lost and along with that genetic diversity is eroded.
3. Hydrological cycle gets affected, thereby influencing rainfall.
4. Problems of soil erosion and loss of soil fertility increase.
5. In hilly areas, it often leads to landslides.
6. The effects of global warming may aggravate due to loss of oxygen generation
and increase in the level of carbon dioxide in the air.
Major Activities in Forests
Timber extraction: Logging for valuable timber such as Teak and Mahogany not
only involves a few large trees per hectare, but about a dozen more trees since
they are strongly interlocked with each other by vines and construction of roads in
forest causes further damage to the forests.
Mining: Mining operations for extracting minerals and fossil fuels like coal often
involve vast forest areas. Mining from shallow deposits is done by surface mining,
while that from deep deposits is done by sub-surface mining. More than 80,000
ha of land in this country is presently under the stress of mining activities. Mining
and its associated activities require removal of vegetation along with the underlying
soil mantle and overlying rock masses. This results in defacing the topography and
destruction of the landscape in the area.
Large-scale deforestation has been reported in Mussoorie and Dehradun
valley due to indiscriminate mining of various minerals over a length of about forty
kilometres. The forested area has declined at an average rate of 33 per cent and
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Environmental the increase in non-forest area due to mining activities has resulted in relatively
Threats-III
unstable zones, leading to landslides.
Indiscriminate mining in forests of Goa since 1961 has destroyed more than
50,000 ha of forest land. Coal mining in Jharia, Raniganj and Singrauli areas have
NOTES
caused extensive deforestation in Jharkhand. Mining of magnesite and soap-stones
have destroyed 14 ha of forest in hill slopes of Khirakot, Kosi valley, Almora.
Mining of radioactive minerals in Kerala, Tamilnadu and Karnataka are posing
similar threats of deforestation. The rich forests of Western Ghats are also facing
the same threat due to mining projects for excavation of copper, chromite, bauxite
and magnetite.
Mining Engineering: Mining engineering is a field that involves many of the other
engineering disciplines as applied to extracting and processing minerals from a
naturally occurring environment.
The need for mineral extraction and production is an essential activity of
any technically proficient society. As minerals are produced from within a naturally
occurring environment, disturbance of the environment as a result of mineral
production is a given. Modern mining engineers must therefore be concerned not
only with the production and processing of mineral commodities, but also with the
mitigation of damage or changes to an environment as a result of that production
and processing.
The two primary types of mines are underground mines and open-pit mines.
Minerals that exist relatively deep underground (eg. some coal seams, gold and
some metalliferous ores) are generally recovered using underground mining methods.
Minerals like iron ore, shallow coal seams and bauxite are usually recovered from
the surface by open pit mining.
Dams and their Effects on Forests and People
Big dams and rivers valley projects have multi-purpose uses and Pandit Jawaharlal
Nehru used to refer to these dams and valley projects as ‘Temples of modern
India’. However, these dams are also responsible for the destruction of vast areas
of forests. India has more than 1550 large dams, the maximum being in the state of
Maharashtra (more than 600), followed by Gujarat (more than 250) and Madhya
Pradesh (130). The highest one is Tehri dam, on river Bhagirathi in Uttarakhand
and the largest in terms of capacity is Bhakra dam on river Satluj in Himachal
Pradesh.
Big dams have been in sharp focus of various environmental groups all over
the world, because of several ecological problems including deforestation and
socio-economic problems related to tribal or native people associated with them.
The Silent Valley Hydro-Electric Project was one of the first such projects
situated in the tropical rain forest area of Western Ghats, which attracted much
concern of the people.

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 The crusade against the ecological damage and deforestation caused due to Environmental
Threats-III
Tehri dam was led by Shri Sunderlal Bahaguna, the leader of Chipko Movement.
The cause of Sardar Sarovar Dam related issues taken up by the environmental
activitist Medha Patkar, joined by Arundhati Roy and Baba Amte.
NOTES
For building big dams, large-scale devastation of forests takes place which
breaks the natural ecological balance of the region. Floods, droughts and landslides
become more prevalent in such areas.
Forests are the repositories of invaluable gifts of nature in the form of
biodiversity and by destroying them (particularly, the tropical rain forests), we are
going to lose these species even before knowing them. These species could have
marvelous economic or medicinal value and deforestation results in loss of this
storehouse of species which have evolved over millions of years.

Check Your Progress

1. What has led to rapid degradation of forests?
2. List two consequences of deforestation.
3. How are minerals that exist relatively deep underground recovered?

11.3 HAZARDOUS WASTE

Hazardous waste is commonly produced in industries and hospitals. Hazardous

waste of industries contains chemicals and toxic substances that can be very harmful
to humans and surroundings which are exposed to them. Hazardous waste of
hospitals contains pathogens, chemicals and substances which could be harmful to
humans and the environment if not disposed of properly. Pathogens in the waste
pose the grave risk of spreading diseases and illnesses.
The equipment and storage space, used to handle both the industrial and
hospital waste, can also carry toxins. Even small traces of waste, left on the equipment
or in storages, can cause dangerous side-effects to a large number of people.
Hazardous waste has been carefully classified into eighteen categories. Identification
of the source and category of hazardous waste helps trace the cause of its generation
and how it can be reduced at the source itself. It also helps in deciding an appropriate
method or treatment for its disposal.

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Environmental Category and source identification
Threats-III

Table 11.1 Hazardous waste classification

NOTES

Source: envis.kuenvbiotech.org/Hazardous-waste-managements.doc

As we can see in Table 11.1, there are eighteen categories into which
hazardous waste has been classified. This categorization helps in deciding the
nature of the waste and how it should be treated.
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 Knowing about the components that are hazardous in a waste is only one Environmental
Threats-III
aspect of hazardous waste management. Identification of hazardous waste source
is also very crucial to its proper management. Understanding how the hazardous
waste has been produced allows one to estimate the damage it can cause and
choose the best mode for its treatment. Also, tracing back the source of hazardous NOTES
waste helps organize the required collection and transportation facilities.
Characterization
Hazardous waste has four main characteristics which are responsible for causing
ill-effects to humans or surroundings. Any waste which has one or more of these
characteristics is categorized as hazardous waste. These characteristics are as
follows:
 Flammability: This decides how easily hazardous waste can catch fire and
how difficult it could be to put the fire out. Waste flammability helps estimate
the kind of damage the waste can cause and know about the substances
which can be used to treat it. This also gives the idea to keep it well stored
and devise safety techniques to overcome any potential danger.
 Reactivity: This means the waste might chemically react with skin, air or
even water to cause devastating results. Or, it could even mean that the
waste can trigger nuclear reactions that release high amounts of energy which
cannot be curbed without proper equipment.
 Corrosiveness: This indicates the waste’s ability to damage or destroy
anything it comes in contact with. The damage done is almost always
irreversible.
 Toxicity: This is the degree to which the waste can cause damage to non-
living and living things. Toxicity of a substance decides the way cells, tissues,
organs or other substances would deteriorate. It has the ability to rearrange
the substructure of organisms.
Quantification
Quantification of hazardous waste is the estimation of waste production in an area.
It helps researchers assess the amount of waste generation from a particular product
or process. Accordingly, benchmarks are set to bring down the waste quantity
and new methods are devised to reduce waste generation. Quantification also
helps assess the efficiency of the hazardous waste management techniques being
used.
Hazardous Waste Handling and Disposal
A number of precautions need to be considered while handling and disposing of
hazardous waste. One must ensure that the people authorized to handle the waste
are fully qualified for the job and are well-versed with all the required safety
procedures. The waste-handlers must also know about the waste source and
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Environmental inform transporters in the vicinity about the same to ensure that the hazardous
Threats-III
waste does not reach those dumping sites where it cannot be managed. They
should also regularly check the containers used for waste storage. The containers
should be guarded against the corrosive or highly reactive wastes which can damage
NOTES the containers and escape into the environment. Hazardous wastes also need to
be segregated during storage to ensure minimum chances of reaction with the
containers or other things and also for determining the appropriate waste treatment
methods.
Transport
Hazardous waste needs to be transported from its production site to the site where
it is treated and disposed of. Some production sites can partially treat the waste
before its transportation to reduce the risks associated with its exposure. However,
it cannot be treated completely unless the site of its generation is equipped with
appropriate treatment technology. Small waste treatment includes changing the
pH level to reduce its acidity or performing small-scale chemical reactions to prevent
occurrence of dangerous reactions later on. The biggest risk during waste
transportation is any kind of waste spill or leak on the way which could endanger
a number of lives. Therefore, to reduce transportation risks or avoid long-distance
transportation, industries are mostly located at one particular site and the waste
disposal sites are also situated nearby.
Another thing that needs to be considered when transporting hazardous
waste is that it should not be mixed with non-hazardous waste. Even if the two do
not have reactionary properties, non-hazardous waste can become infectious or
acquire harmful traits. But the waste-handlers may not know of this change in the
properties of non-hazardous waste and would unsuspectingly subject themselves
to grave risks.
Storage
Hazardous waste storage is a time-bound process. After its generation, the waste
is stored at the source site for certain duration before its transportation to a disposal
site. Even after transportation, the waste may be stored at the disposal site itself
for some time before its treatment and final disposal. Waste storage must be carried
out with required precautions. The storage containers must be resistant to any
reaction with hazardous waste because reaction with the waste may cause waste
leakage, leading to devastating results for the humans and surroundings. Besides,
the waste containers after reacting with the waste may suffer permanent damage
and become useless.
People involved in handling the storage of the hazardous waste need to
take extra precautions to ensure that they do not come in direct contact with the
same. During both storage and transportation, the containers should be
appropriately coloured or labelled with a statutory warning. The labels on the

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containers are of vital importance. These labels must correctly identify the waste in Environmental
Threats-III
the containers and list its various properties such as corrosiveness, toxicity, reactive
and infectious nature. These labels enable the waste-handlers to do their work
without exposing themselves to unwanted risks.
NOTES
Disposal of Small and Large Quantities
Disposal of both small and large quantities of waste is done on the basis of the
hazardous waste mapping system. This system allows one to carry out the required
procedures for all types of wastes to ensure proper treatment and disposal. Monthly
output of hazardous waste amounting to 100 kilograms or more but less than
1,000 kilograms is termed as small-quantity waste. This waste can be stored on
the site of its generation for up to 180 days before transportation for disposal. The
waste storage on the site must not exceed 6,000 kilograms, and well-trained,
educated employees should be deployed for efficient handling the waste storage.
They should ensure that the waste does not produce the harmful effects on its
surroundings. They are also responsible for any emergencies arising out of waste
storage.
Monthly output of hazardous waste exceeding 1,000 kilograms is termed
as large-quantity waste. These wastes cannot be stored on site longer than 90
days and must be sent for disposal within this time. The industry staff needs to
regularly track the production, storage and transportation of waste in large quantities,
and also be ready to carefully tackle any emergencies. The industries producing
large quantities of waste need to submit the biennial hazardous waste report to the
government.
Disposal of Dioxin, PCB and Toxins
Wastes containing dioxins, PCB and toxins, on coming in contact with other kinds
of waste at the disposal site, can lead to harmful chemical reactions, corrosive
damages, etc. Therefore, these wastes must be disposed of in strict accordance
with the government-approved methods. These wastes can be disposed of in
landfills, or can be treated with chemicals. These can also be subjected to
incineration. However, all these methods need government approval before
implementation. Without this approval, a site cannot be used for dioxin, PCB and
toxins disposal. And, a site once designated for this purpose cannot be shared
with other kinds of waste. Other techniques, used for disposing of dioxin/toxin-
containing waste, include physical/chemical extraction techniques, biological
reduction methods, melting furnace, pyrolysis, etc.
Hazardous waste disposal sites need government approval because
hazardous waste cannot be disposed along with other wastes in general sites neither
can it be disposed of in areas near to human habitations. Thus government employees
must approve hazardous waste disposal sites before they become operative.

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Environmental Disposal of Infectious Hazardous Waste
Threats-III
The best method for disposing infectious hazardous waste is incineration or any
other thermal technique. Incineration is preferred the most because it effectively
NOTES reduces the mass and volume of the waste. Another notable advantage is that this
high-temperature process also kills any pathogens that can spread diseases and
infections. However this method cannot be used all the time. There are also other
methods for disposal of infectious hazardous waste but they are not always the
best alternative. One such method is sterilization by autoclaves, which is also called
autoclaving.
An autoclave is a device which rids hospital equipment of traces of
hazardous waste by subjecting them to high pressure saturated steam. Liquid and
semi-solid infectious waste can be disposed of in sewers which have been approved
for such disposal. The sewer endings are directly linked to the disposal sites where
the waste is collected for treatment. An essential precaution for handling infectious
hazardous waste is that its disposal must be carried out within a week. Otherwise,
the storage containers may become a breeding ground for pathogens which can
pose grave risks to the people around.
Hazardous Waste Management in India
The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Government of India issued a
notification on 28 July 1989, which informed that the Hazardous Waste
(Management & Handling) Rules (HWM Rules) will deal with wastes which are
not covered under the Water and Air Acts. These wastes include hazardous waste
(HW), mostly solids, semi-solid and other industrial wastes. The notification,
designed under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, was
introduced to facilitate the management of waste handling, treatment, transport
and disposal in an environmentally sound way by the authorities.
In 2000 and 2003, the notification was further amended. These amendments
were presented as Schedule I and Schedule II. Schedule I identified hazardous
wastes by means of waste streams and industrial processes, while Schedule II
identified the concentrations of specified components of the hazardous waste.
Further, Schedule VIII was formulated, which identified the categories of wastes
that were prevented from being exported or imported. The procedure for the
registration of the reprocessors/recyclers possessing environmentally feasible
facilities for processing waste categories like non-ferrous metal, used lead acid
batteries and used oil as contained in Schedule 4 and Schedule 5 respectively has
also been laid down.
Hazardous waste management in India has been divided into the following
seven steps to ensure adherence to all essential precautions and prerequisites of
the process without any hindrance. These steps lay down the basic procedure that
needs to be followed for safe disposal of hazardous waste.

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  Identification of hazardous waste: The first step is to identify hazardous Environmental
Threats-III
waste, that is, whether a particular waste is hazardous or not. Identifying a
waste as hazardous and locating its generation site brings it under close
scrutiny of government authorities. Then they coordinate collection and
transportation of the waste to the disposal sites nearest to its generation NOTES
area to reduce any risks and accidents which could occur if it is sent for
faraway disposal.
 Data collection: Questionnaires, field visits and surveys help estimate the
hazardous waste being produced at different sites in an industrial area.
Depending on the estimated amount of waste and the availability of storage
facilities, the decision is taken to prioritize waste collection from the sites.
 Waste categorization: The waste needs to be correctly categorized into
its respective category to decide suitable treatment for it. If the waste
categorization is wrong, it will not get disposed in the right manner and then
it can be harmful to the environment as well as the people in the area.
 Quantification of hazardous waste: Different kinds of hazardous waste
being generated in an industry or a region are quantified to estimate the
scale of the required waste treatment and have an idea of the potential
risks. Quantification helps in estimating the wastes being produced in every
process and how each process can be improvised to reduce waste
production.
 Identification of disposal sites: Government officials visit prospective
sites which can be used for waste disposal. The chosen site should be far
away from the high-density population areas and it should have enough
space to accommodate waste disposal equipment. It should also be equipped
with good transport facility to allow easy waste collection at the site.
 Conducting EIA: The environmental impact analysis (EIA) helps one
understand how the hazardous waste is going to be harmful to the
environment. It helps in deciding why it is important go for systematic
hazardous waste disposal. It also gives an idea of the adverse effects on the
waste-handlers and how those can be prevented.
 Implementing TSDF programme: The TSDF (Transport Storage and/or
Disposal Facility) Programme decides how the hazardous waste would be
treated. It lists techniques which would be used for certain categories of
hazardous waste and why these techniques would be appropriate for these
wastes. This programme also decides on the labels, messages and pictures
which need to be used to classify hazardous waste for all those dealing with it.
Present hazardous waste generation scenario
India generates about 4.4 million tonnes of hazardous waste on an annual basis.
As per the estimates by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD), around five million tonnes of hazardous waste are being
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Environmental produced in India on an annual basis. These estimates are based on the eighteen
Threats-III
categories of wastes that appeared in the HWM Rules published in 1989. Out of
this, 38.3 per cent is recyclable, 4.3 per cent is incinerable and the remaining 57.4
per cent is disposable in secured landfills. Twelve States of the country (Gujarat,
NOTES Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Uttar
Pradesh, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Rajasthan) account for
97 per cent of the total hazardous waste generation.
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are the top four
waste generating states. On the contrary, states like Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh and all the North Eastern States excepting Assam produce less than
20,000 MT annually. The approach to waste management should be necessarily
state-specific because of the wide variations in quantity and nature of waste
produced among the states and union territories (UTs). It is also required because
of the big variations in climatic as well as hydro-geological conditions in various
regions of India.
As a result of the amendments made in 2000 and subsequently in 2003, the
State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) and Pollution Control Committees (PCCs)
have undertaken the process of re-inventorizing hazardous waste generated. These
steps have brought to light the serious short-comings in the earlier inventorization.
The Basel convention on hazardous wastes
India is a signatory to the Basel Convention on transboundary movement of
hazardous wastes. The Basel Convention aims to control and reduce the
transboundary movements of hazardous and other wastes. The Convention has
the objectives of prevention and minimization of hazardous waste generation,
environmentally appropriate management of these wastes, and the promotion and
use of cleaner technologies.
As a member of the Convention, India is under obligation to regulate and
minimize the import of hazardous waste or other wastes for disposal or re-cycling.
The country is also obliged to prohibit the export of waste to the parties that have
prohibited the import of these wastes. As a member, India is also needed to minimize
the generation of hazardous waste in its territory taking into account the social,
technological and economic aspects. Moreover, hazardous waste produced in
the country has to be managed in an environment-friendly manner. As a party,
India can prevent the import of hazardous waste or other waste if it believes that
the concerned waste cannot be managed in an environmentally feasible way.

