Lecture1: Stresses in a soil mass

The University of Dar es Salaam

(UDSM)
Department of Transportation and
Geotechnical (TGE) Chapter contents
 Introduction
 Total and effective stress concept
 Stress in soil from the surface load
1 John E. Elvis
 Introduction

Importance

 In a given mass of soil, the solid particles are

distributed randomly with void spaces, which are
continuous and occupies by water or air.
 The nature of stress distribution along the soil
profile is of importance to analyze problems such
as compressibility of soil, bearing capacity of the
foundations, stability of embankment and lateral
earth pressure on retaining walls.

2
 Introduction

Types of stresses

Stresses
Geostatic stress Stresses from surface loads

Total Stress 1.Point Load

Effective Stress 2.Line Load
Pore Water Pressure 3.Strip Load
4.Triangular Load
5.Circular Load
Total Stress= Effective Stress+ Pore Water Pressure 6.Rectangular Load

3
 Geostatic stress

Stress due to self weight (Single layer)

Stress on element A can be determine from the mass of

overlaying material. If 𝛾𝛾 represents the unit weight of
soil, the vertical stress is σz = γ x Z
Ground surface Vertical stress profile

Soil
γ Z

A
4 σz = γ x Z
 Geostatic stress

Stress due to self weight (Multiple layer)

The stress in multiple layer, having different densities,

can be calculated as σz = γ1 h1 + γ2 h2 + ⋯ + γn hn =
∑𝑛𝑛1 γi hi .
Ground surface
ℎ1 𝛾𝛾1 𝑍𝑍1
σ1 ℎ1 𝛾𝛾1
𝑍𝑍2
ℎ2 𝛾𝛾2 𝑍𝑍3 σ2 ℎ1 𝛾𝛾1 + ℎ2 𝛾𝛾2

5 ℎ3 𝛾𝛾3
σ3 ℎ1 𝛾𝛾1 + ℎ2 𝛾𝛾2 + ℎ3 𝛾𝛾3
 Geostatic stress

Stress due to self weight and uniform surcharge

Stress on element A can be determine from the mass of

overlaying material. If 𝛾𝛾 represents the unit weight of
soil, the vertical stress is σz = γ x Z
Conversion land surface
h
q σq = γ x h
Original ground surface
Soil
Z Z
γ
6 σz = γ x h + γ x Z
 Geostatic stress (Cont.….)

Types of geostatic stress

There are three types of geostatic stress:

1. Consider a soil mass having the level of water
table located at ground surface. The total vertical
stress at depth Z is equal to the weight of all
materials (solids + water) per unit area above
that depth. Mathematically, this is presented as
shown in the following Eq.

σz = γsat x Z
7
 Geostatic stress (Cont.….)

The concept of geostatic stress

2. In saturated condition, the pores in the soil mass

(used to separate the grains) are filled with water,
and pressure induced on it is termed as pore water
pressure. It increase the volume or decrease the
frictional resistance of the soil mass. The pore
pressure at any depth Z is hydrostatics since the
void space between the solid particles is
continuous, therefore at depth z;
uw = γw x Z
8
 Geostatic stress (Cont.….)

The concept of geostatic stress (Cont.…)

3. The pressure transmitted through the grain to grain

at the contact points through a soil mass is termed
as effective stress. The difference between the total
stress and pore pressure, in saturated soil, has been
defined by Terzaghi as effective stress (𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧′ );

σz ′ = σz − uw

9
 Geostatic stress (Cont.….)

The concept of effective stress

10
 Effective stress concept
Stress when no seepage in the soil mass
Description
If the water is seeping, the effective stress
( 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧′ ) at any point in a soil mass will
increase or decrease, depending on the
direction of seepage.
In Fig. 1, the container A is filled with sand
at depth 𝑧𝑧1 and water to a depth 𝑧𝑧2 above
the sand surface. The tube connect
container A, at C, to container B. The level
of water are kept constant. No flow take
place from one container to another. Due to
laws of hydraulics, pore pressure at N is
11 assumed equal to the pressure at M.
Fig1. Container
 Stress concept (Cont.…)
Pore pressure, total and effective stress
at the bottom of the tank

Total stress at C
𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 = 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 + 𝛾𝛾𝑏𝑏 𝑧𝑧1

Pore pressure at C
𝑢𝑢𝑐𝑐 = 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤

Effective stress at C
𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 = 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 − 𝑢𝑢𝑐𝑐 = 𝛾𝛾𝑏𝑏 𝑧𝑧1