Check Your Progress

4. What does hazardous waste of hospitals contain?
5. What does small waste treatment include?
6. What is the best method for disposing infectious hazardous waste?
7. What are the objectives of the Basel Convention on hazardous wastes?
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 Environmental
11.4 INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION Threats-III

Any business effects the environment and causes air, water and noise pollution.
These are harmful for us in terms of affecting our ecological balance and prevent NOTES
sustainable development for the preservation of our resources. Industrial and
business activities cause a lot of damage to our environment, all of which is discussed
further in this unit.
Industrial Pollution
Industrial pollution refers to the pollution of our environment by industrial wastes,
which are harmful in the long-run. Industrial pollution is of various kinds:
a) Air pollution
b) Noise pollution
c) Water pollution
d) Thermal pollution
e) Marine pollution
f) Soil pollution
g) Nuclear pollution
Role of Competition and Consumerism
Due to rapid industrialization, the comparative gap between the rich and the poor
is widening. Those with jobs and those without have equally experienced the reality
of the rat race of daily life. They are willing to spend it for their comforts and those
who lack money are resorting to anti-social activities resulting in increase in crimes,
especially financial crimes like robberies, embezzlement and misappropriations. It
is the impact of the continuous increase in salaries and wages every year, that the
habits of spending have undergone a change. In such a society, those who have
jobs and a reasonable salary or wage, are now not worried about the money in
their pockets. Such people are willing to buy articles beyond their buying capacity.
There is an increasing tendency of resorting to avail loans from financial institutions,
banks. The saving habits of the previous generations are getting converted into
spending habits.
Issues in Environment Management for Business
What exactly are environmental issues and how do these specifically affect people?
For business, environmental issues include:
 deterioration of land quality,
 accumulation of waste,
 water pollution,
 air pollution, etc.
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Environmental There are ways to overcome these environmental issues and they are discussed as
Threats-III
follows:
 Global warming: Increased emission of carbon dioxide and other hot gases
into the environment is the perceived culprit in the climate change and
NOTES
consequent disasters. Climate change can not only result in such direct
disasters as hurricanes and long winters, but also affect agriculture and food
availability.
 Loss of biodiversity: It is biodiversity in the form of numerous organisms
that makes life on this earth sustainable. Organisms make the soil fit for
cultivation, destroy pests and maintain climate, among other things. Killing
these organisms by destroying forests and other such practices can make
life on the planet very different and difficult.
 Water and air pollution: Persistent organic pollutants and toxic materials,
such as pesticides and industrial wastes can accumulate in living tissues
disrupting endocrine systems, suppressing immunity functions and causing
reproductive and developmental changes. Also, the pollutants can travel
long distances crossing international borders through air, water and migratory
species.
 Land degradation: Unsustainable felling of trees and exploitation of water
can lead to desertification of presently habitable regions while destruction
of mangroves and other practices can lead to erosion of coastal areas.
 Chemical waste: In a chemical industry, the environmental issues are
chemical spills. A spill can injure employees or make them sick. It can lead
to fires and other property damage. It can become a source of bad press
and jeopardize your relationship with the community. A chemical spill can
easily find a waterway or groundwater, which can be disastrous for the
environment in the long run. In order to avoid such accidents, it is necessary
to be prepared for spills, and train the employees.
It is thus obvious that life on earth will be a very different proposal in the future if
current human practices continue unchecked. The situation will be aggravated
when the non-renewable energy sources, such as oil, get exhausted without any
sustainable energy sources replacing them.
Environment Protection Initiatives
Governments and leaders have begun to recognize how serious the situation is
and many initiatives are being taken. However, political compulsions and inadequate
resources and projects are hampering sufficiently forceful action.
The initiatives include the following:
 Creating awareness among the public is a major focus area. Results have
also begun to appear with public resistance against many practices that
lead to environment damage, such as cutting down trees and the preference
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244 Material
  Government regulations have made businesses take specific actions and Environmental
Threats-III
avoid others to protect the environment and public health. Trees cut from
forests need to be compensated by replanting, angling is restricted and
pollution control is a major focus area.
NOTES
 Research efforts are being intensified to tap renewable energy sources,
such as solar, wind power and biomass energy. Biomass energy involves
using waste materials like wood chips, straw, sewage sludge and bio-waste
to generate energy. Unlike bio-fuels, biomass does not compete for
resources that can be used for food.
 Reputed businesses are developing alternatives that use less energy. For
example, Siemens claims on their website that their combined-cycle power
plants use hot waste-gases (that were formerly released into the environment)
to generate steam for downstream turbines, reducing fuel needed to generate
power by as much as 60 per cent.
 There are several standards and reforms to keep a check on the businesses.
ISO 14001, published by International Standards Organization, is a standard
that seeks to focus the attention of industrial units on environmental issues.
Accounting reforms seek to account for environmental costs of business
operations, in addition to financial costs.
Businesses that act with environmental responsibility are even beginning to
see improvements in their bottom lines. Environmental management is more about
managing the interactions of human societies with the environment rather than
managing the environment.
Human activities have led to considerable degradation of the environment
and the situation is threatening to become dangerous to life on earth. Persistent
toxic substances that do not degrade for months to years are already leading to
poorer quality of life for people, while climate change is leading to many disasters.
There is a growing concern in developed nations about the ever-increasing
environmental degradation due to industrialization. Even though the level of
environmental pollution is much less in developing nations, it a cause for alarm
there, too. There is total agreement throughout the world that any further
environmental degradation should be effectively and completely checked. Heavy
pollution in some of the larger cities in the world, e.g., London, New York, Los
Angeles, Mumbai, Istambul, Ankara, etc., has already taken a serious turn and the
necessity to control ever growing pollution is obvious. There are main two
approaches for environmental management:
1. Management based on standards
2. Management based on best practicable means.
The first approach requires statutory provision for standards for each
pollutant for air, water, noise and soil pollution. In this approach, each polluter
could choose a suitable technique for pollution control, based on their evaluation
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Environmental for technical feasibility and economic viability. A regular monitoring of each relevant
Threats-III
pollutant and its comparison with prescribed limit will indicate the amount of pollution
to be removed by pollution control. However, should there be any deviation from
the prescribed limits, penal action could be taken against the polluter. There should
NOTES be standards indicating the permissible units for liquid effluents. It should be noted
that the permissible limits are higher for disposal on land because, due to percolation,
there will be significant reduction in their values before their joining the water
systems and, in case where effluent is discharged directly into river system, the
effect will be direct and naturally the permissible limits are lower.
Regarding air pollution, the standards for ambient air quality should also be
given indicates that the permissible limits are highest for industrial areas but lowest
in the case of sensitive areas including Agra-Mathura region, due to location of Taj
Mahal, and the entire hill area including Kumaon and Garhwal region of the state.
The standards for noise pollution should also be being finalized and follows.
The second approach is based on best practicable means. In this case, the
industry is free to adopt any suitable method which is technically feasible as well as
economically viable. Such a system is prevalent in the United Kingdom. It may
also be emphasized that the Environmental Protection Agency for the United States
shifted the time bound standards for a specific period of time when confronted
with the energy crisis.
The developing nations have also started organizing effective checks and
controls on environmental pollution. In some case, suitable standards for water
pollution have also been prescribed. However, detailed standards, for different
industrial environments as well as for waste disposal, noise, air pollution, radioactive
materials, etc., are yet to be developed. In each case, it is necessary to have a time
bound programme for implementation of effluent treatment plan to meet the
prescribed limits, and to consider the calculation of depth columns for dumping of
radioactive waste, which will not come into contact with permanent water levels
of the land. The site should be selected so that permeability and possibly of cap
rock including container are fairly low to enable any appreciable diffusion. In case
of tanneries, for example, the BOD of effluent varies from 7000 to 10,000 mg/l
depending upon whether they are dealing with vegetable or chrome tanning or a
combination of both the tanning operations. It is obviously difficult to immediately
reduce BOD to 30 mg/l, which is the permissible limit for BOD, when the effluents
are to be discharged into natural streams. Similarly, the situation in the case of
distilleries is still worse because the BOD of the effluent is about 50,000 mg/l. In
such cases, a suitable grace period is needed to enable the industry to develop
suitable treatments for effluent disposal with prescribed limit.
The following suggestions could be helpful in proper environmental
management: With regard to implementation, there are three possibilities.
(i) The first is to have statutory provisions and to declare that the level of
pollutants, discharged into open streams beyond the desired limit, will invite
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 criminal proceedings or other suitable actions by the state. Thus, it will be Environmental
Threats-III
mandatory to have as an integral part of each plant, a suitable device to
reduce the level of each pollutant below the desired limit.
(ii) The second possibility is to leave the matter entirely to the industry, with
NOTES
certain guidelines so that they may adopt the best practicable methods
available.
(iii) There is a third alternative which incorporates the advantages of both the
methods but in any case a time bound programme will be needed.
1. There is no doubt that the ‘best practicable means’ approach offers a
lot of freedom and has built-in flexibilities, which could be fully utilized
for the benefit of the industry, and in the case of environmental
management based on standards, it is essential for industry to follow
the standards to avoid penal action.
2. In developing countries, about 80% people live in villages and are
engaged in agriculture. The sanitary conditions prevalent in villages are
far from satisfactory. A large migration of rural people from rural to
urban areas due to ‘urban pull’ and ‘rural push’ is also responsible for
poor collection of solid wastes on a large number of them do not have
regular accommodation in the city. Sometimes, this collection does not
even exceed 30%. Obviously, this balance creates the problem of soil
pollution and, subsequently, water pollution due to run off, eventually
joining a natural stream, and air pollution due to favourable
meteorological conditions in tropical countries. Even climatic conditions
are favourable to biodegradation of waste materials left-outside in
tropical countries. It is, therefore, obvious that the situation in developing
countries is different from that prevalent in developed nations, especially
cold countries.
3. In the case of developing countries, there is increasing emphasis on
small scale/ cottage/village industries, especially to contain
unemployment. However, it is very difficult for small scale industries to
have effective effluent treatment plant to meet prescribed limits of state
pollution control board. They do not have expertise either for monitoring
or for abatement of effluent. Further, they have resource constraint which
also comes in their way in timely implementation of pollution control.
4. There is apparently some relationship between the size of the plant and
the profit likely to be earned, especially due to scale economy. This
also discourages the small-scale industry from going in for pollution
abatement.
5. Extensive instrumental facilities to measure concentration of each pollutant
are required, irrespective of the size of the industry, especially when the
materials involved are the same. The expenses involved also prevent
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Environmental the small-scale industry from going in for scientific monitoring of each
Threats-III
pollutant at regular interval.
6. Pollution abatement measures, except in the case of odour and noise,
may not increase productivity, which is considered a plus point in favour
NOTES
of pollution abatement. The awareness, about loss in hearing, due to
constant noise levels, has not yet been fully appreciated in developing
countries, as this process is slow and its harmful effect has not yet been
fully realized, it takes a fairly long time before hearing loss is appreciable.
7. The general standard of living is fairly low in developing countries. Hence,
the flexibility offered by the ‘best practicable means’ approach may not
be fully appreciated. On the other hand, it is likely to be misused. Even
today, in most of the developing countries, statutory provisions for the
monitoring of air, water, soil, noise and radioactive materials have not
been laid down. In some countries, there is a provision for monitoring
of important water streams at regular interval throughout a year.
Surprisingly, scientific water treatment plants are not available
everywhere, especially in third world countries. The absence of
sophisticated instruments, required for proper monitoring of some of
the pollutants, is another parameter responsible for delay in scientific
monitoring.
8. What happened at Swansea Valley (England), where due to
concentration of similar industries, especially with identical characteristics
of effluent led to water and soil pollution and, consequently, the industrial
activities came to a halt. This should be an eye opener to the scientific
community and planners and should be kept in view while formulating
policies for environmental management. Once pollution is left unchecked,
there will be several closures like Swansea Valley industries.
9. The flexibility of the ‘best practicable means’ approach may lead to
unnecessary litigation, causing delay and wastage of money in developing
countries, due to difficulty in agreeable quantification of technical
feasibility and economic viability, especially with relatively poor civic
responsibility.
10. In the last five years, the standards for hexavalent chromium, mercury,
lead, arsenic, cadmium, etc., have been reduced by several-fold.
Obviously, this has been done due to better scientific understanding
about their effects on human health. The studies conducted on a few
important and common fishes, e.g., Mirgala Singala (Sihii), Mysturs
Mystus (Tangri), Hetroponeust (Singhi), and Channagachua (Giri), have
revealed that the distribution of heavy metals in different parts is not
uniform.
11. As far as industrialization is concerned, there has not been geographical
uniformity due to several constraints. Hence, the degree of pollution,
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 which is directly linked to industrialization, is far from uniform. Thus, the Environmental
Threats-III
total pollution load on each natural stream, at places, is different,
suggesting different action in different situations. For example, in a region
where there are a few industries, there is no point in being rigid about
the concentration of different pollutants in the effluents being discharged NOTES
into natural streams or in air. But in the case of heavily industrialized
areas, the discharge of each industry should be carefully analysed
because the total load on the natural stream would consist of individual
loads. Hence, the idea of enforcing a uniform standard for different
pollutants discharged into the natural stream in different areas does not
appear to be scientifically and economically sound. Here, again it is
necessary to have different standards for different zones.
In fact, wherever assimilation capacity is still available, further
industrialization may be encouraged. But wherever the assimilation
capacity has been surpassed due to heavy pollution, further
industrialization, without-polluting industries, should be encouraged.
The state could be divided into three parts, Red, Grey and Green. Red
area may be considered as that area where pollution load is more than
assimilation capacity. Gray area may be considered for the part of the
state where pollution load is less than 50% of the assimilation capacity.
Green area may be considered that area where pollution load is within
25% of the assimilation capacity.
12. The ecosystem consists of the physical and biotic environment. The
biotic environment consists of the animal kingdom, plant kingdom and
human beings. The dynamic interaction among the three is very complex.
Similarly, the impact of the physical environment on biotic environment
is not yet well-understood. In the absence of any quantification of
interactions between the physical environment and the biotic environment
and different degree of pollution load, it is difficult to suggest realistic
standards for different pollutants which are acceptable to polluters as
well.
13. There is no proper justification for carrying out a detailed physico-
chemical and biological analysis at different points in natural water
streams. For example, in Uttar Pradesh, there is practically no point in
finding out the radioactivity as there is practically no source. Secondly,
there is no justification for carrying out a detailed chemical analysis as
there is no source for some of the heavy metals, e.g., hexavalent
chromium, lead, mercury, etc., at many places. The total biological
analysis, as suggested in the prescribed standards, may not lead to
meaningful information and may not effectively convey the position of a
body of water, i.e., river or lake, with regard to its pollutants.

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Environmental In view of the points enumerated earlier, the following conclusion are
Threats-III
obvious:
1. There should be statutory standards for air, water, noise,
radioactive materials, etc. But due to the difficulties mentioned
NOTES earlier, they should be implemented keeping in view the special
situation, i.e., circumstances associated with the industry and
natural streams involved. Total pollution load on the river, its
assimilation capacity and self-purification constant should be
invariably considered.
2. The standards should serve as guidelines and there should be
complete flexibility so that the pace of industrialization may be
maintained or accelerated as far as possible. The global and
regional requirements, and also economic conditions, may be
kept in view while making statutory provision for the standards
to be maintained by each industry. The practice of ‘best
practicable means’, as adopted in the United Kingdom, and
shifting of standards set by the Environmental Protection Agency
of the United States are outstanding examples.
3. Wherever suitable technical know-how is not available, a grace
period may be allowed and, in the meantime, suitable know-
how may be developed with assistance from the polluting industry
on the principle ‘polluter should pay’. Further, as mentioned
earlier, certain guidelines with regard to the desirable limits are
necessary to know the exact position.
4. As an incentive, tax concessions may be given to those industries
which maintain the standards, and a suitable penalty may be
imposed on those which well above the prescribed limit,
depending upon the degree of deviation from standards prevailing
in the industry.
Thus, a flexible approach to environmental management, based on standards,
should be adopted with, provision for detailed evaluation of technical feasibility
and economic viability, jointly by polluters as well as enforcement agencies, so
that both have faith in the evaluation, and the systems for effluent treatments, thus
finalized, are implemented with full confidence.
Impact of Industrial Pollution
Materials which are mainly generated through anthropogenic activities and are
discarded as useless or unwanted are called wastes. The waste may be solid,
liquid and gaseous wastes. On the basis of the source of generation, they are
classified as:
(1) domestic waste
(2) commercial wastes
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 (3) institutional waste Environmental
Threats-III
(4) agricultural waste
(5) biomedical waste and
(6) industrial waste NOTES
The waste generated from the industrial sectors are known as industrial wastes.
The industrial wastes are organic or inorganic in nature. Some of the wastes are:
(i) biodegradable or
(ii) non-biodegradable.
The wastes are also
(i) hazardous waste or
(ii) non-hazardous waste.
These wastes are generally discharged from the following:
(i) chemical industries
(ii) refineries
(iii) textile industries
(iv) drug industries
(v) fertilize plants
Bear in mind, a lot of there have been discussed in previous units.
All the wastes that are generated from industries have a greater effect on all living
organisms, and especially the victims are the organisms in the local environment.
Wastes Polluting Air
The major air pollutants are:
(i) carbon oxides (CO and CO2);
(ii) sulphur oxides (SO2, SO3);
(iii) nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2, N2O)
Particulate matter are root, smoke, very fine particles, such as lead, manganese,
asbestor, arsenic, copper, zinc, etc.). Proxy acyl nitrate (PAN), Ozone(O3), etc.
The industrial wastes polluting the air mainly come from the burning of fossil
fuels in industries. Textile Industries produce the following air pollutants:
(i) Cotton dust
(ii) Nitrogen oxides
(iii) Chlorine
(iv) Smoke
(v) Sulphur dioxide

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Environmental Fertilizer plants produce the following air pollutants:
Threats-III
(a) Oxides of sulphur
(b) Particulate matter
NOTES (c) Ammonia nitrogen oxides
(d) Hydro carbon
Steel plants produce the following air pollutants:
(a) Carbon monoxide
(b) Carbon dioxide
(c) Sulphur dioxide
(d) Fluorine
(e) Particulate matter
The following are the effects of the major air pollutants:
1. Carbon monoxide combines with blood haemoglobin and forms stable
carboxy haemoglobin, disturbing oxygen transportation and might cause
death.
2. Oxides of nitrogen causes respiratory irritation, impairment of lung defence,
bronchitis, loss of appetite, etc.
3. Sulphur dioxide causes suffocation, respiratory irritation, asthma and chronic
bronchitis.
4. Particulate matter causes respiratory diseases, neural disorder and depending
on the nature of element it might lead to cancer. If lead is present in the
particulate matter and inhaled it might lead to mental retardation in children.
5. Ground level O3 causes headache, suffocation and in external cases can be
fatal.
6. Proxy acyl nitrate (PAN). PAN are produced nearer to the industry
producing NO2, volatile organic compound; through some mechanism this
might be formed and effects local people severely by causing eye irritation,
sore throat, respiratory irritation, headache, etc.
7. When lot of sulphur oxide particulate matter is formed then sulphurous smog
might be formed which might lead to chronic bronchitis and acute respiratory
problems.
Wastes Polluting Water
The major source of water pollution is industrial discharges especially from
manufacturing plants. These industries discharge organics, such as toxic metals,
pesticides, nitrate salts, etc. Ground water pollution can occur when industrial
waste is discharged into pits, ponds or lagoons, thereby enabling wastes to percolate
down to the water table. The oxygen demanding wastes are introduced from
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252 Material
Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, etc., from the electroplating industry. The ground water pollution Environmental
Threats-III
stems from disposal of wastes on or into the ground. The wastes, mainly in the
rainy season, percolates into the ground and contaminate it. The typical pollutant
sources are:
NOTES
(i) industrial waste water impoundments,
(ii) sanitary land files,
(iii) storage piles which are improperly constructed.
The pollutants in water are limitless.
Some of them can be
(a) biochemical oxygen demanding wastes
(b) antimony
(c) cadmium
(d) chromium
(e) lead
(f) cobalt
(g) mercury
Generally, many industries, such as steel, paper industries are situated on the banks
of rivers, as they require huge amounts of water in their operations. Such industries
dump their wastes which contains acids, alkalis, dyes into the rivers. Many of
these materials are poisonous for living organisms and causes serious water pollution
problems.
Some of the effects of various pollutants are as follows:
1. Oxygen demanding wastes — With the increase of oxygen demanding
wastes, the dissolved oxygen in water drops; threatening aquatic life. It
loses its recreational quality and helps in the growth of pathogens making it
completely unusable.
2. Nutrients — The industry, especially fertilizer industry, discharges a lot of
nitrogen oxides which goes to water bodies through acid rain, and if larger
concentration accumulates and local people use this water, their children
might be effected with blue baby syndrome.
3. Thermal pollution — Steel industry, nuclear reactors, electric power plants
use huge amount of water for cooling processes. The water discharged is
very hot and causes thermal pollution. The high temperature depletes oxygen,
fish and aquatic organisms get effected. The local people who depend on
these water resources become affected. Again the cooling water produces
waste water with salts.
4. Heavy metals, Cd, Hg, Pb, As, etc. — Heavy metals have great effect
on human health as they may lead to kindly damage, disorder of liver, brain,
genetic modification, skin cancer, causes cirrhosis.
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Environmental Wastes Polluting Land
Threats-III
Industrial wastes polluting land are generally wastes from the respective industrial
establishments, such as:
NOTES (a) office and cafeteria wastes
(b) packing wastes
(c) tannery wastes
(d) dying wastes
(e) food processing wastes
(f) plastic wastes
(g) metal scraps
(h) pesticides
These wastes represent a health hazard due to their content in toxic substances,
such as:
(i) heavy metals,
(ii) lead and cadmium,
(iii) pesticides,
(iv) solvents and used oil
The pollutants discharged into the soil can alter the chemical and biological properties
of the soil. The toxic elements, such as lead, mercury, cadmium, etc., pose a
detrimental threat, as they get into the food chain. The coal-based thermal power
plants generates fly ash which gets deposited in the soil and causes serious pollution
by changing the characteristics of the soil. The fly ash so formed carve the leaves
of plants. And when the fly ash is inhaled, it causes serious health problems. An
ideal example is the Kolaghat thermal power plant in Midnapore, where people
are under serious conditions. Discarded plastics affect water resources in the local
environment.
Wastes creating Noise Pollution
Noise is an unwanted sound energy and is considered as pollutant when it exceeds
some limits. Noise pollution has been growing steadily mainly due to industrialization.
Noise pollution has tremendous effect on the local environment. It disturbs and
distracts. If the local people is exposed to it for a sufficient time, it causes
physiological effects that may lead to deafness. Noise pollution may lead to
cardiovascular problems like heart diseases and with blood pressure.
Managing Industrial Pollution
Urban and industrial wastes consist of medical waste from the following sources:
(a) Hospitals
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 (b) Municipal solid waste from homes Environmental
Threats-III
(c) Offices
(d) Markets (Commercial waste)
(e) Small cottage units. NOTES
Urban industrial wastes consist of horticultural wastes from the following sources:
(a) Parks
(b) Gardens
(c) Orchards
The urban solid waste materials that can be degraded by micro-organisms are
called biodegradable wastes, for example:
(a) vegetable wastes
(b) stale food
(c) tea leaves
(d) egg shells
(e) peanut shells
(f) dry leaves
Wastes that cannot be degraded by micro-organisms are called non-biodegradable
wastes, for example:
(a) polyethylene bags
(b) scrap metal
(c) glass bottles
Industrial waste consists of a large number of materials, including:
(a) factory rubbish
(b) packaging material
(c) organic waste and acids
There are large quantities of hazardous and toxic materials which are also produced
during industrial processing.
Effects of Solid Wastes
Municipal solid waste heap up on the roads due to improper disposal system.
People clean their own houses and litter their immediate surroundings, which affect
the community, including themselves. This type of dumping allows biodegradable
materials to decompose under uncontrolled and unhygienic conditions. This
produces foul smell and breeds various types of insects and infectious organisms,
besides spoiling the aesthetics of the site.
Industrial solid wastes are sources of toxic metals and hazardous wastes,
which may spread on land and can cause changes in the physiochemical and the
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Environmental biological characteristics, thereby affecting the productivity of soils. Toxic
Threats-III
substances may leach or percolate and contaminate groundwater.

Check Your Progress

NOTES
8. What does the flexibility of the ‘best practicable means’ approach lead
to?
9. What does the biotic environment consist of?
10. Which industries may be given tax concessions?
11. List two effects of major air pollutants.

11.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Excessive use of fuel wood and charcoal, expansion of urban, agricultural

and industrial areas and overgrazing have together led to overexploitation
of our forests leading to their rapid degradation.
2. Deforestation has far reaching consequences, which may be detailed as
follows:
 It threatens the existence of many wild life species due to destruction of
their natural habitat.
 Biodiversity is lost and along with that genetic diversity is eroded.
3. Minerals that exist relatively deep underground (eg. some coal seams, gold
and some metalliferous ores) are generally recovered using underground
mining methods.
4. Hazardous waste of hospitals contains pathogens, chemicals and substances
which could be harmful to humans and the environment if not disposed of
properly.
5. Small waste treatment includes changing the pH level to reduce its acidity
or performing small-scale chemical reactions to prevent occurrence of
dangerous reactions later on.
6. The best method for disposing infectious hazardous waste is incineration or
any other thermal technique.
7. The Convention has the objectives of prevention and minimization of
hazardous waste generation, environmentally appropriate management of
these wastes, and the promotion and use of cleaner technologies.
8. The flexibility of the ‘best practicable means’ approach may lead to
unnecessary litigation, causing delay and wastage of money in developing
countries, due to difficulty in agreeable quantification of technical feasibility
and economic viability, especially with relatively poor civic responsibility.
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 9. The biotic environment consists of the animal kingdom, plant kingdom and Environmental
Threats-III
human beings.
10. As an incentive, tax concessions may be given to those industries which
maintain the standards, and a suitable penalty may be imposed on those
NOTES
which well above the prescribed limit, depending upon the degree of deviation
from standards prevailing in the industry.
11. The following are the effects of the major air pollutants:
 Carbon monoxide combines with blood haemoglobin and forms stable
carboxy haemoglobin, disturbing oxygen transportation and might cause
death.
 Oxides of nitrogen causes respiratory irritation, impairment of lung
defence, bronchitis, loss of appetite, etc.

11.6 SUMMARY

 Forests provide us a large number of commercial goods which include timber,

firewood, pulpwood, food items, gum, resins, non-edible oils, rubber, fibres,
lac, bamboo canes, fodder, medicine, drugs and many more items.
 Forested watersheds act like giant sponges, absorbing the rainfall, slowing
down the run-off and slowly releasing the water for recharging of the springs.
 The community-based forest management systems in Orissa and elsewhere
in India vary, depending on the condition and diversity of the local resources.
In Puri district, where the Binjgiri forest is located, the great scarcity of
natural resources led to the creation of BOJBP.
 Environmental awareness increased dramatically in the 1990s in India and
so did the number of organized lobbies to champion the cause of a cleaner
environment. As a result, New Delhi introduced legislation aimed at curbing
pollution, but the enforcement mechanism has been [lacking].
 Commercial timber operations received a boost when laboratory trials at
the Forest Research Institute showed that the utilization of chir waste (the
material after the conversion of logs to railway sleepers) for making paper
was a viable proposition, and when further research at the FRI established
that ash and hornbeam could be used for the manufacture of sports goods.
 The need for mineral extraction and production is an essential activity of
any technically proficient society. As minerals are produced from within a
naturally occurring environment, disturbance of the environment as a result
of mineral production is a given.
 The crusade against the ecological damage and deforestation caused due
to Tehri dam was led by Shri Sunderlal Bahaguna, the leader of Chipko
Movement. The cause of Sardar Sarovar Dam related issues taken up by
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Environmental the environmental activitist Medha Patkar, joined by Arundhati Roy and
Threats-III
Baba Amte.
 Knowing about the components that are hazardous in a waste is only one
aspect of hazardous waste management. Identification of hazardous waste
NOTES
source is also very crucial to its proper management.
 Hazardous waste storage is a time-bound process. After its generation, the
waste is stored at the source site for certain duration before its transportation
to a disposal site.
 The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Government of India
issued a notification on 28 July 1989, which informed that the Hazardous
Waste (Management & Handling) Rules (HWM Rules) will deal with wastes
which are not covered under the Water and Air Acts.
 As a result of the amendments made in 2000 and subsequently in 2003, the
State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) and Pollution Control Committees
(PCCs) have undertaken the process of re-inventorizing hazardous waste
generated.
 Persistent organic pollutants and toxic materials, such as pesticides and
industrial wastes can accumulate in living tissues disrupting endocrine
systems, suppressing immunity functions and causing reproductive and
developmental changes.
 In developing countries, P3 syndrome (population, poverty and pollution)
is the key factor for rapid environmental degradation, whereas in developed
countries it is the high rate of per capita resource used which leads to such
a degradation.
 In the case of developing countries, there is increasing emphasis on small
scale/ cottage/village industries, especially to contain unemployment.
However, it is very difficult for small scale industries to have effective effluent
treatment plant to meet prescribed limits of state pollution control board.
 Even today, in most of the developing countries, statutory provisions for the
monitoring of air, water, soil, noise and radioactive materials have not been
laid down. In some countries, there is a provision for monitoring of important
water streams at regular interval throughout a year.
 The ecosystem consists of the physical and biotic environment. The biotic
environment consists of the animal kingdom, plant kingdom and human
beings. The dynamic interaction among the three is very complex.
 Particulate matter causes respiratory diseases, neural disorder and depending
on the nature of element it might lead to cancer. If lead is present in the
particulate matter and inhaled it might lead to mental retardation in children.
 The major sources of water pollution is industrial discharges especially from
manufacturing plants. These industries discharge organics, such as toxic
metals, pesticides, nitrate salts, etc. Ground water pollution can occur when
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258 Material
 industrial waste is discharged into pits, ponds or lagoons, thereby enabling Environmental
Threats-III
wastes to percolate down to the water table.
 Steel industry, nuclear reactors, electric power plants use huge amount of
water for cooling processes. The water discharged is very hot and causes
NOTES
thermal pollution.
 The pollutants discharged into the soil can alter the chemical and biological
properties of the soil. The toxic elements, such as lead, mercury, cadmium,
etc., pose a detrimental threat, as they get into the food chain.

11.7 KEY WORDS

 Deforestation: It refers to the clearing of forest lands for other uses.
 Hazardous waste: Hazardous waste of industries contains chemicals and
toxic substances that can be very harmful to humans and surroundings which
are exposed to them.
 Industrial Pollution: Industrial pollution refers to the pollution of our
environment by industrial wastes, which are harmful in the long-run.
 Biodegradation: It is the naturally-occurring breakdown of materials by
microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi or other biological activity.
Composting is a human-driven process in which biodegradation occurs under
a specific set of circumstances.

11.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. List any two major causes of deforestation.
2. What are the things to be considered while transporting hazardous waste?
3. Why should storage containers be resistant to any reaction with hazardous
waste?
4. List the main causes of environmental degradation by mankind.
5. How does total environmental degradation and pollution as proposed by
eminent physicist John Holdern and biologist Paul Ehrlich arise?
6. List any two effects of water pollutants.
Long-Answer Questions
1. Discuss the ecological services provided by forests.
2. Analyse the characteristics of hazardous waste.
3. Describe the basic procedure that needs to be followed for safe disposal of
hazardous waste. Self-Instructional
Material 259
Environmental
Threats-III 11.9 FURTHER READINGS

J. Donald Hughes. 2015. What is Environmental History?. London: Wiley.

NOTES Chakrabarti, Ranjan. 2020. Critical Themes in Environmental History of India.
New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Agnoletti, Mauro and Simone Neri Serneri. 2014. The Basic Environmental
History. New York: Springer International Publishing.
Isenberg, Andrew Christian. 2014. The Oxford Handbook of Environmental
History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rosencrazz, Armin. 2002. Environmental law & Policy in India. Noida: Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Appadurai, Susila. 2004. Environmental studies. New Delhi: New Century Book
House Pvt Ltd.
Porter, Goreth, Janet Welsh Brown. 2000. Global Environmental politics.
Colorado: Westview Press.

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 Major Environment
Movements in India-I
BLOCK IV
PROTECTION OF ENVIRONMENT MOVEMENT
NOTES

UNIT 12 MAJOR ENVIRONMENT

MOVEMENTS IN INDIA-I
Structure
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Introduction to Environment Movements
12.3 Chipko Movement
12.4 Silent Valley Movement
12.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
12.6 Summary
12.7 Key Words
12.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
12.9 Further Readings

12.0 INTRODUCTION

The United Nations Conference on Human Environment, Stockholm, 1972 paved

the way for a number of studies and reports on the condition of the environment
and its effect on the present and future generations. It expressed concern to protect
and improve the environment for present and future generations. The development
of ‘green politics’ or ‘eco-greens’ or the ‘green movement’ in Germany and North
America in the early 1980s boosted the formation of the ‘green network’ and the
‘green movement’ throughout the world, including India.
A number of action groups, research institutes, documentation centres have
been established to study and mobilize public opinion on environmental issues. By
now, the material on the environmental situation in general and in certain sectors
such as air, land, forest, water, marine resources, etc., have proliferated in different
forms from popular literature to ‘scientific’ studies. The reports on India’s
environment published by the Centre for Science and Environment provide valuable
material not only on various aspects of the environment but also people’s resistance
and struggles. The media also frequently reports on struggles of the people at the
local level on the issues of land, water, marine resources, forest products, etc.
However, systematic analytical research-based monographs on environmental
movements are few and far between. In this unit, you will learn about the major
environment movements in India including the Chipko movement and the Silent
Valley movement.
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Major Environment
Movements in India-I 12.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

NOTES  Explain the concept of environment movements
 Discuss the origin and achievements of Chipko movement
 Describe the reasons behind the Silent valley movement

12.2 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENT

MOVEMENTS

More often than not, the struggles of the people on the issues of their livelihood
and access to forest and other natural resources are coined as ‘environmental
movements’. Historical studies on peasant movements mainly focus on the agrarian
relationship between different classes of landowners. Studies on the struggles over
forest resources are treated as tribal movements. Guha and Gadgil rightly observe,
‘The agrarian history of British India has focused almost exclusively on social
relations around land and conflicts over distribution of its produce, to the neglect
of the ecological context of agriculture for example, fishing, forests, grazing land
and irrigation and of state intervention in these spheres’.
Among the few important studies focusing on one’s of the important themes
of the movements are those on the Chipko movement by Ramachandra Guha and
Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) by Amita Baviskar. Both the authors, however,
do not want their studies to be treated as mainly on environmental movements.
Guha calls his study on peasant resistance focusing on the ecological dimension. It
is a study on the ecological history of the region linking ‘environmental changes
with changing and competing human perceptions of the “uses” of nature’. The
study is focused on the structures of dominance and the idioms of social protest.
He analyses ecological changes and peasant resistance in the Himalayas in the
wider comparative framework. Baviskar studied the tribals of Madhya Pradesh,
focusing on their relationship with nature and their conflicts over state-sponsored
‘development’. She interrogated the theoretical positions of the environmental
movements which assert that the ‘development’ paradigm of the dominant elite,
followed by the Indian state, is environmentally destructive. These movements
claim that their critique ‘is writ large in the actions of those marginalized by
development-indigenous people who have, in the past, lived in harmony with nature,
combining reverence for nature with sustainable management of resources. Because
of their cultural ties with nature, indigenous people are exemplary stewards of the
land’. She analysed the socio-cultural life of the tribals and their resistance to
‘development’. She also probed into the question: Given the problematic nature
of tribal resource use, how accurately are the lives of tribal people represented by
intellectuals in the environmental movement who speak on their behalf?
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 Guha and Gadgil provide a very valuable overview delineating conflict over Major Environment
Movements in India-I
forest produce, forest land and pasture land in different parts of colonial India.
They discuss the resistance of hunt-gatherers and shifting or jhum cultivators to
the state intervention in settled cultivation. Forest dwellers launched satyagrahas
during the 1930s against the forest departments on the issue of encroachment of NOTES
land. Similar confrontations increased during the post-independence period. Shiva
and Bandopadhyaya inform us that about three centuries back the Vishnois of
Khejri village in Rajasthan sacrificed more than 200 lives in a passive resistance to
the felling of green trees by the royal forces from Jodhpur. There were similar
instances in which farmers and forest-dwelling communities resisted the destruction
of forest resources. These evidences show a wide range of conflict between the
authorities, particularly the forest department and the communities residing in the
forests. Shiva and Bandopadhyaya argue that ‘these conflicts may not always
take the form of people’s ecology movements that hold the possibility of resolving
these conflicts in just manner. They may also get distorted to take the form of other
social conflicts like communal politics, which may not hold the possibility of resolution
of the material conflicts’.
Forest struggles may be divided into two; those that were a reprise to direct
commercial exploitation and those that were a response to commercial exploitation
legitimized as ‘scientific forestry’. The dominant strata use scientific forestry as a
political weapon to legitimize overexploitation of resources for profit. There is
conflict between the profitability and survival imperatives. The latter is being
challenged by the action groups supporting the poor by reinterpreting science for
public interest.
Baviskar analyses the development policy and performance of the Indian
state. She finds that poor people’s ability to control and gainfully use natural
resources has declined in the last five decades of the development policies. She
argues that the model of development, established since independence, has
fundamentally altered the way in which different social groups use and have access
to natural resources. The changes wrought by the independent state have created
conflicts over competing claims to the environment. These conflicts range from the
incessant battle between the forest department and local communities, to the war,
raging between mechanized trawls and traditional fishing boats in India’s coastal
waters, to the controversy over the Dunkel Draft and rights to genetic resources.
These claims are not merely for a greater share of the goods, but involve different
ways of valuing and using nature for profit or survival, or some combination of the
two. Theyalso involve different world views one driven by the desire to dominate
and exploit nature and humanity, the other moved by empathy, and respect,
sometimes reverence, for the two.
Broadly speaking, the theme of the man-nature relationship is central to
environmental movements. Guha and Gadgil define the environmental movement
‘as organized social activity consciously directed towards promoting sustainable
use of natural resources, halting environmental degradation or bringing about
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Major Environment environmental restoration.’ In the West, environmental movements focus on
Movements in India-I
consumption, productive use of natural resources and conservation or protection
of natural resources. In India, the movements are based on use and alternative use
of, as well as control over natural resources. Jayanta Bandopadhyaya and Vandana
NOTES Shiva observe that ecology movements in independent India have increased against
‘predatory exploitation of natural resources to feed the process development’
which is dominated by market forces. Such a process has threatened the survival
of the poor and powerless. They argue that ‘the ecology movements in India are
the expression of protests against the destruction of the two vital economics of
natural processes and survival from the anarchy of development based on market
economy. These movements have unfolded the contradictions between India and
its three economies: those revolving around the market, the household, and nature’.
Harsh Sethi classifies the struggles into three categories broadly und their
ideological approach to the issue of environment. One, the struggles which operate
in the domain of political economy, raises the issue of rights and distribution of
resources. Second, the movements confined to a response to environmental
problems and seeking solutions within existing socio-economic frameworks and
technological innovations. They seek legal and policy-based shifts in the pattern of
resource use. Third, some environmental movements reject the dominant
development paradigm and ‘seek to alter the very classification of both man and
nature relationship’.
Guha and Gadgil classify movements on the basis of the participants.
According to them there are three categories of members: ‘omnivores, ecosystem
people and ecological refugees’. In this multiplicity of movements, one may discern
seven major strands. Two of these are exclusively focused on nature conservation,
one on aesthetic/recreational/scientific grounds and the others on the basis of cultural
or religious traditions.
A third strand confines itself to the technological perspective focusing on
the efficiency of resource use. According to them the question of equity is the
dominant concern of the environmental movements in present day India. They are
concerned with ‘environmentalism’ related to the poor. In terms of their ideology
there are four strands within these movements. They are: ‘crusading Gandhians,
ecological Marxists, appropriate technologists, scientific conservation and
wilderness enthusiasts’. According to the crusading Gandhians, eastern society,
unlike the west, is primarily non-materialist. They are against industrial growth
brought by the colonial rule. They frequently cite Hindu scriptures as exemplifying
a ‘traditional’ reverence for nature and life forms.
Harsh Sethi divides the environmental struggles into five categories:
1. Rest-based: Forest policy, use of forest resources, etc.
2. Land use: Industrialization and loss of agriculture land, indiscriminate
popularization chemical inputs resulting in degradation of land and water
logging, exploitation of mineral resources;
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 (i) Against big dams involving the problem of involuntary displacement Major Environment
Movements in India-I
of tribals and non-tribals, residing in the upstream of the river,
environmental degradation, including destruction of forests;
(ii) Against pollution created by industries and NOTES
(iii) Against overexploitation of marine resources.
Environmental movements raise a variety of issues both in rural and urban
areas related to forest, agriculture, industrial pollution, nuclear tests, tourism, etc.
There are a number of non-government organizations (NGOs) who protest against
environmental degradation and hazards. Besides pressurizing the political authorities
and dominant groups such as industrialists, planners, etc., they also campaign for
creating awareness among people on the issues of environment. Organizations
like the Kerala People’s Science Movement (KPSM) try to demystify the science
created by a dominant group of scientists. It advocates sustainable development.
The KPSM organizes padyatras to develop consciousness for a people-oriented
environment. Several other groups also follow the same strategy. They disseminate
literature related to pollution, land degradation, loss of natural resources, etc.
Occasionally some groups resort to public interest litigation in the courts to stop
certain government and private projects which adversely affect not only the health
and other aspects of the people but also the livelihood of the marginalized groups.
In struggles around the issues of forest resources and their use, the main
participants have been the tribals and other peasant communities depending on
forest resources for their survival. They resist state intervention which impinges on
their rights and control over resources. The forms of resistance and occasional
confrontations vary from outmigration to evasion of responsibilities, robberies to
murders. According to Guha, in the traditional system it is considered that it was
the responsibility of the rulers to protect the customary rights and interests of his
subjects. When the ruler fails to do so or impinges on the rights of the people, the
resistance and revolt are ‘traditionally sanctioned by custom’. In Tehri Garhwal,
the mechanism of social protest ‘drew heavily on the indigenous tradition of resistance
known as dhandak. Yet, for all its distinctiveness, the dhandak is a representative
of a type of rebellion that was widely prevalent in pre-industrial and pre-capitalist
monarchies’. When the traditional custom of resistance does not remain effective
with the changed reality, people resort to confrontation.
Popular Movements in India
As mentioned earlier, some of the popular movements in India are: Chipko
movement, silent valley movement Narmada Bachao Andolan, Koel Karo
movement and appiko movement.