12
 Stress concept (Cont.…)
Stresses when flow takes place from top to
the bottom
In Fig. 3, the water surface in container B is
kept at h below the surface in A. The head h
permits water to flow from container A to B.
The pore water pressure at C is
𝑢𝑢𝑐𝑐 = 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 − ℎ 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤
The total stress at the bottom C is:
𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 = 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 + 𝛾𝛾𝑏𝑏 𝑧𝑧1
Effective stress at C
𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 ′ = 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 − 𝑢𝑢𝑐𝑐 = 𝛾𝛾𝑏𝑏 𝑧𝑧1 + h𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤
Effective stress at depth z
13 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 ′ = 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝛾𝛾𝑏𝑏 𝑧𝑧 + z h 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 Fig. 3
𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧1
 Stress concept (Cont.…)
Stress diagram (Flow from top to
the bottom)

14
 Stress concept (Cont.…)
Stresses when flow takes place from
bottom to the top
In Fig. 4, the water surface in container B is
kept above that of A by h units. This permits
the water to flow upwards through the sample
in container A.
Pore water pressure at C
𝑢𝑢𝑐𝑐 = 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 + ℎ 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤
Total stress at C
𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 = 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 + 𝛾𝛾𝑏𝑏 𝑧𝑧1
Effective stress at C
𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 ′ = 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 − 𝑢𝑢𝑐𝑐 = 𝛾𝛾𝑏𝑏 𝑧𝑧1 − h𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤
15 Effective stress at depth z: 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 ′ = 𝛾𝛾𝑏𝑏 𝑧𝑧 − z h 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 Fig. 4
𝑧𝑧1
 Stress concept (Cont.…)
Stress diagram (Flow from top to the
bottom)

16
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example1

A clay layer 3.66 m thick rests beneath a

deposit of submerged sand 7.92 m thick. The
top of the sand is located 3.05 m below the
surface of lake. The saturated unit weight of
the sand is 19.62kN/m3 and of the clay is
18.36 kN/m3 .
a. Sketch the soil profile
b. Compute (i) the total vertical stress (ii) the
pore water pressure (iii) the effective stress
17 at the mid height of clay layer.
 Example-1: Soil profile

18
 Example-1: Solution

(i) Total stress at the midpoint of the clay layer

3.66
σt = ∗18.36 + 7.92*19.62 + 3.05*9.81 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟗𝟗 kN/m2
2
(ii) Pore water pressure
3.66
uw = ∗9.81 + 7.92*9.81 + 3.05*9.81 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟔 kN/m2
2
(iii) Effective stress
𝜎𝜎 ′ = σw − uw = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟗𝟗 − 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟔 = 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟑𝟑 kN/m2

19
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example 2

The water table is located at a depth of 3.0 m below

the ground surface in a deposit of sand 11.0 m thick
(Fig. 2). The sand is saturated above the water table.
The total unit weight of the sand is 20 kN/m3 .
Calculate the (a) the total pressure (b) the pore water
pressure and (c) the effective pressure at depths 0,
3.0, 7.0, and 11.0 m from the ground surface, and
draw the pressure distribution diagram.

20
 Example-2: Soil profile

21
 Example-1: Solution

22
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example 3

A clay stratum 8.0 m thick is located at a depth of 6 m from

the ground surface. The natural moisture content of the clay
is 56% and GS = 2.75. The soil stratum between the ground
surface and the clay consists of fine sand. The water table is
located at a depth of 2 m below the ground surface. The
submerged unit weight of fine sand is 10.5 kN/m3, and its
moist unit weight above the water table is 18.68 kN/m3 .
Calculate the effective stress at the centre of the clay

23
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-3: Soil profile

24
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-3: Solution

Saturated unit weight for sand:

Saturated and submerged unit weight for clay:

25
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-3: Solution (Cont.…)

Total stress, pore water pressure and effective stress:

Total stress 𝝈𝝈𝒕𝒕 :

Pore water pressure 𝒖𝒖𝒘𝒘 :

Effective stress 𝝈𝝈′ :

26
 Stress concept (Cont.…)
Capillary water rise in soil mass

 If the water in the soil were subjected to no force

other than gravity, the soil above the water table is
perfectly dry.
 If the lower part of dry soil comes into contact with
water, the water rises in the voids to a certain
height above the free water surface (capillary rise).
The upward flow into the voids of the soil is
attributed to the surface tension of the water.
 The water that occupies the voids of dry soil,
27 above the water table constitutes soil moisture.
 Stress concept (Cont.…)

Rise of water in capillary tube

Consider the capillary tube shown in Figure.