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Check Your Progress
1. What are the two ways in which forest struggles may be divided?
NOTES 2. What do environmental movements focus on in the West and in India?

12.3 CHIPKO MOVEMENT

Since the time of the British raj, the Himalayan mountain region have been famous
the world over for its innate wealth, whether minerals or timber. In the 19th century,
new techniques in forestry, as well as the policy of the colonial government of
advocating forest related businesses disturbed the age-old symbiotic association
that existed between the natural environment and the rural peasant, both in Kumaon
and Garhwal. The few demonstrations that were held by the peasants of the region
were brutally suppressed. Some of the notable protests in the region in pre-
independence India included protests in 1906, followed by demonstrations in 1921.
The 1921 protests are significant since they were associated with the freedom
struggle that Gandhi was leading against the British. A series of protests also occurred
in the 1940s in the Tehri Garhwal region of the Himalayas.
After India gained independence from British colonial rule, the upper regions
of the Himalayans were largely left untouched. However, all of this changed after
the 1962 Indo-China war, a war in which India was soundly trounced by the
Chinese. Although the Garhwal region was not affected by the war, after India’s
defeat, the Indian army started taking steps to protect its borders with China in the
Garhwal region. The army set up bases and built roads on the upper reaches of
the Garhwal region, an area that in the past was largely disconnected from the rest
of India.
The building of roads in the region eventually led to mining, of limestone,
magnesium and potassium. Along with miners, came the timber merchants. Almost
immediately, the forests of the region began to deteriorate at a frightening rate,
which led to difficulties for those Garhwalis who were involved gathering fodder
and firewood. Rampant deforestation and mining also deteriorated the state of the
soil, soil erosion also occurred as water sources in the region dried up. In fact,
water shortages in the region became extensive. The communities of the region
gave up raising livestock, which led to increase in malnutrition. The crisis that the
communities were facing was accentuated by the fact that the colonial era Indian
Forest Act, 1927, restricted the admittance of the communities of the region to the
region, which resulted in farmlands becoming scarce in an area that had become
populated, yet remained desperately poor in spite of all the natural wealth. In the
1960s, the destruction of the local agrarian economy resulted in the migration of
many of the people of the regions to the plains.

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 Slowly a rising awareness about the ecological crisis in the region, which Major Environment
Movements in India-I
came from the immediate loss of livelihood of the people, resulted in the development
of political activism in the area. In 1964, the Dasholi Gram Swarajya Sangh (DGSS)
(‘Dasholi Society for Village Self-Rule’), was established by Gandhian social
worker, Chandi Prasad Bhatt in Gopeshwar. Bhatt was motivated by J.P. Narayan’s NOTES
Sarvodaya movement, and wanted to set up small industries employing the
resources of the forest. Their first project was an undersized workshop making
farm tools for local use.
The organization faced a lot of challenges while carrying out their work.
These included colonial era forest policies that were widespread, as well as the
contractor system, in which large areas of the forest were treated as commodities
and sold off to large contractors, who were generally from the plains. These large
contractors brought with them their labour, leaving only basic jobs like hauling
rocks to the hill people, and paying them very less. More and more people from
the plains started arriving in the region, which strained the already fragile
environmental balance. Due to all of these reasons, the Garhwal region soon became
the focal point of the increasing ecological consciousness of how deforestation
had reduced a lot of the woodland cover, which directly led to the devastating
1970 July floods on the Alakananda River. During the floods, a huge landslide
resulted in the river being blocked, and effected an area beginning from
Hanumanchatti, near Badrinath to 350 km downstream until Haridwar. Many
roads, and villages were wiped out in the floods.
After the Alakananda river floods, landslides became a common occurrence
in the area. There was also a rise in civil engineering projects. Almost immediately
after the floods, people of the region, especially women, began to organize
themselves in small groups in opposition to deforesting operations in the region
that were affecting their livelihoods. In October 1971, DGSS workers held a
protest in Gopeshwar to object to the policies of the Forest Department. More
demonstrations were organized until 1972, but they had little effect, thus a decision
was taken to take direct action.
The first such juncture came up when the Forest Department turned down
DGSS request for ten ash trees yearly for its farm tools workshop, and instead
awarded a contract of 300 trees to a sporting goods company so that they could
make tennis racquets. The decision was met with huge protests. When lumbermen
of the company came to cut down the trees, they were met with a mass of people
beating drums and shouting slogans. The lumbermen were forced to withdraw;
the contract was eventually cancelled and awarded to the DGSS as an alternative.
However, by this time, the issue had gone beyond yearly quotas of tree
felling, and encompassed the larger issue of businesses related to logging of trees
as well as the government’s forest policy, which the people of the region felt were
unfavourable to them. The DGSS decided to initiate a campaign of ‘chipko’ or
hugging trees, as a method of non-violent demonstration.
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NOTES

Fig. 12.1 Chipko Movement

The movement continued to have many clashes with the administration. A

few months after the contract for felling 300 trees awarded to a sporting goods
company was cancelled, the same company was given a contract to fell more
trees in another area. Once again, because of opposition of the local people,
beginning on 20 June 1973, contractors withdrew after a confrontation that lasted
a few days. Afterward, nearby villages set up a vigil group and watched over the
trees until December to ensure they were not felled. In December another
confrontation occurred, and once again the contractors were forced to withdraw.
The final point started a few months afterwards, when the government
declared an auction scheduled in January 1974, for 2,500 trees near Reni village,
overlooking the Alakananda River. The leader of the DGSS Bhatt called on the
villages in the Reni area to protest against this decision. The villagers in the region
responded by hugging trees to prevent them from being cut down. For next few
weeks, rallies and meetings were held in the Reni area against the government’s
decision.
On 26 March 1974, people from the nearby villages of nearby villages and
DGSS workers were in Chamoli were directed by the state government and
contractors to an imaginary compensation payment site, while loggers began arriving
in Reni village to fell trees. A local girl, on seeing them, hurried to inform Gaura
Devi, the head of the village Mahila Mangal Dal, at Reni village. Devi led twenty-
seven of the village women to the spot and confronted the loggers. When all
conversation failed, and instead the loggers began to shout and mistreat the women,
threatening them with guns, the women chose to hug the trees to stop them from
being felled. This went on till late hours. The women kept an all-night vigil protecting
their trees from the cutters until a few of loggers relented and left the village. The
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next day, when the men and leaders came back, the news of the struggle spread to Major Environment
Movements in India-I
the neighbouring Laata and others villages including Henwalghati, and additional
number of people joined in. In the last, only after a four-day confrontation, the
contractors left.
NOTES
Aftermath
After this incident, the then state Chief Minister, Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna, set
up a commission to look into the matter. The commission ruled in favour of the
villagers. This result became a defining moment in the history of environmental
movements in India, and indeed, around the world.
After the success, the movement spread to other areas of the region. Impulsive
confrontations between the local people and timber merchants took place at several
locations, with the women of the hill region showcasing their new-found power as
nonviolent activists. As the movement acquired shape under its leaders, the name
Chipko movement was attached to their activities. Within a decade, the movement
had spread to the entire Uttarakhand Himalayan region. Bigger issues of ecological
and economic development of the region were raised.
The movement now demanded that no forest-exploiting bonds should be
given to external people and local communities should have useful control over
natural resources like land, water and forests. They also demanded that the
government provide inexpensive materials to small industries and ensure the growth
of the region without disturbing the delicate environmental balance. The movement
also decided to take up the economic problems of landless forest workers and
demanded guarantees of minimum wage for them. Internationally, the Chipko
movement showed how environment causes, up until then assumed to be an activity
of the rich, were a topic of life and death for the poor. The poor after all the first to
be affected during an environmental tragedy. Several scholarly studies were
conducted regarding the consequences of the movement. In another notable
movement, in 1977, women in a nearby region, started tying rakhis on trees
earmarked for logging.
The involvement of women in the Chipko movement was one of its most
significant aspects. The contractors who felled trees were also the suppliers of
liquor to men of the area. The women of the movement decided to broaden the
campaign to other social evils like alcoholism. A great victory was won by the
movement when in 1980, the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi completely banned
the felling of trees in the region for a period of 15 years until the green cover of the
region was completely restored. One of the most notable leaders of the Chipko
movement Gandhian Sunderlal Bahuguna, undertook a 5,000-kilometre trans-
Himalaya foot march in 1981–83, to an effort to extend the message of the Chipko
movement to a far greater area. Slowly, women set up cooperatives to guard local
forests, and also held fodder production at rates favourable to the local environment.
They also participated in land rotation plans for fodder collection, helped replant
degraded land and set up and ran nurseries stocked with species they chose.
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NOTES

Fig. 12.2 Sunderlal Bahuguna

In the Chipko movement, both men and women played pivotal roles. Some
of the important leaders of the movement included activists like Gaura Devi,
Sudesha Devi, Bachni Devi, Chandi Prasad Bhatt, Sundarlal Bahuguna, Govind
Singh Rawat, Dhoom Singh Negi, Shamsher Singh Bisht and Ghanasyam Raturi,
the Chipko poet, whose songs echo throughout the Himalayas. Chandi Prasad
Bhatt was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay award in 1982 for his work in the
chipko movement, while Sundarlal Bahuguna was awarded the Padma Vibhushan
in 2009.

Check Your Progress

3. When and why was the Dasholi Gram Swarajya Sangh established?
4. Mention some of the important leaders of the Chipko movement.

12.4 SILENT VALLEY MOVEMENT

Silent Valley is situated in Palghat district in Kerala. It is of significant value since it

contains the last critical stretch of tropical evergreen forest in India. In fact, its
value comes from the fact that it is the only remnant of near virgin forest in the
entire Western Ghats. It is estimated to have a continuous record of not less than
50 million years of evolution. The name Silent Valley rose to prominence when the
Save Silent Valley Movement was started by NGOs, the scientific community and
conservation activists with social awareness. The movement was started against
the decision to establish a hydroelectric project in the areas which would have
otherwise submerged 830 hectares of pristine and ecologically important tropical
rainforests.
The decision to build a dam on the Kunti River was initiated by the British
government in pre-independence India. The Kunti river originates from the Silent
Valley forest. Due to some reasons, the project was not implemented at that time.
Post-independence, the first survey of the proposed hydroelectric project was
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conducted in 1951 by the state government. The project plan was later approved Major Environment
Movements in India-I
by the Planning Commission of India in 1973 .
The uniqueness of Silent Valley is that it harbours close to 108 varieties of
the flower Orchid. The forest also boats of a variety of medicinal plants, with 80%
NOTES
of the medication recorded in standard Pharmacopeias. Also, 66 percent of the
species and aromatic plants are famous all over the world . Given that these are
rainforests, it is also a significant pool of generically variant plant and animal species.
It will be interesting to note that there are close to twenty-one flower plants which
are considered new to Science. Not just in plant species, the silent valley is crucial
from the animal species’ perspective too. There are close to twenty-three
mammalian species in the region. Endangered species like the Nilgiri Langur, Tiger
and Lion-followed Macaque have also been found in the valley.
Understanding the importance of the valley, many teachers and Scientists
joined hands to launch many protests against the proposed dam. Due to the
protests, a stay was put on the project in 1976 by the National Committee on
Planning and Coordination (NCEPC). The Committee recommended that a study
be conducted to understand the effects of the project on the region. Many
environment-based societies too came forward to request the cancellation of the
project all together like the Kerala Natural History Society and Bombay Natural
History in 1978. It is pertinent to mention here the crucial report presented by the
people’s science movement group Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad. The group
detailed the damning social, natural and financial costs of the proposed dam. The
government, both state and centre too constituted committees like the M S
Swaminathan Committee and Dr MGK Menon Committee both of which
considering the ecological damage to the rich region recommended that the project
be scrapped.
In the middle of the movement, there were a lot of activities and missions
driven by KSSP as well as student teacher organizations. Silent Valley Movement
may very well be called the first ever movement across the Indian history, in which
there has been participation of famous and well known writers who joined the
battle for the cause of environment. They made use of various mediums like stories,
poems, shows, dramas, songs and kavi sammelans to pass on the message to the
Kerala’s educated public.
The allies of the hydro-electric project contended that the individuals who
restrict the construction of dam project were against the country’s development
and favoured monkeys instead of the people! The Kerala State Electricity Board
(KSEB) pointed the low unit cost of electricity offered by the high watershed of
Silent Valley through the proposed project which would have covered four regions
of Malabar.
The discussions and protests continued for quite a while and finally in 1983,
the then Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi advised that the State government to
cancel the project. She also named Silent Valley as a National Park. The National
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Major Environment Significance
Movements in India-I
The Silent Valley Movement was the continuation of the development related issues
which had just begun in India with the Chipko movement in the 1970s. The success
NOTES of the movement presented another view of development which guarantees
sustainability and protected the privileges of the non-human world. Particularly in
Kerala, this environment movement made public mindful of the fact that the
development which sought to hurt the climate in the present moment will
antagonistically influence the social and monetary existence of things to come in
the future times. The debate of choice between development and monkey and the
triumph of the non-human species in the Silent valley movement demonstrated the
way that the non-human world has a similar rights on earth as humans.
The tendency of this movement towards the left reworked the Marxist idea
of nature as an asset to nature as a fortune which must be protected and preserved.
The philosophical split inside the Marxist party with respect to the Silent valley
movement was the perception of development. It was indeed a very crucial yet
supremely difficult task for the KSSP to teach the nearby locals and communities,
who were entranced by the advantages of the modern project and the employment
it would generate, the importance of the rainforests, and the long term need to
protect it. The awareness activities undertaken KSSP and different groups
highlighted the fact that without protecting and conserving the nature we can’t
protect or develop ourselves. In the history of environmental movements in the
country, the accomplishments of Silent Valley movement had an influence on the
individuals and motivated them to challenge the ecological injustices which were
happening in their region. The movement also a good example of leading a non-
violent Gandhian style movement for the protection of the environment and ecology.
The Silent Valley movement became a meeting place for various different
thoughts with respect to the perception of development and the administration and
use of natural resources. KSSP which was a prominent body in the movement
itself distributed a lot a few leaflets and studies about the issue. One of the significant
leaflets, The Silent valley Project: Parishad’s Stand and Explanation contended
that ‘the Silent Valley issue raised some serious concerns like people’s attitude
towards development, the conflict between various interest groups, the development
of Palghat- Malappuram districts, providing adequate amount of energy to the
Malabar zone, the electricity generating policies of Kerala government etc.’

Check Your Progress

5. Where is Silent valley located and what is its significance?
6. When was the project plan in the Silent Valley approved?
7. What did Indira Gandhi advice about the Silent valley hydro-electric
project?

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 Major Environment
12.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Movements in India-I

QUESTIONS

1. Forest struggles may be divided into two; those that were a reprise to direct NOTES
commercial exploitation and those that were a response to commercial
exploitation legitimized as ‘scientific forestry’. The dominant strata use
scientific forestry as a political weapon to legitimize overexploitation of
resources for profit. There is conflict between the profitability and survival
imperatives. The latter is being challenged by the action groups supporting
the poor by reinterpreting science for public interest.
2. In the West, environmental movements focus on consumption, productive
use of natural resources and conservation or protection of natural resources.
In India, the movements are based on use and alternative use of, as well as
control over natural resources.
3. In 1964, the Dasholi Gram Swarajya Sangh (DGSS) (‘Dasholi Society for
Village Self-Rule’), was established by Gandhian social worker, Chandi
Prasad Bhatt in Gopeshwar. Bhatt was motivated by J.P. Narayan’s
Sarvodaya movement and wanted to set up small industries employing the
resources of the forest. Their first project was an undersized workshop
making farm tools for local use.
4. In the Chipko movement, both men and women played pivotal roles. Some
of the important leaders of the movement included activists like Gaura Devi,
Sudesha Devi, Bachni Devi, Chandi Prasad Bhatt, Sundarlal Bahuguna,
Govind Singh Rawat, Dhoom Singh Negi, Shamsher Singh Bisht and
Ghanasyam Raturi, the Chipko poet, whose songs echo throughout the
Himalayas.
5. Silent Valley is situated in Palghat district in Kerala. It is of significant value
since it contains the last critical stretch of tropical evergreen forest in India.
In fact, its value comes from the fact that it is the only remnant of near virgin
forest in the entire Western Ghats.
6. The project plan was approved by the Planning Commission of India in
1973.
7. In 1983, the then Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi advised that the State
government to cancel the project. She also named Silent Valley as a National
Park.

12.6 SUMMARY

 More often than not, the struggles of the people on the issues of their
livelihood and access to forest and other natural resources are coined as
‘environmental movements’. Historical studies on peasant movements mainly
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Major Environment focus on the agrarian relationship between different classes of landowners.
Movements in India-I
Studies on the struggles over forest resources are treated as tribal movements.
 Forest struggles may be divided into two; those that were a reprise to direct
commercial exploitation and those that were a response to commercial
NOTES
exploitation legitimized as ‘scientific forestry’. The dominant strata use
scientific forestry as a political weapon to legitimize overexploitation of
resources for profit. There is conflict between the profitability and survival
imperatives. The latter is being challenged by the action groups supporting
the poor by reinterpreting science for public interest.
 Broadly speaking, the theme of the man-nature relationship is central to
environmental movements. Guha and Gadgil define the environmental
movement ‘as organized social activity consciously directed towards
promoting sustainable use of natural resources, halting environmental
degradation or bringing about environmental restoration.’ In the West,
environmental movements focus on consumption, productive use of natural
resources and conservation or protection of natural resources. In India, the
movements are based on use and alternative use of, as well as control over
natural resources.
 Jayanta Bandopadhyaya and Vandana Shiva observe that ecology
movements in independent India have increased against ‘predatory
exploitation of natural resources to feed the process development’ which is
dominated by market forces.
 Guha and Gadgil classify movements on the basis of the participants.
According to them there are three categories of members: ‘omnivores,
ecosystem people and ecological refugees’. In this multiplicity of movements,
one may discern seven major strands. Two of these are exclusively focused
on nature conservation, one on aesthetic/recreational/scientific grounds and
the others on the basis of cultural or religious traditions.
 A third strand confines itself to the technological perspective focusing on
the efficiency of resource use. According to them the question of equity is
the dominant concern of the environmental movements in present day India.
 Environmental movements raise a variety of issues both in rural and urban
areas related to forest, agriculture, industrial pollution, nuclear tests, tourism,
etc. There are a number of non-government organizations (NGOs) who
protest against environmental degradation and hazards. Besides pressurizing
the political authorities and dominant groups such as industrialists, planners,
etc., they also campaign for creating awareness among people on the issues
of environment.
 In struggles around the issues of forest resources and their use, the main
participants have been the tribals and other peasant communities depending
on forest resources for their survival. They resist state intervention which
impinges on their rights and control over resources.
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 Some of the popular movements in India are: Chipko movement, Save Major Environment
Movements in India-I
Silent Valley, Narmada Bachao Andolan, Koel Karo and Appiko Movement.
 After India gained independence from British colonial rule, the upper regions
of the Himalayans were largely left untouched. However, all of this changed
NOTES
after the 1962 Indo-China war, a war in which India was soundly trounced
by the Chinese.
 The building of roads in the region eventually led to mining, of limestone,
magnesium and potassium. Along with miners, came the timber merchants.
Almost immediately, the forests of the region began to deteriorate at a
frightening rate, which led to difficulties for those Garhwalis who were
involved gathering fodder and firewood.
 When the government declared an auction scheduled in January 1974, for
2,500 trees near Reni village, overlooking the Alakananda River. The leader
of the DGSS Bhatt called on the villages in the Reni area to protest against
this decision. The villagers in the region responded by hugging trees to prevent
them from being cut down. For next few weeks, rallies and meetings were
held in the Reni area against the government’s decision.
 On 26 March 1974, people from the nearby villages of nearby villages and
DGSS workers were in Chamoli were directed by the state government
and contractors to an imaginary compensation payment site, while loggers
began arriving in Reni village to fell trees.
 The women kept an all-night vigil protecting their trees from the cutters until
a few of loggers relented and left the village. The next day, when the men
and leaders came back, the news of the struggle spread to the neighbouring
Laata and other villages including Henwalghati, and additional number of
people joined in. In the last, only after a four-day confrontation, the
contractors left.
 After this incident, the then state Chief Minister, Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna,
set up a commission to look into the matter. The commission ruled in favour
of the villagers. This result became a defining moment in the history of
environmental movements in India, and indeed, around the world.
 Silent Valley is situated in Palghat district in Kerala. It is of significant value
since it contains the last critical stretch of tropical evergreen forest in India.
In fact, its value comes from the fact that it is the only remnant of near virgin
forest in the entire Western Ghats.
 The decision to build a dam on the Kunti River was initiated by the British
government in pre-independence India. The Kunti river originates from the
Silent Valley forest. Due to some reasons, the project was not implemented
at that time. Post-independence, the first survey of the proposed
hydroelectric project was conducted in 1951 by the state government. The
project plan was later approved by the Planning Commission of India in
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Major Environment  Understanding the importance of the valley, many teachers and Scientists
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joined hands to launch many protests against the proposed dam. Due to the
protests, a stay was put on the project in 1976 by the National Committee
on Planning and Coordination (NCEPC).
NOTES
 The discussions and protests continued for quite a while and finally in 1983,
the then Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi advised that the State government
to cancel the project. She also named Silent Valley as a National Park. The
National Park was opened in 1985.
 The Silent Valley Movement was the continuation of the development related
issues which had just begun in India with the Chipko movement in the 1970s.
The success of the movement presented another view of development which
guarantees sustainability and protected the privileges of the non-human world.

12.7 KEY WORDS

 Environmental movement: It refers to ‘as organized social activity

consciously directed towards promoting sustainable use of natural resources,
halting environmental degradation or bringing about environmental
restoration.’
 Chipko movement: It refers to the series of movement in Uttarakhand
regions in the early 1970s when the villagers in the region protested hugging
trees to prevent them from being cut down.
 Save silent valley movement: It was a movement in the Silent valley of
Kerala started in the 1973 against the construction of a hydro-electric power
project in the region.

12.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. Why did Guha and Baviskar did not want their studies to be considered as
those of solely environmental movements in relation to Chipko and Narmada
Bachao Andolan?
2. Mention some of the popular environmental movements in India.
3. When did the situation in Uttarakhand changed after India gained
independence?
4. Write a short note on the involvement of women in the Chipko valley
movement.
5. What is the uniqueness of the silent valley movement?
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Long-Answer Questions Major Environment
Movements in India-I
1. Explain how different researchers have classified environmental movements
in India.
2. Describe the origin, course and conclusion of the Chipko movement in NOTES
India.
3. Discuss the significance, manner and result of the Silent valley movement.

12.9 FURTHER READINGS

J. Donald Hughes. 2015. What is Environmental History?. London: Wiley.

Chakrabarti, Ranjan. 2020. Critical Themes in Environmental History of India.
New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Agnoletti, Mauro and Simone Neri Serneri. 2014. The Basic Environmental
History. New York: Springer International Publishing.
Isenberg, Andrew Christian. 2014. The Oxford Handbook of Environmental
History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rosencrazz, Armin. 2002. Environmental law & Policy in India. Noida: Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Appadurai, Susila. 2004. Environmental studies. New Delhi: New Century Book
House Pvt Ltd.
Porter, Goreth, Janet Welsh Brown. 2000. Global Environmental politics.
Colorado: Westview Press.

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UNIT 13 MAJOR ENVIRONMENT
MOVEMENTS IN INDIA-II
NOTES
Structure
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Appiko Movement
13.3 Protest Against Narmada Project
13.4 Protective Measures
13.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
13.6 Summary
13.7 Key Words
13.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
13.9 Further Readings

13.0 INTRODUCTION

Environmental movements in India have been aimed at conservation of the natural

resources in the country. The movements have stressed on sustainable management
of resources so that the state of the environment does not depreciate further. The
Appiko Movement, similar to the Chipko movement, witnessed activists embracing
the trees to prevent felling. This movement was extremely effective and it spread
to other areas as well. The Narmada Valley Project, initiated in 1985, spurred
another movement in India which took the shape of Narmada Bachao Andolan.
Dalits, tribals and activists actively took part in the movement to register their
protest against the Narmada Valley Project. Since the 1980s, various legislations
have been introduced for environmental protection in India. The legislations will
be discussed in detail in this unit.

13.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Discuss in detail the Appiko Movement
 Examine the Narmada Valley Project and the resistance to the project
 Analyse the legislations relating to environmental protection

13.2 APPIKO MOVEMENT

In the early 1980s, the people’s fight against commercial forest policy has become
visible in the UttaraKannada region. The ecosystem of the forest had changed
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considerably due to the destruction of tropical natural forests. The access to biomass, Major Environment
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fertilizers, etc. were impacted due to the destruction of mixed species. The forest
department was trying to start monoculture of taek wood for businesses.
The felling of natural forests caused major soil erosion and dried up the
NOTES
sources of water. Stirred by the destruction of the environment, the youth of Salkani
village in Sirsi started a Chipko movement. This movement was locally known as
‘Appiko Chaluvali’. As part of the movement, the young people embraced the
trees which were to be felled by the forest department.
The resistance against the contractors of the forest department which started
in Bilegal forest in Hulekal range in september 1983 continued inside the forest
for 38 days. Finally, the felling orders were taken back. This achievement causes
the movement to spread to different areas; the movement was launched in eight
regions covering entire Sirsi forest division in Uttara Kannada and Shimoga districts.
The Appiko Movement, which was similar to the Chipko Movement, was
started in September 1983 by the representatives of a Yuvak Mandali to save the
Western Ghats in Southwest India. It was seen by the representatives that there
was an excessive concentration of trees reserved for felling in regions which were
easily accessible. Also, there was excessive damage to other trees during the felling
process.
In a one-hectare plot, it was discovered that 11 trees had been set apart for
cutting, out of which 8 were cut. During the felling of these eight trees, at least five
other older and healthy trees had been harmed. The devastation of forest resources
was impacting the local community, who finally protested to stop the felling of
trees through non-violent action as was seen in the case of Chipko movement.
There were three objectives of the Appiko Movement—to preserve the
existing forest cover, to rejuvenate trees on bare lands, and to utilize forest wealth
with respect to conservation. These objectives are implemented through the
establishment of Parisara Samrakshna Kendras (environmental conservation
centers).
The Appiko movement created awareness among people throughout the
Western Ghats regarding the ecological devastation of forests. Because of this
movement, people are now closely monitoring forest destruction and highlighted
the divide between the proclaimed practices and actual practices with regards to
forest management. The regional rainforests have been used for the plywood and
paper industry; moreover, the conversion of forest to monoculture plantations and
the building of large hydro-electric dams for power generation have also negatively
impacted the livelihood of forest-dwellers.
The Appiko Movement compelled the public authority to make changes to
its forest policy. Some of the changes were ban for clear felling, no further issuance
of concessions to logging organizations, and ban on felling of green trees in the
tropical rainforest of the Western Ghats.
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Major Environment
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Check Your Progress
1. When did the Appiko Movement start?
NOTES 2. What were some of the changes brought forth by the Appiko Movement?

13.3 PROTEST AGAINST NARMADA PROJECT

The Narmada Valley project or the Sardar Sarovar and Narmada Sagar Valley
project has been facing stiff resistances from local people who are fighting against
their displacement in the streets and also in the highest court of the land. The
reasons for fighting against the project are obvious. The Narmada Valley project
was a huge project initiated in 1985 intended to build 30 major, 135 medium and
around 3000 small dams at various points of the river. The river is around 1300
km long and flows through three main states—Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra
and Gujarat, before it reaches the Gulf of Cambay in Arabian Sea. The project is
aimed to serve three main purposes—provide irrigation to adjacent areas, produce
electricity and provide drinking water along with other minor facilities like tourism.
It should be noted that most areas of the Narmada Valley and states around it are
dry regions. Farming is backward due to an absence of irrigation facilities. The
region is dry and therefore potable water is a scarce resource. The projected
electricity generation (around 3000 MW) from the project can increase the
industrialisation of the region. However, it is also true that dams on Narmada are
causing massive displacement of the people (around one million) and can also
cause salinisation and water logging in the entire area. Siltation in the reservoirs
due to soil erosion will reduce the economic use of the dams. Scientists also fear
that the salinisation of the upper stream can cause more submergence of the land
than it has been estimated. The dams will hamper the flow of river water and it is
expected that fish species will also be badly affected. The water logging in the
dam area may also result in malaria becoming pandemic. The project will also
result in a massive loss of biodiversity as forests will be cleared for the construction
of dams and for the resettlement of a million people.
The Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) is a grass-root movement that was
formed to fight against the environmental, social and cultural damage that the
Narmada Valley Developmental Project (NVDP) has caused. As mentioned earlier,
the NVDP’s proposal consists of 30 large dams, 135 medium dams, 3,000 small
dams on the river Narmada and its over four tributaries; it threatens the life and
livelihood of the 22 million inhabitants of the Narmada basin. The Sardar Sarovar
Project (SSP), the largest dam, alone will submerge 245 villages,19 in Gujarat,
33 in Maharashtra and 193 in Madhya Pradesh. According to NBA, 250,000
people will be affected by the SSP.

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 The government sources claim that the SSP would irrigate more than 1.8 Major Environment
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million hectares of land and solve the water crisis in the drought-prone areas of
Kutch and Saurashtra. The NBA responds by saying that these are exaggerated
figures and the actual benefits are much less than what is projected. The NBA also
argued that in the whole process of the NVDP, the riparian rights of the people NOTES
who live in the valley, including the tribals and peasants were not taken into
consideration. In addition to this are the woes of those who have been displaced
by the dam construction that has been resumed by the court order in the year
2000. The projected figure of 15,000 affected families in Maharashtra, though
promised rehabilitation, is yet to materialize.
The NBA has taken up a lot of issues related to the riparian rights of the
people. NBA is a politics that is a complex articulation of land rights, environmental
degradation, economies of large dams and also the effects of these on the local
communities. The fact that the process of development right from its origin, plan
and management of resources is seen as a prerogative of the State is the basic
point of opposition for the movement. The movement emphasizes that the people
have the right to control their own forest, land, water and other natural resources.
The movement thus is a deep-rooted critique of the development paradigm. NBA
is committed to nonviolent means of protest and believes that nonviolence is the
only path for a social movement.
NBA has relied heavily on the media to popularize their struggles and issues
and the mainstream national media has been an important part of their campaigns.
Leaders and activists of the movement often write in various newspapers and
publications. NBA also communicates through frequent press releases giving the
status of the struggle from time to time. The media is also informed about the
several mass agitations and other programmes and activities.
For communicating with the people of the valley, the NBA depends on
other forms of media like songs, leaflets, posters, audio cassettes, etc. Though the
NBA and the NVDP have been discussed quite widely in national and regional
newspapers and the visual media, many of the issues discussed earlier with
environmental reporting are relevant here too. The media’s interest in events rather
than processes has seriously affected the NBA reporting in various ways. A
movement like NBA, with its issues of displacement and the development paradigm
that caused this, are equally important. But the media generally does not sustain its
focus on long-term processes and gives space only when there are mass actions
such as rallies or a dharna in the national capital. Of the 435 stories on the Sardar
Sarovar Project in 2006, including those in English dailies, TV; periodicals and
Internet news sites, more than 75 per cent of the stories are when devastating
events like floods happen. The rest happen to be around mass actions like rallies
and dharnas. The handful of well-researched writings is either specialist columns
in newspapers or Internet news sites.

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Major Environment The media often links issues and movements to the leaders and activists
Movements in India-II
who are involved in them. One reason could be that these leaders are the ones
who become the most visible while bringing to the notice of the world the needs
and problems affecting the struggle. The media finds a face for the movement in
NOTES Medha Patkar, making the NBA look like a single-handed task, whereas in reality,
it is a multitiered movement, consisting of adivasis, Dalits, Hindu peasants and
also various middle-class activists and supporters. The movement is influenced by
both community and activists. The decision-making body has two main groups:
the full-time activists as well as community representatives from every village. In
terms of projecting the leaders, the media often makes movements seem like
individual struggles. On the flip side, often protests and rallies that do not include
the respective leaders are not given adequate coverage. For instance, on 17
December 2005, the police lathicharged hundreds of protestors in Badhwani,
Madhya Pradesh outside the collector’s office. This got little coverage, none in
the mainstream national media. During the Satyagraha staged by NBA in April
2006, the event got covered extensively when film actor Aamir Khan visited the
pandal to express his solidarity with the displaced people of the valley.
In the 1980s, voices were raised by the Narmada Bachao Andolan activists
against the Sardar Sarovar dam construction on the Narmada River. This led to
large-scale displacement of adivasis who were neither relocated to a proper area
nor granted proper compensation. Besides, the dam was causing serious
environmental hazards. Why did no political party take up the issue? Or, for
example, in the 1980s itself, we saw women from various strata of the society
raising their voices against violence perpetrated against them. Why did no political
party take up the issues they raised or why did they just pay lip service to their
cause?
Democracy is largely understood as popular sovereignty where people have
control over the decisions made by the State. Since it is not practically possible
for the people in the modern democratic societies to participate in the decision-
making process of the State directly, they do so through representatives. This
representation gets its institutional form in political parties and it is through political
parties that the people wish to articulate and represent their demands. But when
political parties become ineffective in representing the interests of the people, we
see the emergence of social movements.
The movement has been protesting steadfastly against raising the height of
the dam ever since its construction started in 1987 and which was not heeded to
when the gates of the Sardar Sarovar Dam where opened in 2017. But there have
been certain achievements which deserve credit like convincing the World Bank
to withdraw its loan. Further the movement also forced backing in the construction
of the project by companies like Siemens and Ogden Energy. The movement is
still going on today thirty-five years after it first started fighting for the compensation
and rehabilitation of the displaced people of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.

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 Major Environment
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Check Your Progress
3. Mention the three-fold objective of the Narmada Valley project.
4. How many dams are to be constructed as part of the Narmada Valley NOTES
Developmental Project?

13.4 PROTECTIVE MEASURES

The need for insurance and preservation of the environment and the maintenance
of natural resources is reflected in the established structure of India and furthermore
in the global responsibilities of India. The Constitution under Part IVA (Art 51A-
Fundamental Duties) obligates each resident of India to secure and improve the
common habitat including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife, and to have empathy
for living animals. Further, the Constitution of India under Part IV (Art 48A-Directive
Principles of State Policies) mentions that the State will try to secure and improve
the environment and protect the forests of the country.
A few legislations regarding environment protection were put in place even
before the Independence of India. Nonetheless, the genuine push for putting in
place a system came after the UN Conference on the Human Environment
(Stockholm, 1972). After the Stockholm Conference, the National Council for
Environmental Policy and Planning was set up in 1972 inside the Department of
Science and Technology to set up an administrative body to take care of the
climate related issues. This Council later advanced into an undeniable Ministry of
Environment and Forests (MoEF).
The MoEF was set up in 1985, which is the nodal agency in the administrative
structure of the Central Government for planning, promotion, co-ordination and
overseeing the implementation of India's environmental and forestry policies and
programmes. The MoEF and the pollution control boards (CPCB, ie, Central
Pollution Control Board and SPCBs, ie, State Pollution Control Boards) together
structure the administrative and managerial centre of the segment.
The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010
The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 (No. 19 of 2010) (NGT Act) has been
enacted with the objective to provide for establishment of a National Green Tribunal
(NGT) for the effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to environment
protection and conservation of forests and other natural resources including
enforcement of any legal right relating to environment and giving relief and
compensation for damages to persons and property and for matters connected
therewith or incidental thereto.
The Act received the assent of the President of India on 2 June 2010, and
was enforced by the Central Government vide Notification no. S.O. 2569(E)
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Major Environment dated 18 October 2010, with effect from 18 October 2010. The Act envisages
Movements in India-II
establishment of NGT in order to deal with all environmental laws relating to air
and water pollution, the Environment Protection Act, the Forest Conservation Act
and the Biodiversity Act as have been set out in Schedule I of the NGT Act.
NOTES
Consequent to enforcement of the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010, the
National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995 and the National Environment Appellate
AuthorityAct, 1997 stand repealed. The National Environment Appellate Authority
established under s 3(1) of the National Environment Appellate Authority Act,
1997 stands dissolved, in view of the establishment of the National Green Tribunal
under the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 vide Notification no. S.O. 2570(E)
dated 18 October 2010.
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (the ‘Air Act’) is an act
to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution and for the
establishment of Boards at the Central and State levels with a view to carrying out
the aforesaid purposes.
To counter the problems associated with air pollution, ambient air quality
standards were established under the Air Act. The Air Act seeks to combat air
pollution by prohibiting the use of polluting fuels and substances, as well as by
regulating appliances that give rise to air pollution. The Air Act empowers the
State Government, after consultation with the SPCBs, to declare any area or
areas within the State as air pollution control area or areas. Under the Act,
establishing or operating any industrial plant in the pollution control area requires
consent from SPCBs. SPCBs are also expected to test the air in air pollution
control areas, inspect pollution control equipment, and manufacturing processes.
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
The Water Prevention and Control of Pollution Act, 1974 (the ‘Water Act’) has
been enacted to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and to
maintain or restore wholesomeness of water in the country. It further provides for
the establishment of Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution with
a view to carry out the aforesaid purposes. The Water Act prohibits the discharge
of pollutants into water bodies beyond a given standard, and lays down penalties
for non-compliance. At the Centre, the Water Act has set up the CPCB which
lays down standards for the prevention and control of water pollution. At the
State level, SPCBs function under the direction of the CPCB and the State
Government.
Further, the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act was
enacted in 1977 to provide for the levy and collection of a cess on water consumed
by persons operating and carrying on certain types of industrial activities. This
cess is collected with a view to augment the resources of the Central Board and
the State Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution constituted
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under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. The Act was Major Environment
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last amended in 2003.
The Environment Protection Act, 1986
The Environment Protection Act, 1986 (the ‘Environment Act’) provides for the NOTES
protection and improvement of environment. The Environment Protection Act
establishes the framework for studying, planning and implementing long-term
requirements of environmental safety and laying down a system of speedy and
adequate response to situations threatening the environment. It is an umbrella
legislation designed to provide a framework for the coordination of central and
state authorities established under the Water Act, 1974 and the Air Act. The term
‘environment’ is understood in a very wide term under s 2(a) of the Environment
Act. It includes water, air and land as well as the interrelationship which exists
between water, air and land, and human beings, other living creatures, plants,
micro-organisms and property.
Under the Environment Act, the Central Government is empowered to take
measures necessary to protect and improve the quality of environment by setting
standards for emissions and discharges of pollution in the atmosphere by any person
carrying on an industry or activity; regulating the location of industries; management
of hazardous wastes, and protection of public health and welfare. From time to
time, the Central Government issues notifications under the Environment Act for
the protection of ecologically-sensitive areas or issues guidelines for matters under
the Environment Act.
In case of any non-compliance or contravention of the Environment Act, or
of the rules or directions under the said Act, the violator will be punishable with
imprisonment up to five years or with fine up to Rs 1,00,000, or with both. In case
of continuation of such violation, an additional fine of up to Rs 5,000 for every day
during which such failure or contravention continues after the conviction for the
first such failure or contravention, will be levied. Further, if the violation continues
beyond a period of one year after the date of conviction, the offender shall be
punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to seven years.
Hazardous Wastes Management Regulations
Hazardous waste means any waste which, by reason of any of its physical, chemical,
reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive or corrosive characteristics, causes danger
or is likely to cause danger to health or environment, whether alone or when in
contact with other wastes or substances.
There are several legislations that directly or indirectly deal with hazardous
waste management. The relevant legislations are the Factories Act, 1948, the Public
Liability Insurance Act, 1991, the National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995 and
rules and notifications under the Environmental Act. Some of the rules dealing with
hazardous waste management are discussed below:
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Major Environment Hazardous Wastes (Management, Handling and Transboundary) Rules,
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2008, brought out a guide for manufacture, storage and import of hazardous
chemicals and for management of hazardous wastes.
Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998, were
NOTES
formulated along parallel lines, for proper disposal, segregation, transport, etc. of
infectious wastes.
Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000, aim at
enabling municipalities to dispose municipal solid waste in a scientific manner.
In view of the short-comings and overlapping of some categories causing
inconvenience in implementation of the Biomedical Waste (Management and
Handling) Rules, 1998 as well as the Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and
Handling) Rules, 2000, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
has formulated the draft Bio-Medical Waste (Management & Handling) Rules,
2015 (Draft BMW Rules) and the draft Solid Waste Management Rules, 2015
(Draft SWM Rules) and sought comments on the draft Rules.
The Draft BMW Rules are to replace the Biomedical Waste (Management
and Handling) Rules, 1998, and the Draft SWM Rules are to replace the Municipal
Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000. The objective of the Draft
BMW Rules is to enable the prescribed authorities to implement the rules more
effectively, thereby, reducing the bio- medical waste generation and also for its
proper treatment and disposal and to ensure environmentally sound management
of these wastes, and the Draft SWM Rules aim at dealing with the management of
solid waste including it segregation at source, transportation of waste, treatment
and final disposal.
E - Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011 was notified on 1 May
2011 and came into effect from 1 May 2012, with primary objective to reduce the
use of hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment by specifying
threshold for use of hazardous material and to channelize the e-waste generated in
the country for environmentally sound recycling. The Rules apply to every producer,
consumer or bulk consumer, collection centre, dismantler and recycler of e-waste
involved in the manufacture, sale, purchase and processing of electrical and
electronic equipment or components as detailed in the Rules.
Batteries (Management & Handling) Rules, 2001 deal with the proper and
effective management and handling of lead acid batteries waste. The Act requires
all manufacturers, assemblers, re-conditioners, importers, dealers, auctioneers,
bulk consumers, consumers, involved in manufacture, processing, sale, purchase
and use of batteries or components thereof, to comply with the provisions of
Batteries (Management & Handling) Rules, 2001.
Other Laws Relating to Environment
In addition, there are many other laws relating to environment, namely–