• hc is the height of capillary rise
• The upper surface of water assumes the
shape of the cup known as meniscus. It
joins the wall of the tube at angle 𝛼𝛼 ,
known as contact angle
• 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 is the force that exists at the surface
of the meniscus. It is known as surface
tension. The components of the surface
tension are shown in the next slide
28 Figure
 Stress concept (Cont.…)

Surface tension, 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔

• If the meniscus has stopped moving upward in the tube, then
there must be equilibrium between the weight of the column
of water suspended from the meniscus and the force with
which the meniscus is clinging to the wall of the tube.
• Due to equilibrium, the height of water below the meniscus
can be calculated as shown in Eq. below:

29
Figure B
 Stress concept (Cont.…)

Surface tension, 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 (Cont.…)

• The surface tensions of the common liquids, at 20𝑜𝑜 C,
are shown in the table below.
• For instance, the ℎ𝑐𝑐 of water liquid in the tube is
calculated as shown below; ℎ𝑐𝑐 and d are expressed in
cm, where d is diameter of the tube.

30
 Stress concept (Cont.…)
Stress distribution below the meniscus

As shown in the Figure, points A and B

are atmospheric pressure. Due to laws of
hydraulics, the pressure at C is also
atmospheric. Since point D is higher
than C by ℎ𝑐𝑐 , then the pressure at D
must be less by 𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 ℎ𝑐𝑐 . Therefore, the
tension in water (capillary pressure) 𝑢𝑢𝑤𝑤 ,
below the meniscus, is given by Equation
below:

31 Figure
 Stress concept (Cont.…)
Capillary rise in soil

As shown in the Figure, the tube is filled with

sand, which remain full saturated up to ℎ𝑐𝑐 ′ .
The water assumed to rise in smaller voids up
to ℎ𝑐𝑐 . This zone ( ℎ𝑐𝑐 − ℎ𝑐𝑐 ′ ) will remain
partially saturated. As the effective grain size
decreases, the sizes of the voids also decreases,
and the height capillary rise increases. A rough
estimation of the height of capillary rise can be
determined from the equation below: where e
is the void ratio, 𝐷𝐷10 is Hazen's effective
diameter in centimetres, and C is an empirical
constant which can have a value between 0.1
and 0.5 sq.
32 Figure
 Stress concept (Cont.…)

Capillary pressure in soil

Since the tension 𝑢𝑢𝑤𝑤 is below the atmospheric pressure, it
draws the grains of soil closer to each other at all points
where the menisci touch the soil grains. Intergranular
pressure of this type is called capillary pressure, which can
be expressed as shown below. It should be noted that when
the water is in compression, 𝑢𝑢𝑤𝑤 is positive, when it is in
tension, 𝑢𝑢𝑤𝑤 is negative.
Note:
The increase in the intergranular pressure due to capillary
pressure acting on the grains leads to greater strength of the
soil mass.
33
 Stress concept (Cont.…)
Stress condition in soil due to surface
tension forces
As shown in Fig. 5.10(a), when a dry soil mass above the GWT
comes in contact with water, water rises by capillary action,
through the height ℎ𝑐𝑐 with assumption that the soil within this
zone becomes saturated due to capillary water. If the menisci at
height ℎ𝑐𝑐 coincide with the ground surface, the plane of the
menisci is called the capillary fringe.

34
 Stress concept (Cont.…)
Stress condition in soil due to surface
tension forces (Cont.….)
The vertical stress distribution of the dry and saturated soil mass are
shown in Fig. (b) and (d), respectively. As shown in Fig. (e), the tension
in water is maximum at menisci level, and zero at GWT level. Before the
rise of capillary water, the maximum stress of dry mass, at GWT level, is
𝝈𝝈𝒅𝒅 = 𝜸𝜸𝒅𝒅 𝒉𝒉𝒄𝒄 . After the rise of capillary water, the maximum stress is given
as 𝝈𝝈𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = 𝜸𝜸𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒉𝒉𝒄𝒄 . Since the pore water pressure at GWT level is zero,
the difference between represents the increase in pressure due to capillary
rise, known as capillary pressure, 𝒖𝒖𝒄𝒄 = 𝝈𝝈𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 − 𝝈𝝈𝒅𝒅 = 𝒉𝒉𝒄𝒄 𝜸𝜸𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 − 𝜸𝜸𝒅𝒅 . By
substituting the parameters 𝜸𝜸𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 and 𝜸𝜸𝒅𝒅 below, the 𝒖𝒖𝒄𝒄 can be related to
void ratio, e and porosity, n. The distribution of capillary pressure is
shown in Fig. (c). As shown in the diagrams, the pressure at any depth z
can be written as follows;

35
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example 4

A layer of silty soil of thickness 5 m lies below the ground

surface at a particular site and below the silt layer lies a clay
stratum. The ground water table is at depth of 4 m below the
ground surface. The following data are available for both the
silt and clay layers of soil: Silt layer: 𝐷𝐷10 = 0.018 mm, e =
0.7, and 𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 = 2.7, Clay layer: e = 0.8 and 𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 = 2.75
Required: (a) height of capillary rise, (b) capillary pressure,
(c) the effective pressure at the ground surface, at GWT
level, at the bottom of silt layer and at depth of H = 6 m
below the ground level and (d) at a depth of 2 m below the
ground level.
36
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-4: Soil profile

37
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-4: Solution

Unit weight for silty soil:

Unit weight for clay stratum:

38
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-4: Solution (Cont.….)