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The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 Major Environment
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The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 was enacted with the objective of effectively
protecting the wildlife of this country and to control poaching, smuggling and illegal
trade in wildlife and its derivatives. The Act was amended in January 2003 and
NOTES
punishment and penalty for offences under the Act have been made more stringent.
The Ministry has proposed further amendments in the law by introducing more
rigid measures to strengthen the Act. The objective is to provide protection to the
listed endangered flora and fauna and ecologically important protected areas.
The Forest Conservation Act, 1980
The Forest Conservation Act, 1980 was enacted to help conserve the country's
forests. It strictly restricts and regulates the de-reservation of forests or use of
forest land for non-forest purposes without the prior approval of Central
Government. To this end the Act lays down the pre-requisites for the diversion of
forest land for non-forest purposes.
The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition
of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, recognises the rights of forest-dwelling Scheduled
Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers over the forest areas inhabited by them
and provides a framework for according the same.
The Indian Forest Act, 1927 consolidates the law relating to forests, the
transit of forest-produce and the duty to be levied on timber and other forest-
produce.
Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991
The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 was enacted with the objective to provide
for damages to victims of an accident which occurs as a result of handling any
hazardous substance. The Act applies to all owners associated with the production
or handling of any hazardous chemicals.
The Biological Diversity Act, 2002
The Biological Diversity Act 2002 was born out of India's attempt to realise the
objectives enshrined in the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD), 1992 which recognises the sovereign rights of states to use their own
Biological Resources. The Act aims at the conservation of biological resources
and associated knowledge as well as facilitating access to them in a sustainable
manner. The National Biodiversity Authority in Chennai has been established for
the purposes of implementing the objectives of the Act.
Coastal Regulation Zone Notification
The Ministry of Environment and Forests had issued the Coastal Regulation Zone
Notification vide Notification no. S O. 19(E), dated 6 January 2011 with an
objective to ensure livelihood security to the fishing communities and other local
communities living in the coastal areas, to conserve and protect coastal stretches
and to promote development in a sustainable manner based on scientific principles,
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Major Environment taking into account the dangers of natural hazards in the coastal areas and sea
Movements in India-II
level rise due to global warming.

Check Your Progress

NOTES
5. In which year was the MoEF set up?
6. When was the Water Prevention and Control of Pollution Act, 1974 last
amended?
7. What are some of the legislations that deal with hazardous waste
management?
8. What is the aim of the Biological Diversity Act 2002?

13.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. The Appiko Movement, which was similar to the Chipko Movement, was
started in September 1983 by the representatives of a Yuvak Mandali to
save the Western Ghats in Southwest India.
2. The Appiko Movement compelled the public authority to make changes to
its forest policy. Some of the changes were ban for clear felling, no further
issuance of concessions to logging organizations, and ban on felling of green
trees in the tropical rainforest of the Western Ghats.
3. The Narmada Valley project is aimed to serve three main purposes—provide
irrigation to adjacent areas, produce electricity and provide drinking water
along with other minor facilities like tourism.
4. The NVDP’s proposal consists of 30 large dams, 135 medium dams, 3,000
small dams on the river Narmada and its over four tributaries.
5. The MoEF was set up in 1985, which is the nodal agency in the
administrative structure of the Central Government for planning, promotion,
co-ordination and overseeing the implementation of India's environmental
and forestry policies and programmes.
6. The Water Prevention and Control of Pollution Act, 1974 was last amended
in 2003.
7. There are several legislations that directly or indirectly deal with hazardous
waste management. The relevant legislations are the Factories Act, 1948,
the Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991, the National Environment Tribunal
Act, 1995 and rules and notifications under the Environmental Act.
8. The Biological Diversity Act 2002 aims at the conservation of biological
resources and associated knowledge as well as facilitating access to them
in a sustainable manner.
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 Major Environment
13.6 SUMMARY Movements in India-II

 The youth of Salkani village in Sirsi started a Chipko movement, stirred by

the destruction of the environment. This movement was locally known as NOTES
‘Appiko Chaluvali’. As part of the movement, the young people embraced
the trees which were to be felled by the forest department. The resistance
against the contractors of the forest department continued inside the forest
for 38 days. Finally, the felling orders were taken back.
 The Appiko Movement, which was similar to the Chipko Movement, was
started in September 1983 by the representatives of a Yuvak Mandali to
save the Western Ghats in Southwest India.
 There were three objectives of the Appiko Movement—to preserve the
existing forest cover, to rejuvenate trees on bare lands, and to utilize forest
wealth with respect to conservation. These objectives are implemented
through the establishment of Parisara Samrakshna Kendras (environmental
conservation centers).
 The Appiko Movement compelled the public authority to make changes to
its forest policy. Some of the changes were ban for clear felling, no further
issuance of concessions to logging organizations, and ban on felling of green
trees in the tropical rainforest of the Western Ghats.
 The Narmada Valley project was a huge project initiated in 1985 intended
to build 30 major, 135 medium and around 3000 small dams at various
points of the river. The river is around 1300 km long and flows through
three main states—Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat, before it
reaches the Gulf of Cambay in Arabian Sea.
 The Narmada Valley project is aimed to serve three main purposes—provide
irrigation to adjacent areas, produce electricity and provide drinking water
along with other minor facilities like tourism.
 The dams on Narmada are causing massive displacement of the people
(around one million) and can also cause salinisation and water logging in the
entire area. Siltation in the reservoirs due to soil erosion will reduce the
economic use of the dams. Scientists also fear that the salinisation of the
upper stream can cause more submergence of the land than it has been
estimated.
 The Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) is a grass-root movement that was
formed to fight against the environmental, social and cultural damage that
the Narmada Valley Developmental Project (NVDP) has caused.
 In the 1980s, voices were raised by the Narmada Bachao Andolan activists
against the Sardar Sarovar dam construction on the Narmada River. This
led to large-scale displacement of adivasis who were neither relocated to a
proper area nor granted proper compensation.
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Major Environment  The Constitution under Part IVA (Art 51A-Fundamental Duties) obligates
Movements in India-II
each resident of India to secure and improve the common habitat including
forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife, and to have empathy for living animals.
Further, the Constitution of India under Part IV (Art 48A-Directive Principles
NOTES of State Policies) mentions that the State will try to secure and improve the
environment and protect the forests of the country.
 The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) was set up in 1985,
which is the nodal agency in the administrative structure of the Central
Government for planning, promotion, co-ordination and overseeing the
implementation of India's environmental and forestry policies and
programmes.
 The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 (No. 19 of 2010) (NGT Act) has
been enacted with the objective to provide for establishment of a National
Green Tribunal (NGT) for the effective and expeditious disposal of cases
relating to environment protection and conservation of forests and other
natural resources including enforcement of any legal right relating to
environment and giving relief and compensation for damages to persons
and property and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
 The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (the ‘Air Act’) is
an act to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution
and for the establishment of Boards at the Central and State levels with a
view to carrying out the aforesaid purposes.
 The Water Prevention and Control of Pollution Act, 1974 (the ‘Water Act’)
has been enacted to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution
and to maintain or restore wholesomeness of water in the country. It further
provides for the establishment of Boards for the prevention and control of
water pollution.
 The Environment Protection Act, 1986 (the ‘Environment Act’) provides
for the protection and improvement of environment. The Environment
Protection Act establishes the framework for studying, planning and
implementing long-term requirements of environmental safety and laying
down a system of speedy and adequate response to situations threatening
the environment.
 There are several legislations that directly or indirectly deal with hazardous
waste management. The relevant legislations are the Factories Act, 1948,
the Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991, the National Environment Tribunal
Act, 1995 and rules and notifications under the Environmental Act.
 There are many other laws relating to environment, namely, the Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972, the Forest Conservation Act, 1980, the Public
Liability Insurance Act, 1991, the Biological Diversity Act 2002, etc.

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 Major Environment
13.7 KEY WORDS Movements in India-II

 Salinization: It is the process by which water-soluble salts accumulate in

the soil. It is a concern as excess salts hinder the growth of crops by limiting NOTES
their ability to absorb water.
 Siltation: It is a process by which water becomes dirty as a result of fine
mineral particles in the water
 Biodiversity: It is a term used to describe the enormous variety of life on
Earth.
 Hazardous waste: It means any waste which, by reason of any of its
physical, chemical, reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive or corrosive
characteristics, causes danger or is likely to cause danger to health or
environment, whether alone or when in contact with other wastes or
substances.
 Poaching: It is the illegal hunting or capturing of wild animals.

13.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. Write a short note on the Appiko Movement.
2. How have the Narmada Valley Project negatively impacted the lives of the
people?
3. Briefly mention the objectives of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1981.
4. Write a short note on the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
Long-Answer Questions
1. Discuss in detail the Narmada Valley Project.
2. Examine the resistance to the Narmada Valley Project.
3. Discuss the key legislations introduced by the Indian government to ensure
environmental protection.

13.9 FURTHER READINGS

J. Donald Hughes. 2015. What is Environmental History?. London: Wiley.

Chakrabarti, Ranjan. 2020. Critical Themes in Environmental History of India.
New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
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Major Environment Agnoletti, Mauro and Simone Neri Serneri. 2014. The Basic Environmental
Movements in India-II
History. New York: Springer International Publishing.
Isenberg, Andrew Christian. 2014. The Oxford Handbook of Environmental
History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
NOTES
Rosencrazz, Armin. 2002. Environmental law & Policy in India. Noida: Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Appadurai, Susila. 2004. Environmental studies. New Delhi: New Century Book
House Pvt Ltd.
Porter, Goreth, Janet Welsh Brown. 2000. Global Environmental politics.
Colorado: Westview Press.

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 Government Legislations,

UNIT 14 GOVERNMENT NGOs and Environmental

Activities

LEGISLATIONS, NGOs
NOTES
AND ENVIRONMENTAL
ACTIVITIES
Structure
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Government Legislations
14.2.1 Common and Criminal Laws
14.2.2 Land Laws
14.3 Court Decisions
14.4 Role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in Environment Protection
14.4.1 Role of Environmental Activities
14.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
14.6 Summary
14.7 Key Words
14.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
14.9 Further Readings

14.0 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, you learnt about environmental movements in India such as
the Appiko movement and the Narmada Bachao Andolan. In this unit, which is the
final unit of the book, you will learn about Government legislations passed in India
to protect the environment. For the holistic development of a nation like India,
environment protection and economic growth must go hand in hand. There are
some areas which are covered in their entirety by Indian laws specific to them like
the comprehensive Environment Protection Act, but there are some areas related
to environment protection where the rules are not exhaustive or present under a
single umbrella, such as rules related to safe disposal of waste and other effluents.
Besides, only the presence of a law to protect environmental good is not enough,
there is a need to have a sound monitoring and enforcement framework so that
checks can be made and penalties laid on the polluters. The unit will also discuss
the role of NGOs in environment protection, judicial rulings for environmental
protection, as well as environmental activities.

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Government Legislations,
NGOs and Environmental 14.1 OBJECTIVES
Activities

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

NOTES  Explain the various environmental laws in India which come under the
common laws
 Assess the different land laws pertaining to environment protection
 Discuss some court rulings in India related to environment protection
 Explain the role played by NGOs in environment protection

14.2 GOVERNMENT LEGISLATIONS

There are several different kinds of environmental laws in the country. These can
be classified on the basis of their overall purview. In this section, you will study
about common laws, land laws and some specific environmental laws and
notifications. Bear in mind, all of these legislations were introduced to you in Unit
13 under protective measures and these will be discussed in this section in detail.
14.2.1 Common and Criminal Laws
Environmental laws are the laws for protecting soil, air, water, the oceans and
biodiversity, as well as laws which protect the environment as a whole. They can
protect areas of land or ocean and individual species. They necessitate the
conducting of environmental impact assessment (EIA) before any activity gets the
approval of the enforcing agencies. They may also require people to remedy any
environmental damage they cause. Environmental laws come under both common
laws and criminal laws.
Common laws are the laws developed by the courts over many years. There
are a number of common law principles which are relevant to protecting the
environment, especially for the issues involving a dispute between neighbours. A
criminal law states that to do something is an ‘offence’ and imposes a fine or
custodial sentence on an offender. An example of a criminal environmental law is
that it is an offence for any person to cause pollution or allow it to be caused.
Criminal laws can be enforced by prosecution, which means the person who is
alleged to have committed the offence is formally charged and required to attend
court.
Laws such as the Environmental Protection Act, 1986, the Air (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, and the Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974, are discussed in this section.
(1) The Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986
The objective of this act is to provide for the protection and improvement of
environment and for matters connected there with. This protection and improvement
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of environment in turn protects human beings, other living creatures, plants and Government Legislations,
NGOs and Environmental
property from hazards. Activities
As per this Act, the central government is empowered to take all such
measures as it deems necessary for the purpose of protecting and improving the
NOTES
quality of the environment and preventing, controlling and abating environmental
pollution.
 Main provisions
1. No person carrying on any industry, operation or process shall discharge or
emit or permit to be discharged or emitted any environmental pollutants in
excess of such standards as may be prescribed.
2. No person shall handle any hazardous substance except in accordance with
such procedure and after complying with such safeguards as may be
prescribed.
3. The person responsible for discharge of any environmental pollutant in excess
of the prescribed standards is bound to prevent or mitigate the environmental
pollution caused and shall also forthwith intimate the fact of such occurrence
or apprehension of such occurrence to the authorities concerned. The person
is also bound to assist the authorities in attending to the work if he is required
to do so.
 Environmental laboratories
As per Section 12 of the Act, the central government can establish one or more
environmental laboratories or recognize one or more laboratories or institutes as
environmental laboratories to carry out the functions entrusted. The central
government may also make rules for the functions and procedures to be followed
by such laboratories. Taking samples of air, water, soil or other substances for
analysis and the form of the laboratories reports and the fees payable for such
report, etc., will be chalked out by the central government.
 Penalty for contravention of the provisions
Whoever fails to comply with or contravenes any of the provisions of this Act or
rules shall in respect of each failure or contravention, be imprisoned for a term
which may extend to five years or be fined which may extend to one lakh rupees
or both. In case the failure or contravention continues, an additional fine of five
thousand rupees per day is also liable.
 Offences by companies
Where any offence under this Act has been committed by a company, every person
who, at the time of the offence was committed was directly in charge of, and was
responsible to the company for the conduct of the business of the company shall
be deemed to be guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be prosecuted against
and punished. Self-Instructional
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Government Legislations,  Protection of action taken in good faith
NGOs and Environmental
Activities
Section 18 of this Act states that no suit, prosecution or other legal proceeding
shall lie against the government or any officer or any other employee of the
NOTES government in respect of anything which is done or intended to be done in good
faith in pursuance of this Act or the rules.
 Cognizance of offences
No court shall take cognizance of any offence under this Act except on a complaint
made by:
(a) The central government or any authority or officer authorized on its behalf
by the government or
(b) Any person who has given notice of not less than sixty days, in the manner
prescribed, of the alleged offence and of his intention to make a complaint,
to the central government or the authority or officer authorized as aforesaid.
(2) The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
Following are the aims of Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974:
(i) To provide for the prevention and control of water pollution
(ii) To maintain or restore the wholesomeness of water
(iii) To establish water pollution control boards for the prevention and control
of water pollution
(iv) To assign suitable powers and functions for the water pollution control boards
 Central and state boards
This Act empowers the constitution of Central and State boards to exercise the
powers conferred and perform the functions assigned to the respective boards
under this Act.
(a) Powers and functions of boards
The main function of the Central Board is to promote cleanliness of streams and
wells in different areas of states. The other miscellaneous functions are as follows:
1. To advise the central government on any matter concerning the prevention
and control of water pollution
2. To coordinate the activities of the state boards and resolve disputes among
them
3. To provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carryout
and sponsor investigations and research relating to problems of water
pollution
4. To plan and organize the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in
programmes for the prevention, control or statement or water pollution on
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296 Material
 5. To organize through mass media a comprehensive programme regarding Government Legislations,
NGOs and Environmental
the preventions and control of water pollution Activities
6. To collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water
pollution and the measures devised for its effective prevention and control
NOTES
and prepare manuals, codes or guides relating to the treatment and disposal
of sewage and trade effluents and disseminate information connected there
with
7. To lay down, modify or annul in consultation with the state government
concerned, the standards for a stream or well
8. To plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the
prevention, control or abatement of water pollution
9. To perform such other functions as may be prescribed
(b) Important provisions of the act
Section 21: This section empowers the nominated officials of State Board to take
samples of water from any stream or well or samples of any sewage or trade
effluent which is passing from any plant or vessel (for the purpose of analysis).
Such samples will be collected after due notice is given to the occupier of the area
in question.
Section 22: The samples collected as referred above will be analysed by the
nominated official of a recognized laboratory and he will submit a report of the
results of such analysis. One copy of the report will be sent to the occupier and
another copy will be preserved for production before the court in case any legal
proceedings are taken against the occupier.
Section 23: This section empowers the nominated person of the Board to enter
any place for the purpose of performing any of the functions of the Board entrusted
to him. He is also empowered to examine any plant, record, register, document or
any other material object or for conducting a search of any place in which he has
reason to believe that an offence under this Act or the rules is suspected.
Section 24: This section deals with the prohibition on the use of stream or well for
disposal of polluting matter, etc. It lays down that: ‘No poisonous, noxious or
polluting matter determined (as per the standards laid down by the State Board)
should be permitted to enter any stream or will or sewer or on land.’
Section 25: As per this section, ‘No person shall without the previous consent of
the State Board:
(i) Can establish or take any steps to establish any industry, operation or process
or any treatment and disposal systems or any extension or addition there to
which is likely to discharge sewage or trade effluent into a stream or well or
sewer or on land
(ii) Bring into use any new or altered outlet for the discharge of sewages or
(iii) Begin to make any new discharge of sewage
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Government Legislations, Section 26: According to this section, before the commencement of this Act, the
NGOs and Environmental
Activities person who was discharging any sewage or trade effluent into a stream or well or
sewer or on land has to follow the rules of Section 25 mentioned above from a
specific date as proposed by the state government.
NOTES
Sections 32 and 33: In these sections, the provision relating to the accidental or
unforeseen discharge of polluted, poisonous or noxious matter into the stream or
well is dealt with. If such an accident or event takes place due to industrial operation
or system, then the person in charge of such place has to inform the State Board
about the occurrence of such accident or event. The State Board after assessing
the extent of such polluted discharge into the stream or well can instruct the person
to stop discharging the polluted matter. If necessary, the Board can approach the
local court in the matter for getting a judgement.
(c) Penalties and procedure
Failure to comply with the directions referred in the above sections (32 and 33)
can result in the person’s conviction and resultant punishment with imprisonment
for a term of three months with or without fine to the extent of ten thousand rupees.
If the failure continues, a fine of rupees five thousand for every day can also be
levied. If the failure continues beyond a one year period, then the person is liable
for imprisonment of two to seven years period with fine.
(3) Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
Following are the aims of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981:
(a) To provide for the prevention and control of air pollution
(b) To establish air pollution control boards for carrying out prevention and
control of air pollution.
(c) To assign functions and confer powers on the boards after establishment
 Central and state boards
Central Pollution Control Board constituted under Section 3 of Water (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 shall have the powers and perform the functions
of the Central Pollution Control Board for the prevention and control of air pollution
under this Act. State Pollution Control Boards constituted under Section 4 of
Water (Pollution and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 will also be functioning as
state boards under this Act.
The members of Central and State Boards for the Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act will be the same for the Air (Pollution and Control
Pollution) Act. The frequency of board meetings will also be the same (once in 3
months or earlier).
Restrictions regarding certain industrial plants
The state government, after consulting the State Board can prohibit the following
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298 Material
 (a) The use of any fuel (other than approved fuel) which is likely to cause air Government Legislations,
NGOs and Environmental
pollution. Activities
(b) No appliance other than an approved appliance can be used in the premises
situated in an air pollution control area.
NOTES
(c) Burning of any material (not being fuel) in any air pollution control area is
prohibited since the same may cause air pollution.
 Power of entry and inspection
Any person empowered by a State Board shall have a right to enter at all reasonable
times with required assistance as he considers necessary.
 Power to obtain information
For the purpose of carrying out the functions entrusted to it, the State Board or
any office empowered by it can call for any information (pertaining to the types of
air pollutants) from the occupier of any industry or industrial plant/control equipment
for the purpose of verifying the correctness of such information. The officer of
State Board can inspect the premises where he finds it necessary.
 Power to take samples of air or emission
Any State Board or any officer empowered by it will have the power to take
samples of air or emission from any chimney, flue or duct or any other outlet for
the purpose of analysis.
The person taking the samples will issue notice to the occupier (of the place/
plant) stating his intention of carrying out analysis of air. The sample of air will be
collected in the presence of the occupier or his representative. The collected air
sample will be placed in a container (or containers) which then will be marked and
sealed. Signatures of both the person taking the sample and the occupier or his
agent will be affixed on the samples collected. The containers with the collected
samples of air will then be sent to the laboratory established or recognized by the
State Board.
 Penalties and procedure
Failure to carry out the directions of State Board will bring about the following
penalties on the occupier or the person concerned.
In respect of each failure (for example, establishing a plant in the pollution
control area) the occupier is punishable with imprisonment for a term which shall
not be less than one year and six months, which may extend to six years and with
fine. And in case failure continues, an additional fine may be levied which may
extend to five thousand rupees for every day during which such failure continues
after the conviction for the first such failure.
If the failure referred above continues beyond a period of one year after the
date of conviction, the offender shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term
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Government Legislations, which shall not be less than two years but which may extend to seven years and
NGOs and Environmental
Activities with fine.
 Penalties for certain acts
NOTES The following acts are punishable:
(a) Destroying, pulling down, removing, injuring or defacing any pillar, post or
stake fixed in the ground or any notice or other matter put up, inscribed or
placed, by the State Board.
(b) Obstructing any person acting under the orders or directions of the Board
from exercising his powers and performing his functions under this Act.
(c) Damaging any works or property belonging to the board.
(d) Failing to furnish to the Board or any officer or any other employee of the
board any information required by the Board or such officer or other
employee for the purpose of this Act.
(e) Failing to intimate the occurrence of the emission of air pollutants into the
atmosphere in excess of the standards laid down by the State Board.
(f) Furnishing false statement for getting consent for the establishment of his
need.
All the above acts are punishable with imprisonment for a term which extends
to three months or with fine which may extend to ten thousand rupees or with
both.
14.2.2 Land Laws
Various acts and legislations, such as the Forest Protection Act, the Wildlife
Protection Act, the Biodiversity Act and the SEZ Act, are intended to protect the
land and minority communities.
(1) Forest Protection Act, 1927
The first Forest Act was enacted in 1927 and this is one of the many surviving
colonial legislations. It was enacted to strengthen the law related to forests, the
transit of the forest produce and the duty liable on timber and other forest produce.
Subsequently, the Forest (Conservation) Act was promulgated in 1980 to
make certain reforms over the proceeding Act of 1927. This act deals with the
four categories of forests, namely reserve forests, village forests, protected forests
and private forests. A state may declare forest lands or wastelands as reserved
forest and may sell the produce from these forests. Any unauthorized felling of
trees, quarrying, grazing and hunting in reserved forests is punishable with a fine or
imprisonment or both. The reserved forest assigned to a village community is
called village forest. The state governments are empowered to designate protected
forest and may prohibit the felling of trees, quarrying and the removal of the forest
produce from such a forest. The preservation of protected forests are enforced
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through rules, licenses and criminal prosecutions. Forest officers and their staff Government Legislations,
NGOs and Environmental
administer the Forest Act. Activities