(a) Height of capillary rise:

It is clear from ℎ𝑐𝑐 that the plane of menisci formed by the capillary water
concedes with the ground surface as the water table is also at a depth of 4
m from the ground level.

39
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-4: Solution (Cont.….)

(b) Capillary pressure 𝒖𝒖𝒄𝒄 :

→
(c) E𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝝈𝝈𝒄𝒄 :
(i) Effective stress at the GL
Since the plane of menisci coincides with the ground surface, the
effective pressure at the ground surface is equal to the capillary
pressure, 𝑢𝑢𝑐𝑐 .
(ii) Total effective stress at the GWT level, 𝜎𝜎𝑡𝑡 ′

40
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-4: Solution (Cont.….)

(c) E𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝝈𝝈𝒄𝒄 :
(iii) Total effective stress at the bottom of silt layer
The bottom of silt layer is at depth of 1 m below the ground water
level. The effective stress due to this depth is given below;

(iv) Total effective stress at depth of 6 m below the GL

This point lies in clay stratum at a depth of 1 m below the bottom
of the silty layer. The increase I effective pressure is given as
follows;

41
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-4: Solution (Cont.….)

(c) Effective stress at 2 m below the GL:

The pressure distribution diagram is given in the Fig. below

42
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example 5

At a particular site lies a layer of fine sand 8 m thick below

the ground surface and having a void ratio of 0.7. The GWT
is at a depth of 4 m below the ground surface. The average
degree of saturation of the sand above the capillary fringe is
50%. The soil is saturated due to capillary action to a height
of 2.0 m above the GWT level. Assuming 𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 = 2.65,
calculate the total effective pressures at depths of 6 m and 3
m below the ground surface.

43
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-5: Soil profile

44
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-5: Solution

Unit weight of soil:

The most unit weight above the capillary fringe:

45
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-5: Solution (Cont.….)

Capillary pressure:

Effective stress at different levels:

(i) At ground surface,
(ii) Overburden pressure at fringe level

(iii) Effective pressure at fringe level

46
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-5: Solution (Cont.….)

Effective stress at different levels (cont…):

(iv) Effective pressure at GWT level

(v) Effective pressure at 6 m below the GL

(vi) Effective pressure at depth 3 m below the GL

47
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-5: Pressure distribution profile

48
 Stresses in soil mass
Introduction

• To analyse problems such as compressibility of soils, bearing

capacity of foundations, stability of the embankments, and lateral
pressures on the earth retaining structures, we need to know the
nature of the distribution of stress along a given a cross section of
the soil profile.
• When the load is applied to the soil surface, it increases the
vertical stress within the soil mass. The increased stress are
greatest directly under the loaded area, but extend indefinitely in
all direction.
• Allowable settlement, usually sets by building codes, control the
allowable bearing capacity.
49 • The vertical stress increase with depth must be determined to
calculate the amount of settlement that a foundation may undergo.
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
A: Stress due to Point Load
(Boussinesq Solution)
In 1985, Boussinesq developed the mathematical relationships
for determining normal and shear stress at any point inside a
homogeneous, elastic and isotropic mediums due to a point
point loads located at the surface.
Assumption:
• The soil mass is elastic (fully recoverable strain), isotropic
(identical properties in all directions), homogeneous (identical
elastic properties) and semi-infinite depth (Unbounded in one
direction). Note: In reality, the soil is nonlinear elastoplastic,
anisotropic, inhomogeneous and soil problems are in 3D.
• The soil is weightless (Before surface loading the material is stress
free)
50 • The load is the point load acting on the surface.
 Stress in soil mass (Cont.…)

Boussinesq Formula

 According to Boussinesq analysis, the Fig. below

shows a load Q acting on the surface of semi-infinite
solid. Q

51
 Stress in soil mass (Cont.…)

Boussinesq Formula
The stress increase at a point in depth z and horizontal distance r from
the surface point load Q is given by Boussinesq as;
, where
𝑄𝑄

IB Boussinesq stress coefficient

Equation shows that the vertical stress is:

• Directly proportional to the loads
• Inversely proportional to the depth squared
• Proportional to the function of the ratio 𝑟𝑟⁄𝑧𝑧
It should be noted that the expression for z is
independent of elastic modulus (E) and poison's ratio
(𝜇𝜇) (i.e. stress increase with depth is the function of
52 geometry only)
 Stress in soil (Cont.…)
Boussinesq Formula (Variation of
𝑰𝑰𝑩𝑩 = 𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏 for various values of 𝒓𝒓⁄𝒛𝒛)

53
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 6 (Boussinesq Formula)

A concentrated load of 1000 kN is applied at the ground

surface. Use the Boussinesq equation to compute the vertical
pressure (i) at depth of 4 m below the load (ii) at a distance of
3 m at the same depth.
Solution (Example 6)

54
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 7 (Boussinesq Formula)

A concentrated load of 5 kN is applied at the ground surface. Use

the Boussinesq equation to calculate the vertical stress at depth of
0, 2, 4, 6, 10 and 20 m, assuming that x=3 and y=4.
Solution (Example 7)

55
 Stress in soil (Cont.…)

Pressure distribution diagrams

The Boussinesq equation may be used to draw three types of
pressure diagrams as follows:
a. Vertical stress distribution on a horizontal plane at depth
z below the ground surface.
𝑄𝑄
This can be computed with Eq. below: 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵 2 , z
𝑧𝑧
being specified depth. For assumed values of r, r/z is
calculated and 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵 is found for each, the value of 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 is
then computed. For r = 0, 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 is the maximum of 0.4775
𝑄𝑄
; for r = 2z, it is only about 1.8% of the maximum, and
𝑧𝑧 2
for r = 3z, it is just 0.3% of the maximum. The
distribution is as shown in Fig. and Table shown in the
56 next slide.
 Stress in soil (Cont.…)
(a) Vertical Stress Distribution on a
Horizontal Plane

57
 Stress in soil (Cont.…)

Pressure distribution diagrams

b. Vertical stress distribution along the vertical line.
The variation of vertical stress with depth at a
constant radial distance from the axis of the
load may be shown by horizontal ordinates as
in the Fig.
As z increases, r/z decreases for a constant
value of r. As r/z decreases IB -value in the
equation for 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 increases, but since 𝑧𝑧 2 is
involved in the denominator of the expression
for 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 , its value first increases with depth,
attains a maximum value, and then decreases
with further increase in depth.
58
 Stress in soil (Cont.…)
(b) Vertical Stress Distribution along
a vertical line
It can be shown that the maximum value of 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 occurs when the
angle θ made by the polar ray attains a value 39°13′53.5′′,
corresponding to a value of 2⁄3 or 0.817 for 𝑟𝑟⁄𝑧𝑧 ; the maximum
value 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 is then 0.0888Q. This value decreases rapidly with
depth; for r/z = 0.1, the value is just 0.0047Q.
Table: Variation of vertical stress with depth at constant value of r (Say r = 1 unit)

59
 Stress in soil (Cont.…)

Pressure distribution diagrams

c. Stress Isobar or Pressure Bulb Concept.

• An ‘isobar’ is a stress contour or a line

which connects all points below the ground
surface at which the vertical pressure is the
same.
• Pressure at points inside the bulb are greater
than that at a point on the surface of the
bulb; and pressures at points outside the
bulb are smaller than that value.
• An isobar diagram, consisting of a system
of isobars appears somewhat as shown in
60 Fig.
 Stress in soil (Cont.…)

Pressure distribution diagrams

The procedure for plotting an isobar
𝑄𝑄
• From Eq. 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 = I , assuming 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 0.1Q per unit area (10%
𝑧𝑧 2 B
𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 2 0.1Q𝑧𝑧 2
isobar). Therefore, IB = = 0.1𝑧𝑧 2
𝑄𝑄 𝑄𝑄
• By assuming values for z, the corresponding IB -values will
be computed; From IB , the corresponding r/z and r values
will be obtained.
• For the same values of r on any side of the z-axis, the value
of 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 is the same; hence the isobar is symmetrical with
respect to this axis.
• When r = 0, IB = 0.4775; the isobar crosses the line of action
𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵
61 of the load at a depth of 𝑧𝑧 = �0.1 = 0.4775⁄ =
0.1 2.815
 Stress in soil (Cont.…)

Pressure distribution diagrams

The calculation is best per formed as shown in the Table below,

for the data of isobar of 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 0.1Q

Note: In general, isobars are not circular curves. Rather, their

shape approaches that of the lemmiscate.
62
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 8 (Isobar stress profile)

A concentrated load of 1000 kN is applied at the ground surface.

Use the Boussinesq equation to construct an isobar for 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 40
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2 .
Solution (Example 8)

With values of Q and 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 , the equation above

can be rearranged to obtained the values of r as
follows;

63
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 8 (Isobar stress profile)

As shown in the figure below, the isobar stress profile of 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 =

40 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2 , is plotted for z against r.

64
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
B: Stress due to Point Load
(Westergaard Solution)
Westergaard (1938) has obtained an elastic solution for stress
distribution in soil under a point load based on the non-isotropic
condition encountered in a cohesive soil. According to Westergaard,
the vertical stress, 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 , caused by a point load is given as:

The equation is the same as Boussinesq if

the Poisson ratio (𝜗𝜗) is zero. It should be
noted that the value of 𝜗𝜗 is taken to be zero
due to large lateral restraint

Then the equation above, when 𝜗𝜗=0, reduced to:

Where, 𝐼𝐼𝑤𝑤 = 𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤 =
65 𝐼𝐼𝑤𝑤 = 𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤 is the Westergaard coefficient
 Stress concept (Examples)
Westergaard Solution-Variation of
𝐾𝐾𝑊𝑊 and 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 against r/z

Note
𝐾𝐾𝑊𝑊 = 𝐼𝐼𝑊𝑊
𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 = 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵

When r/z is less than about 0.8 and v=0, the Westergaard stress values are
66 approximately equal to two-thirds of Boussinesq stress values. For r/z of about
1.5, both solutions give identical values of stresses.
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 9 (Westergaard and
Boussinesq)

A rectangular raft of size 30 by 20 m founded at depth of 2.5 m

below the ground surface is subjected to a uniform pressure of
150 kPa. Assume the centre of the area is the origin of
coordinates (0, 0). and the corners have coordinates (6, 15).
Calculate stresses at a depth of 20 m coordinates (6, 15).
Calculate stresses at a depth of 20 m below the foundation level
by the methods of (a) Boussinesq, and (b) Westergaard at
coordinates of (0, 0), (0, 15), (6, 0) (6, 15) and (10, 25). Also
determine the ratios of the stresses as obtained by the two
methods. Neglect the effect of foundation depth on the stresses.
67
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-9: Solution

(a) Equations:

(b) The ratio r/z at a given location for z=20 m is shown in the table.

68
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-9: Solution (Cont.….)

(c) Sketch and stress calculation:

The results are tabulated below for

the given total load Q = qBL = 150
x 12 x 30 = 54000 kN acting at (0,
0). Q/z2 =135.

69
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)

C: Stress due to Line Load

The basic equation for computing

the stress 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 due to line load is
Boussinesq. As shown from the fig.
the vertical stress at P, 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 , due to line
load, can be written as follows:

Where;
𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 or 𝐾𝐾𝑙𝑙 in other text books is the
influence factor due to line load

70
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example 10 (Stress due to line load)

A line load of 100 kN/metre run extends to a long distance.

Determine the intensity of vertical stress at a point, 2 m below the
surface and (i) directly under the line load, and (ii) at a distance of 2
m perpendicular to the line. Use Boussinesq theory.
Solution Example 10
(i) Vertical stress 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 at point A when r=0 (direct on the line load)
𝑞𝑞 2 100 2
𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 = ∗ = ∗ = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
𝑧𝑧 𝜋𝜋 2 𝜋𝜋
(ii) Vertical stress 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 at point A when r=2 (direct on the line load)
𝑞𝑞 2 100 2 1
𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 = ∗ = ∗ ∗ = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
𝑧𝑧 𝜋𝜋 2 𝜋𝜋 4
71
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)

D: Stress due to strip Load

The state of stress encountered in this case are found for structures
extended very much in one direction, such as strip and wall
foundations, foundations of retaining walls, embankments, dams and
the like. From these structures the distribution of stresses in any
section will be the same as in the neighbouring sections, provided that
the load does not change in directions perpendicular to the plane
considered.
As shown in Fig (a), in the next slide, a load q per unit area acting on
a strip of infinite length and of constant width B. The vertical stress at
any point, lets assume P, due to line load of q𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 acting at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥̅ can
be written as shown below:

72
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
D: Stress due to strip Load
(cont.…)
Applying the principle of superposition, the total stress 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 at point P, due to a
strip load distributed over a width B = 2b, may be written as:

By using the non-dimensional

values of 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧⁄𝑞𝑞, as shown in
the next slide graphical fig.
the stress for strip footing can
be simplified as:

𝛽𝛽 and 𝛼𝛼 are the angles shown

73 in Fig. (b)
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example 11 (Stress due to strip load)

Three parallel strip footings 3 m wide each and 5 m apart centre to
centre transmit contact pressures of 200, 150 and 100 kN/ m2
respectively. Calculate the vertical stress due to the combined loads
beneath the centres of each footing at a depth of 3 m below the base.
Assume the footings are placed at a depth of 2 m below the ground
surface. Use Boussinesq method for line loads.