(2) Scheduled Tribes and Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of

Forest Rights) Act, 2006 NOTES
This Act is an outcome of the struggle by the marginal and tribal communities of
our nation to assert their rights over forestland over whom they were conventionally
dependent. This Act is essential to the rights of millions of tribal and other forest
dwellers in different parts of our country as it provides for the compensation of
underprivileged forest rights across India, as well as both individual rights to
cultivated land in forestland and community rights over common property resources.
The January 2008 notification of the rules for the execution of Forest Rights Act,
2006 has lastly paved the way to undo the ‘historic injustice’ done to the tribal
community and other forest dwellers. With the help of this Act, the life of around
100 million poorest of the poor tribes stands to improve if its implementation is
taken seriously. The Act is important because it provides scope and historic
opportunity of protecting the basic rights of these poor people.
This Act is a potential tool:
 To make powerful as well as strengthen the local self-governance
 To deal with the living security of people, leading to poverty mitigation and
pro-poor development
 To deal with the problems of conservation and management of the natural
resources
Certain rights are given in Section 3(1) of the Act. These may be summarized as:
 Title rights related to the ownership of the land which is being farmed by the
tribals or forest dwellers as on 13 December 2005, subject to a maximum
of 4 hectares; this ownership is only for land which is really being cultivated
by the concerned family as on that date, and that no fresh lands are approved
 The rights to use minor forest produce (including ownership also), grazing
areas, pastoralist routes, etc.
 Relief and development rights such as rehabilitation when illegal eviction or
forced displacement has happened and of necessary facilities, subject to
limitations for forest protection
 Forest management rights to preserve forests and wildlife
(3) Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
According to the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, the expression ‘wildlife’ includes
any animal, bees, butterflies, fish and moths, and aquatic or land vegetation which
forms a part of any habitat.
The Wildlife Protection Act was passed by the Indian Parliament in 1972 to
protect India’s wildlife. However, even during the period after the Act came into
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Government Legislations, force, the number of wild animals is going down alarmingly despite of the government
NGOs and Environmental
Activities efforts to protect them. With the increase in population, there is greater pressure
on land. Forests are being destroyed as human habitation expands, thereby shrinking
the wildlife habitats. There is also the clandestine international trade in wildlife and
NOTES wildlife products which is a major cause for their wanton destruction. Meanwhile,
the growing consumer society and the increasing emphasis on luxury and vanity
items have also caused the exploitation of wildlife in the name of industrial progress.
(4) Coastal Regulation Zone Notification 2011
The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Government of India issued its
Notification S.O. 19 (E) dated 6 January 2011 on Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)
replacing the earlier CRZ notification S.O. 114(E), dated 19 February 1991.
Highlights of the notification are given below:
(a) Objectives
 Conserve and protect coastal stretches, its unique environment and its marine
area
 Ensure livelihood security to fishermen/other communities living in the coastal
areas
 Restrict the setting /storage/ disposal of hazardous substances in the CRZ
areas
(b) CRZ Areas
These include coastal stretches of the country and the water area up to its territorial
water limits (12 Nautical Miles), except the islands of Andaman and Nicobar and
Lakshadweep, which are covered under a separate notification.
Classification of the CRZ:
1. CRZ-I: (Ecologically sensitive areas)
2. CRZ-II: (Built-Up-Areas)
3. CRZ-III: (Rural Areas)
4. CRZ-IV: (Water Areas)
(c) Regulation of permissible activities
 Clearance shall be given for any activity within the CRZ only if it requires
waterfront and foreshore facilities for listed projects under this notification.
 Activities not listed in the EIA notification, 2006; construction activities
relating to projects of Department of Atomic Energy or Defence requirements
for which oreshore facilities are essential; construction, operation of
lighthouses; laying of pipelines, conveying systems, transmission line.
Following procedure for clearance of permissible activities will be applicable to
projects attracting this notification:
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 (i) Project proponents to apply with the following documents seeking prior Government Legislations,
NGOs and Environmental
clearance to the concerned State or the union territory Coastal Zone Activities
Management Authority (CZMA).
(ii) Concerned CZMA to examine the above documents and make
NOTES
recommendations within a period of sixty days from date of receipt of
complete application.
(iii) MoEF or State Environmental Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) shall
consider such projects for clearance based on the recommendations of the
concerned CZMA within a period of sixty days.
(iv) The clearance accorded to the projects under the CRZ notification shall be
valid for the period of five years from the date of issue of the clearance for
the commencement of construction and operation.
(v) For post clearance monitoring:
 Project proponent to submit half-yearly compliance reports to the
regulatory authority(s) concerned, on 1 June and 31 December of each
calendar year. All such compliance reports by the project proponent to
be published in public domain and its copies shall be given to any person
on application to the concerned CZMA.
 The compliance report also to be displayed on the website of the
concerned regulatory authority.
(vi) To maintain transparency in the working of the CZMA, it shall be the
responsibility of the CZMA to create a dedicated website and post the
agenda, minutes, decisions taken, clearance letters, violations, action taken
on the violations and court matters including the orders of the Hon’ble Court
as also the approved CZMA of the respective State Government or Union
territory.
(d) Preparation of coastal zone management plans (CZMA)
The CZMA may be prepared by the State Government or Union territory by
engaging reputed and experienced scientific institution(s) or the agencies including
the National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management (NCSCM) of MoEF
and in consultation with the concerned stakeholders. The notification provides
detailed procedure for the preparation of CZMA.
Enforcement of the Notification, 2011:
(i) For the purpose of implementation and enforcement of the provisions this
notification and compliance with conditions stipulated thereunder, the powers
either original or delegated are available under Environment (Protection)
Act, 1986 with the MoEF, State Government or the Union Territory
Administration NCZMA and SCZMAs.
(ii) The State Government or the Union Territory CZMAs shall primarily be
responsible for enforcing and monitoring of this notification. To assist in this
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Government Legislations, task, the State Government and the Union Territory shall constitute district-
NGOs and Environmental
Activities level Committees under the Chairmanship of the District Magistrate
concerned containing at least three representatives of local traditional coastal
communities including the fisher-folks.
NOTES
(5) Biodiversity Act, 2002
The Biodiversity Act, 2002 aims to provide for the conservation of biological
diversity, sustainable use of its components, and fair and equitable sharing of the
benefits arising out of the use of biological resources. The Act provides for the
constitution of a National Biodiversity Authority at the national level, State
Biodiversity Boards at the state levels and Biodiversity Management Committees
at the local levels to implement the provisions of this Act.
India’s richness in biological resources and indigenous knowledge relating
to them is well recognized. One of the major challenges is in adopting an instrument
which helps realize the objectives of equitable benefit sharing enshrined in the
convention. Towards this end, the legislation on biodiversity was developed
following an extensive consultative process. The legislation aims at regulating access
to biological resources so as to ensure equitable sharing of benefits arising from
their use. The Biological Diversity Bill, which was introduced in the Parliament on
15 May 2000, was referred to the Parliamentary Standing Committee for Science,
Technology, and Environment and Forests for examination and evaluation.
(a) Salient features of the biodiversity legislation
The main intent of this legislation is to protect India’s rich biodiversity and associated
knowledge against their use by foreign individuals and organizations without sharing
the benefits arising out of such use, and check biopiracy. The Act provides for
setting up of a National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity Board
(SBB) and Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) in local bodies. The
NBA and SBB are required to consult the BMCs in decisions relating to the use
of biological resources/related knowledge within their jurisdiction and BMCs are
to promote conservation, sustainable use and documentation of biodiversity.
All foreign national organizations require prior approval of the NBA for
obtaining biological resources and/or associated knowledge for any use. Indian
individuals/entities require approval from the NBA for transferring results of research
with respect to any biological resources to foreign nationals/organizations.
Collaborative research projects and exchange of knowledge and resources under
these projects are exempted provided they are drawn as per policy guidelines of
the Central Government and have its approval regarding the objectives of
conservations, sustainable use and benefits sharing. However, Indian citizens/entities/
local people including vaids and hakims have free access to use biological resources
within the country for their own use, medicinal purposes and research purposes.

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(6) Environmental Impact Assessment Notification, 2006 Government Legislations,
NGOs and Environmental
Activities
In 1994, the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) issued a notification
making Prior Environmental Clearance (PEC) mandatory for select categories of
developmental and industrial projects. Subsequently, a number of amendments NOTES
were brought out. However, the process of obtaining environmental clearance
was perceived to be cumbersome and the inordinate delay in granting clearances
has been a major cause of concern. The MoEF, therefore, embarked upon to
revise or re-engineer the environmental clearance process. The Final Notification
was published on 14 September 2006.
Highlights of the Notification
 Authorities/committees
 For all States and Union Territories, State Level Environment Impact
Assessment Authority (SEIAA) shall be constituted by the Central
Government comprising of a Chairman and a member Secretary in
consultation with the State Government or the Union Territory
Administration concerned. The non-official member and the Chairman
shall have a fixed term of three years. All decisions of the SEIAA shall
be unanimous and taken in a meeting. The SEIAA shall base its decision
on the recommendations of a State or Union territory level Expert
Appraisal Committee (SEAC).
 At the Central Government level, the MoEF shall be Environment Impact
Assessment Authority (EIAA). The MoEF shall recommend
environmental clearance based on the recommendations of an Expert
Appraisal Committee (EAC).
 The composition of EAC and SEACs shall be as given in Appendix VI
of the Notification. The EAC and SEACs shall function on the principle
of collective responsibility. The EAC and SEAC shall meet at least once
every month. The EAC and SEACs shall be reconstituted every three
year.
 Projects/activities requiring environmental clearance
All new projects or activities and/or expansion and modernization of the
existing project or activities or any change in product-mix in an existing
manufacturing unit included in the Schedule of the Notification shall require
Prior Environmental Clearance (PEC) from MoEF for matters falling under
Category ‘A’ and from SEIAA for matters falling under Category ‘B’ before
any construction work.
 Mining, primary processing, material production, manufacturing/
fabrication, industrial estates/parks/complexes/areas (EPZ SEZ),
common effluent treatment plans, common biomedical treatment facilities,
common municipal solid waste facilities and isolated storages and handling
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Government Legislations, of hazardous chemicals, new construction projects and township projects
NGOs and Environmental
Activities are included in the Schedule.
 Any project or activity specified in Category ‘B’ in the Schedule will be
treated as Category ‘A’, if located in whole or in part within 10 km from
NOTES
the boundary of (i) Protected areas as notified under the Wildlife
(Protection) Act 1972, (ii) Critically polluted areas as notified by the
Central Pollution Control Board from time to time, (iii) Notified eco-
sensitive areas, and (iv) Inter-state boundaries and international
boundaries.
 Validity/transferability of environmental clearance
The prior environmental clearance granted shall be valid for a period of ten
years in the case of river valley projects, maximum of thirty years for mining
projects and five years in the case of all other projects and activities.

Check Your Progress

1. What is implied by the phrase ‘enforced by prosecution’?
2. In which year was the first Forest Act enacted in India?
3. Which act is the result of the struggle of marginal and tribal communities to
assert their rights over forest produce?
4. As per the Wildlife Protection Act 1972, what constitutes the term
‘wildlife’?

14.3 COURT DECISIONS

Indian heritage and culture has an intimate relation with the conservation and
protection of the environment. The Indian State has also enshrined it in the
Constitution which requires both the State and the Citizen to “protect and improve
the environment”. The Environment Act, 1986, as discussed in the previous section
is one of those acts which extends to the whole of India without any exception.
Constitutional Interpretation of Environment
The 42nd Amendment to the Constitution of India added Article 48A and 51A(g)
which comes under the Directive Principle of State Policy and the Fundamental
Duties respectively. The Supreme Court of India in “Sachidanand Pandey v.
State of West Bengal AIR 1987 SC 1109” stated that the Court is bound to bear
in mind the above said articles whenever a case related to Environmental problem
is brought to the Court.
The Article 48A states: “The State shall endeavour to protect and improve
the environment and to safeguard the forest and wildlife of the country.”

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 The Article 51A(g) imposes a duty upon every citizen of India to protect Government Legislations,
NGOs and Environmental
and improve the natural environment and confers right to come before the Court Activities
for appropriate relief.
The Apex Court in “DamodarRao v. S.O. Municipal Corporation AIR
NOTES
1987 AP 171” held that the environmental pollution and spoliation which is slowly
poisoning and polluting the atmosphere should also be regarded as amounting to
violation of Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.
Public Liability and Public Nuisance
“M.C. Mehta and Anr. Etc vs. Union of India and Ors. Etc 1986 SCR (1)
312” discusses the concept of Public Liability. This case is also known as Oleum
Leakage Case. It is a landmark judgment in which the principle of Absolute Liability
was laid down by the Supreme Court of India. The Court held that the permission
for carrying out any hazardous industry very close to the human habitation could
not be given and the industry was relocated.
The instant case evolved the “Deep Pocket Principle”. This judgment guided
the Parliament to add a new chapter to the Factory Act, 1948. The Public Liability
Act was passed and the policy for the Abatement of Pollution Control was also
established.
When the Directive Principles of State Policy has clear statutory expressions
then the Court will not allow Municipal Government to make fun of the Statutes by
sitting idly. It was decided by the Supreme Court in the “Municipal Corporation,
Ratlam vs. Vardhichand AIR 1980 SC 1622”. The plea of lack of fund will be
poor alibi when people in misery cry for justice. The office in charge and even the
elected representatives will have to face a penalty if they violate the constitutional
and other statutory directives.
Sustainable Development
The Bench of Justices PN Bhagwati and Ranganath Mishra in “Rural Litigation
and Entitlement Kendra, Dehradun vs. State of Uttar Pradesh AIR 1987 SC
2187” introduced the concept of sustainable development. An NGO named RLEK
filed a case against limestone quarrying in the valley in 1987.
It was stated that the permanent assets of mankind are not to be exhausted
in one generation. The natural resources should be used with requisite attention
and care so that ecology and environment may not be affected in any serious way.
Environmental Impact Assessment
Justice Jeevan Reddy in the landmark judgment of “Indian Council for Enviro-
Legal Action vs. Union of India AIR 1999 SC 1502” held that the financial
costs of preventing or remedying damage caused by pollution should lie with the
undertakings which cause the pollution by adopting the “Polluter Pays Principle”.

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Government Legislations, The Court set a time limit for the coastal states to formulate coastal
NGOs and Environmental
Activities management plans and banned industrial or construction activity within 500 metres
of the High Tide Line.

NOTES Water Pollution

The writ petition filed by the activist advocate M.C. Mehta in the Supreme Court
highlighted the pollution of the Ganga River by the hazardous industries located on
its banks. Justice ES Venkataramiah gave a historic judgement in “M.C. Mehta
vs. Union of India AIR 1988 SCR (2) 538” ordering the closure of a number of
polluting tanneries near Kanpur.
In this judgment it was observed that just like an industry which cannot pay
minimum wages to its workers cannot be allowed to exist, a tannery which cannot
setup a primary treatment plant cannot be permitted to continue to be in existence.
Air Pollution
The pride of India and one of the wonders of the world i.e., the Taj Mahal, was
facing threat due to high toxic emissions from Mathura Refineries, Iron Foundries,
Glass and other chemical industries. The acid rain was a serious threat to the Ta j
Mahal and 255 other historic monuments within the Taj Trapezium.
The Apex Court in “M.C. Mehta vs. Union of India (Taj Trapezium
Case) AIR 1987” delivered its historic judgment in 1996 giving various directions
including banning the use of coal and cake and directing the industries to
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG).
Environmental Awareness and Education Case
The Supreme Court in “M.C. Mehta vs. Union of India WP 860/1991” ordered
the cinema theatres all over the country to exhibit two slides free of cost on
environment in each show. Their licenses will be cancelled if they fail to do so. The
Television network in the country will give 5 to 7 minutes to televise programmes
on environment apart from giving a regular weekly programme on environment.
Environment has become a compulsory subject up to 12th standard from
academic session 1992 and University Grants Commission will also introduce this
subject in higher classes in different Universities.
Wildlife and Forest Protection Case
The livelihood of forest dwellers in the Nilgiri region of Tamil Nadu was affected
by the destruction of forests. The Supreme Court in “TN Godavarman
Thirumulpad vs. Union of India and Ors.” passed a series of directions since
1995, till the final judgment in 2014.
The Apex Court decided to set up a Compensatory Afforestation Funds
Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) to monitor the afforestation efforts,

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to oversee the compensation who suffered on account of deforestation, and to Government Legislations,
NGOs and Environmental
accelerate activities for preservation of natural forests. Activities
A writ petition was filed by the Tarun Bharat Sangh in the Supreme Court to
stop mining activities in the Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary. The Court in the case of
NOTES
“The Tarun Bharat Sangh vs. Union of India and Ors. (1991)” banned all the
mining activities in the sanctuary.
Public Trust and Right to Life
The Bench of Justices Kuldip Singh and Sagir Ahmed held that the Government
violated the Doctrine of Public Trust in “M.C. Mehta vs. Kamal Nath and Ors.
(1996)”. The Himachal Pradesh State Government had leased out a protected
forest area on the bank of river Beas to motels, for commercial purposes.
In 1996, the Supreme Court passed a judgment that would hold the State
more responsible for maintaining natural resources.
The Right to Pollution Free Environment was declared to be a part of Right
to Life under Article 21 of the Constitution of India in the case of “Subhash Kumar
vs. State of Bihar and Ors. (1991)”. Right to Life is a Fundamental Right which
includes the Right of enjoyment of pollution free water and air for full enjoyment of
life.

14.4 ROLE OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL

ORGANIZATIONS (NGOs) IN ENVIRONMENT
PROTECTION

Today, we come across various non-governmental organizations whose concerns

are focused on various areas such as social issues, health issues, and environmental
issues. Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) is a broad term, which includes
charity organizations, advisory committees and various other professional
organizations. NGOs in India are spread across the country and they have close
contacts with communities.
They are involved in the whole spectrum of developmental activities from
creating environmental awareness to undertaking watershed development: from
disaster management to sustainable livelihoods; from joint forest management to
giving inputs to policies. They range from clubs, which encourage nature camping
to agencies, which undertake research and monitoring.
There are large number of NGOs in India and other countries that are
exclusively working for environmental, protection, conservation, and awareness.
The number of these non-governmental organizations which are actively involved
in environmental protection in our country is, in fact, more than in any of the
developing country. Increasingly, the government is viewing NGOs not only as

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Government Legislations, agencies that will help them to implement their programs, but also as partners
NGOs and Environmental
Activities shaping policy and programs.
NGOs are now playing an important role in framing environmental policy,
mobilizing public support for environmental conservation, and protecting the
NOTES
endangered species of forests and animals. Environmental organizations such as
Earth Watch and Sea Shepherd Conservation Society have been successful in
creating awareness about the environmental dangers in using drift nets in the
commercial fishing industry.
Through driftnet monitoring, public education and action they were successful
in banning driftnet system internationally. The issues like future of environmental
protection, sustain-able development and zero population growth are some of the
major concerns of the environmental NGOs. Environmental policies will achieve
positive results only when they are addressed to local issues and solve the problems
of local people. The policy makers should keep in mind the needs of the people
while framing the policies and implementing the environment friendly projects.
Unless the needs of the people are identified and supported, sustainable
development cannot be achieved. Policymakers and administrators should take
care in selecting, financing, and implementing projects, which are aimed at
pro-moting social welfare. They should not encourage the enterprises that promote
private ownership and cooperation. Some of the international environmental
organizations are Greenpeace, Worldwide Fund for Nature’ (WWF), Earth First,
etc. Let us now have a detailed dis-cussion on some of the environmental
organizations and their efforts in protecting environment.
I. Greenpeace
Greenpeace is an environment-friendly international organization, which aims at
promoting environmental awareness. It is an independent, campaigning organization,
addressing the environmental abuse through direct, non-violent confrontations with
governments and companies. It exposes global environmental problems and
provides solutions for a healthy environment. Greenpeace focuses on the most
crucial worldwide threats to our planets biodiversity and environment. It campaigns
to:
1. Stop Climate Change: The extensive use of oil, gas, fuel, and other energy
resources leads to climatic changes, which results in global warming. In
order to stop climate change, Greenpeace is campaigning on various fronts.
It has been researching to stop climate change and to promote clean energy
solutions.
2. Protect Ancient Forests: Many forests of the world are in crisis. The
plants and animals are facing the threat of extinction. People living in forests
and depend-ing on them for their livelihood are also under threat.
Greenpeace takes up the responsibility to save the forests and provides
solutions for the same.
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 3. Save the Oceans: Greenpeace’s save the oceans campaign currently Government Legislations,
NGOs and Environmental
focuses on four major threats to the world’s oceans: overfishing, pirate Activities
fishing, whaling, and intensive shrimp aquaculture.
4. Stop Whaling: Commercial whaling has resulted in the decline of the world’s
NOTES
whale population. In order to stop commercial whaling, Greenpeace is
working on many fronts. Through political work public outreach and by
adopting non-violent direct action against the whalers at sea. Greenpeace
is fighting against commercial whaling.
5. Say No to Genetic Engineering: Genetic engineering enables creation of
plants, animals and micro-organisms through the manipulation of genes. The
organisms, which are produced through genetic engineering when interbred
with the natural organisms lead to new environments, which are uncontrolled.
Their release into the environment leads to “genetic pollution”, as once
released they cannot be recalled back. Greenpeace believes that “organisms,”
which are genetically engineered, should not be released into the environment
without adequate knowledge of their impact on the health and environment.
It advocates taking immediate measures such as labelling of genetically
engineered ingredients, and the segregation of genetically engineered crops
from conven-tional ones.
6. Stop the Nuclear Threat: Greenpeace campaigns against the use of nuclear
power as its use has never been peaceful. It leads to accidents, deaths, and
disasters. Radiation released into the environment through the nuclear tests
has led to the contamination of soil, air, rivers, and oceans, causing cancer
and other diseases in people.
7. Eliminate Toxic Chemicals: Greenpeace also campaigns against toxic
chemicals, as they prove to be a global threat to the health and environment.
8. Encourage Sustainable Trade: Greenpeace opposes the current form of
globalization that is increasing corporate power. It demands that the World
Trade Organization (WTO) adopt a policy of trade, which works for all
and that pre-serves and restores the environment. Governments must work
toward achieving sustainable development, which means integrating three
things: environmental, social, and economic priorities.
In order to maintain its independence, Greenpeace does not accept funds from
governments or from the corporate sector. It has played an important role in
preserving the environment, which is proved by its successful achievements:
1. A ban on toxic waste exports to less developed countries.
2. A moratorium on commercial whaling.
3. A United Nations convention providing for better management of world
fisheries.
4. A Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary.

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Government Legislations, 5. A 50-year moratorium on mineral exploitation in Antarctica.
NGOs and Environmental
Activities 6. Ban on the dumping at sea of radioactive and industrial waste and disused
oil installations.
NOTES 7. An end to high-sea, large-scale driftnet fishing.
8. A ban on all nuclear weapons testing their first ever campaign.
II. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)—India
The World Wide Fund for Nature or the WWF is an international organization for
wildlife conservation with its focus on protecting particular species of wildlife fauna.
As its range of activities broadened, the international organization believed that its
name no longer reflected the scope of its activities and it became the Worldwide
Fund for Nature in 1986. But the affiliated groups in the United States and Canada
retained the original name. The organization is now simply, referred to as the WWF.
WWF-India is committed to protecting and saving the already degraded
and threatened natural bounties in the country. The organization is today dedicated
to the conservation of natural habitats and ecosystems in India. WWF-India was
established as a Charitable Trust in 1969. With its network of State/Divisional and
Field Offices spread across the country to implement its programs, WWF-India
is the largest and one of the most experienced conservation organizations in the
country.
The Secretariat of the organization functions from New Delhi. The
organization is part of the WWF family with 27 independent national organizations.
The coordinating body, the WWF International, is located at Gland in Switzerland.
In order to suit India’s specific ecological and socio-cultural situation, WWF-
India articulated its mission in 1987 as follows: “The promotion of nature
conservation and environmental protection as the basis for sustainable and equitable
development.”
The WWF-India Mission has the following broad program components:
1. Promoting India’s ecological security; restoring the ecological balance.
2. Conserving biological diversity.
3. Ensuring sustainable use of the natural resource base.
4. Minimizing pollution and wasteful consumption, promoting sustainable
lifestyles.
WWF-India implements its conservation programs through Field Programs,
Public Policy, Education, Communications, NGO Networking, and Resource
Mobilization.
The key environmental issues, which WWF-India has involved itself with,
are: The tiger conservation program, fresh-water and wetlands program, river
dolphin conservation program, wildlife trade monitoring, managing forests,
environmental law, information management and environmental education.
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III. Some Other Environmental Organizations in India Government Legislations,
NGOs and Environmental
Activities
Some other environmental organizations in India are as follows:
1. The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS)
Founded in 1883, the BNHS is recognized as one of the foremost conservation NOTES
research organizations in the world. It aims to collect data on the specimens on
natural history throughout the Indian sub-continent. To disseminate knowledge of
flora and fauna by means of lectures, field trips, literature, expeditions and to
study wildlife-related problems and recommend management plans to conserve
wildlife and its habitat.
It conducts field research projects on bird migration. It also conducts studies
of certain endangered species of wildlife and their habitat and through environmental
education imparts the knowledge and awareness of the need to conserve wildlife.
It has undertaken a wide range of projects in conjunction with both local
and overseas counterpart organizations on birds, reptiles, mammals, natural history,
and the impact of developmental programs on wildlife.
2. Development Alternatives Group
Development Alternatives Group based in Delhi works in all parts of the country.
It was established in 1983 to design options and promote sustainable development
through programs of economic efficiency, equity and social justice, resource
conservation, and self-reliance. Its activities cover the entire nation: It is working
in the field of pollution monitoring and control, waste recycling management,
wasteland development, and appropriate technology. Its objective is to design
options and promote sustainable development through programs of:
i. Economic efficiency,
ii. Equity and social justice,
iii. Environmental harmony,
iv. Resource conservation, and
v. Self-reliance.
3. The Energy Research Institute (TERI)
Established in 1974, TERI is a wholly independent, non-profit research institute.
Its mission is to develop and promote technologies, policies, and institutions for
efficient and sustainable use of natural resources. It has been imparting environmental
education through projects, workshops, audio-visual aids, and quiz competitions.
It deals with policy-related works in the energy sector, research on
environmental subjects, development of renewable energy technologies and
promotion of energy efficiency in the industry and transport sector. TERI also has
a major program in biotechnology, the applications of which are oriented toward
increased biomass production, conversion of waste into useful products and
mitigating the harmful environmental impacts of several economic activities.
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Government Legislations, TERI established the TERI University in 1998. Initially set up as the TERI
NGOs and Environmental
Activities School of Advanced Studies, it received the status of a deemed university in 1999.
The University is a unique institution of higher learning exclusively for programs
leading to PhD and master level degrees. Its uniqueness lies in the wealth of research
NOTES carried out within TERI as well as by its faculty and students making it a genuinely
research oriented university.
14.4.1 Role of Environmental Activities
Environmental activities are those activities which reduce or eliminate pressures
on the environment and which aim at making more efficient use of natural resources.
Examples are investing in technologies designed to prevent or reduce
pollution, restoring the environment after it has been polluted, protecting the
economy from a deteriorated environment, recycling, conservation and resource
management and the production of environmental goods and services.
In addition, there are some activities which, though not primarily aimed at
protecting the environment, may have environmentally beneficial effects. Damage
avoidance and treatment may also be included in the field of interest though these
activities are more concerned with rectifying damage already done than with
preventing it in the first place.
Lastly, and perhaps less obviously, minimisation of natural hazards may be
included although these are activities to protect the economy from the environment
where the others are concerned with protecting the environment from the economy.

Check Your Progress

5. Which case introduced the concept of sustainable development in India?
6. When was Development Alternatives Group established?

14.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. The phrase ‘enforced by prosecution’ means that the person who is alleged
to have committed the offence is formally charged and required to attend
court.
2. The first Forest Act of India was enacted in the year 1927.
3. Scheduled Tribes and Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest
Rights) Act, 2006 is an outcome of the struggle by the marginal and tribal
communities of our nation to assert their rights over forestland over whom
they were conventionally dependent.
4. According to the Wildlife Protection Act 1972, the expression ‘wildlife’
includes any animal, bees, butterflies, fish and moths, and aquatic or land
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314 Material
 5. The Bench of Justices PN Bhagwati and Ranganath Mishra in “Rural Government Legislations,
NGOs and Environmental
Litigation and Entitlement Kendra, Dehradun vs. State of Uttar Activities
Pradesh AIR 1987 SC 2187” introduced the concept of sustainable
development.
NOTES
6. Development Alternatives Group was established in 1983 to design options
and promote sustainable development through programs of economic
efficiency, equity and social justice, resource conservation, and self-reliance.

14.6 SUMMARY

 Environmental laws are the laws for protecting soil, air, water, the oceans
and biodiversity, as well as laws which protect the environment as a whole.
 Common laws are the laws developed by the courts over many years. A
criminal law states that to do something is an ‘offence’ and imposes a fine or
a custodial sentence on an offender.
 There are other laws known as Land laws which are enacted to ensure the
protection of the rights and resources related to land of the tribal and minority
communities.
 As per the Environmental (Protection) Act 1986, the central government is
empowered to take all such measures as it deems necessary for the purpose
of protecting and improving the quality of the environment and preventing,
controlling and abating environmental pollution.
 The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 aims to provide
for the prevention and control of air pollution; establish air pollution control
boards for carrying out prevention and control of air pollution; and assign
functions and confer powers on the boards after establishment.
 Following are the aims of Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1974: i) To provide for the prevention and control of water pollution; ii) To
maintain or restore the wholesomeness of water; iii) To establish water
pollution control boards for the prevention and control of water pollution;
iv) To assign suitable powers and functions for the water pollution control
boards.
 The first forest act was enacted in 1927 to strengthen the law related to
forests, the transit of forest produce and the duty liable on timber and other
forest produce. Subsequently, the Forest (Conservation) Act was
promulgated in 1980 to make certain reforms over the proceeding Act of
1927.
 Scheduled Tribes and Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest
Rights) Act, 2006 is an outcome of the struggle by the marginal and tribal
communities of our nation to assert their rights over forestland over whom
they were conventionally dependent.
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Government Legislations,  According to the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, the expression ‘wildlife’
NGOs and Environmental
Activities includes any animal, bees, butterflies, crustecia, fish and moths, and aquatic
or land vegetation which forms part of any habitat.
 The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification 2011 has the following objectives:
NOTES
Conserve and protect coastal stretches, its unique environment and its marine
area; Ensure livelihood security to fishermen/other communities living in the
coastal areas; Restrict the setting /storage/ disposal of hazardous substances
in the CRZ areas
 The BiodiversityAct, 2002 aims to provide for the conservation of biological
diversity, sustainable use of its components, and fair and equitable sharing
of the benefits arising out of the use of biological resources.
 Indian heritage and culture has an intimate relation with the conservation
and protection of the environment. The Indian State has also enshrined it in
the Constitution which requires both the State and the Citizen to “protect
and improve the environment”.
 The 42nd Amendment to the Constitution of India added Article 48A and
51A(g) which comes under the Directive Principle of State Policy and the
Fundamental Duties respectively.
 The Article 48A states: “The State shall endeavour to protect and improve
the environment and to safeguard the forest and wildlife of the country.”
 The Article 51A(g) imposes a duty upon every citizen of India to protect
and improve the natural environment and confers right to come before the
Court for appropriate relief.
 Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) is a broad term, which includes
charity organizations, advisory committees and various other professional
organizations. NGOs in India are spread across the country and they have
close contacts with communities.
 NGOs are now playing an important role in framing environmental policy,
mobilizing public support for environmental conservation, and protecting
the endangered species of forests and animals.
 Greenpeace is an environment-friendly international organization, which aims
at promoting environmental awareness. It is an independent, campaigning
organization, addressing the environmental abuse through direct, non-violent
confrontations with governments and companies.
 In order to maintain its independence, Greenpeace does not accept funds
from governments or from the corporate sector.
 The World Wide Fund for Nature or the WWF is an international organization
for wildlife conservation with its focus on protecting particular species of
wildlife fauna.

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  Founded in 1883, the BNHS is recognized as one of the foremost Government Legislations,
NGOs and Environmental
conservation research organizations in the world. It aims to collect data on Activities
the specimens on natural history throughout the Indian sub-continent.
 Established in 1974, TERI is a wholly independent, non-profit research
NOTES
institute. Its mission is to develop and promote technologies, policies, and
institutions for efficient and sustainable use of natural resources.

14.7 KEY WORDS

 Whaling: It is the practice or industry of hunting and killing whales for their
oil, meat, or whalebone.
 Biodiversity: It refers to the degree of variation of life forms within a given
species, ecosystem, biome or an entire planet; a measure of the health of
ecosystems.
 Environmental Laws: Environmental laws are the laws for protecting soil,
air, water, the oceans and biodiversity, as well as laws which protect the
environment as a whole. They can protect areas of land or ocean and
individual species.
 Reserve forest: It is an area of forest set aside and preserved by the
government as a wilderness, national park or the like.

14.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. What are the aims of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1974?
2. What are the objectives of the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 2011?
Also mention the classification of CRZ areas.
3. Briefly discuss the salient features of the biodiversity legislation.
Long-Answer Questions
1. Write an essay on the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
2. Describe some of the major court rulings in India in relation to the
environment.
3. Discuss the role of non-governmental organizations in environment protection
in India.
4. Explain the major provisions of the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986.

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Government Legislations,
NGOs and Environmental 14.9 FURTHER READINGS
Activities

J. Donald Hughes. 2015. What is Environmental History?. London: Wiley.

NOTES Chakrabarti, Ranjan. 2020. Critical Themes in Environmental History of India.
New Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Agnoletti, Mauro and Simone Neri Serneri. 2014. The Basic Environmental
History. New York: Springer International Publishing.
Isenberg, Andrew Christian. 2014. The Oxford Handbook of Environmental
History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rosencrazz, Armin. 2002. Environmental law & Policy in India. Noida: Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Appadurai, Susila. 2004. Environmental studies. New Delhi: New Century Book
House Pvt Ltd.
Porter, Goreth, Janet Welsh Brown. 2000. Global Environmental politics.
Colorado: Westview Press.

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