74
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-11: Solution

(a) Sketch: Three parallel footings

(b) Stress at each point.

(i) General equation

75
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-11: Solution (Cont.….)

(b) Stress at each point (cont.…..)

(ii) Stress at A

(iii) Stress at B

(iv) Stress at C

76
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
E: Stress due uniform load on
rectangular area
The common shape of a loaded area in foundation engineering
practice is a rectangle, especially in the case of buildings. Applying
the principle of integration, one can obtain the vertical stress at a
point, certain depth below the centre or a corner of a uniformly loaded
rectangular area, based either on Boussinesq or on Westergaard
solution for a point load.
As shown in the Fig. (next slide), consider an infinitely small unit area
of size 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 x 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. The pressure acting on this area is replaced by
concentrated load 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑞𝑞 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 x 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
The increase in vertical stress 𝑑𝑑𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 due to load 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 can be expressed as
shown in Eq. below:

77
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
E: Stress due uniform load on
rectangular area (Cont.…)
The stress solution can be produced by
integrating the pressure q over the entire
rectangle 𝒃𝒃 𝐱𝐱 𝒍𝒍, by expressing 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅, 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 and 𝒓𝒓
in terms of angle 𝜷𝜷 and 𝜶𝜶. The solution
normally used is of the following form:

Where, 𝑚𝑚 = 𝑏𝑏⁄𝑧𝑧 , 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑙𝑙⁄𝑧𝑧

σz = qI, I is an influence factor for load on rectangular

𝑞𝑞 2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚2 + 𝑛𝑛2 + 1 𝑚𝑚2 + 𝑛𝑛2 + 2 2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚2 + 𝑛𝑛2 + 1

78 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 = ∗ 2 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 −1
4𝜋𝜋 𝑚𝑚2 + 𝑛𝑛2 + 1 + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑛𝑛2 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛2 + 1 𝑚𝑚2 + 𝑛𝑛2 + 1 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑛𝑛2
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
E: Stress due uniform load on
rectangular area (Cont.…)
Eq. 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 is presented in graphical
form, as shown in the Fig. The chart
helps to compute pressures beneath the
loaded rectangular areas. It shows that
if the ratios 𝑏𝑏⁄𝑧𝑧 and 𝑙𝑙⁄𝑏𝑏 are known, the
value of I can be determined.

The Fig shows the chart for computing

𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 below the corner of a rectangular
foundation

79
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
E: Stress due uniform load on
rectangular area (Cont.…)

The influence I can also be computed

based on the values of m and n, to
determine stresses below points that lie
either inside or outside the loaded.

The Fig shows the graph for determining

influence value for vertical normal stress
𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 at point P located beneath one corner
of a uniformly loaded rectangular area
80
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
E: Stress due uniform load on
rectangular area (Cont.…)

Computation of vertical stress below a point

Consider the two figures below

A: Stress when the point is inside

In Fig(a), consider O is an interior point of a rectangular loaded area
ABCD. It required to compute stress 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 below this point O at a depth
81 z from the surface.
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
E: Stress due uniform load on
rectangular area (Cont.…)

Computation of vertical stress below a point

A: Stress when the point is inside (cont.….)
In Fig(a), consider O is an interior point of a rectangular loaded area
ABCD. It required to compute stress 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 below this point O at a depth
z from the surface. For this purpose, divide the rectangle ABCD into
four rectangles marked 1 to 4 in the Fig. (a) by drawing lines through
O. For each of these rectangles, compute the ratios 𝑧𝑧⁄𝑏𝑏. The influence
factor 𝐈𝐈𝐁𝐁 can be obtained from the figures, for each of these ratios.
The total vertical stress can be calculated as follows:

82
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
E: Stress due uniform load on
rectangular area (Cont.…)

Computation of vertical stress below a point

B: Stress when the point is outside
In Fig(b), consider O is an exterior point of a rectangular loaded area
ABCD. It required to compute stress 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 below this point O at a depth
z from the surface. For this purpose, divide the rectangle ABCD into
four rectangles marked 1 to 4 in the Fig. (b) by drawing lines through
O. The point O is the corner point of the rectangular OB1 CD1 . From
the figure (b), it can be seen that the area ABCD is calculated as
follows: Area ABCD = O𝐁𝐁𝟏𝟏 C𝐃𝐃𝟏𝟏 − O𝐁𝐁𝟏𝟏 𝐁𝐁𝐃𝐃𝟐𝟐 − O𝐃𝐃𝟏𝟏 𝐃𝐃𝐀𝐀𝟏𝟏 + O𝐀𝐀𝟏𝟏 𝐀𝐀𝐃𝐃𝟐𝟐 .
Therefore, the vertical stress at P, located at depth z below O, due to
surcharge load 𝒒𝒒 per unit area ABCD, is given as:
83
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 12A (Stress due to
rectangular loaded area )
ABCD is a raft foundation of multi-storey building, where AB=50 m, BC=30
m. The uniformly distributed load 𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 over the raft is 360 kPa. Determine 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧
at depth of 20 m below point O, where AA1 = 15 m and A1 O = 20 m. Use the
Fig. below:

84
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-12A: Solution
(a) Area of ABCD

(b) Calculate the influence factor

Rectangles l b m n 𝐈𝐈𝐁𝐁
OB1 CD1
OB1 BD2
OD1 DA1
OA1 AD2

(c) Vertical stress

85
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 12B (Stress due to
rectangular loaded area )
A rectangular concrete slab, 10 by 15 m, rests on the surface of a soil
mass. The load on the slab is 450 kN/m2 . Determine the vertical stress
increase at a depth of 10 m (a) under the centre of the slab, point A
(b) under point B (c) at a distance of 5 m from a corner, point C

Plan view `10 m A B

C
15 m 5m
`10 m

Section view Soil

86 A B C
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-12B: Solution
(a) Stratergic plan
The slab is rectangular and the equations for a uniformly loaded area
are for the corner of the area. Divide the area so that the point of
interest is a corner of a rectangle(s). Extend the loaded area if the point
of interest is outside it (loaded area). The extension is fictitious, so you
have to subtract the fictitious increase in vertical stress for the
extended area.
(b) Calculation.
(i) Identify the loading type
- Uniformly loaded area
(ii) Divide the rectangle so that the centre is a corner
- As shown in Fig. (a) (next slide), in all four rectangles, point C is excluded
for simplicity, so it is required to find the vertical stress increase for one
87 rectangle of size B = 5 m, L = 7.5 m, and multiply the results by 4.
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-12B: Solution (cont.…)

(b) Calculation.
(ii) Divide the rectangle so that the centre is a corner (Cont.….)

(a) (b)

From the chart, the value of IB = 0.105.

88
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-12B: Solution (cont.…)

(b) Calculation (cont.…).

(a) Vertical stress increase at the centre of the slab (Point A)
𝐐𝐐 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
 Rectangular load, 𝒒𝒒 = , 𝒒𝒒 = = 3 kPa
𝐀𝐀 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
 Vertical stress, 𝛔𝛔𝒛𝒛 = 𝟒𝟒𝐱𝐱 𝒒𝒒𝑰𝑰𝑩𝑩 = 𝟒𝟒𝐱𝐱 𝟑𝟑𝐱𝐱𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

(b) Vertical stress increase for point B

Point B is at the corner of two rectangles, each of width 10 m and
length 7.5 m. Required to find the vertical stress increase for one
rectangle and multiply the result by 2.
10 7.5 Note:
m= = 1; n = = 0.75; IB = 0.158 In your calculation, you should
10 10
be aware that stress increase at
𝛔𝛔𝒛𝒛 = 𝟐𝟐𝐱𝐱 𝒒𝒒𝑰𝑰𝑩𝑩 = 𝟐𝟐𝐱𝐱 𝟑𝟑𝐱𝐱𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
89 B is lower than A, as expected.
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-12B: Solution (cont.…)

(b) Calculation (cont.…).
(c) Vertical stress increase at C
Stress at point C is outside the rectangular slab. The rectangle
is extended to C (as shown in Fig. (b), slide 86). Find the
stress increase for the large rectangle of width B = 15 m,
length L = 15 m, and then subtract the stress increase for the
smaller rectangle of width B = 5 m and length L = 15 m.
• Larger rectangle: m=15/10= 1.5; n =15/10= 1.5; IB1 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
• Small rectangle: m=5/10= 0.5; n =15/10= 1.5; IB2 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
90 • Vertical stress: 𝛔𝛔𝒛𝒛 = 𝒒𝒒 𝑰𝑰𝑩𝑩𝟏𝟏 − 𝑰𝑰𝑩𝑩𝟐𝟐 = 𝟑𝟑𝐱𝐱 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 =
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
F: Stress under uniformly loaded
circular footing
A plan and section view of vertical stress,
𝜎𝜎`𝑧𝑧 ,under uniformly circular loaded footing, at
any point P along the axis, are shown in Fig.
(i). By assuming that 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is an element area
on the footing and q is uniform load, the point
load 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 = 𝐪𝐪𝐪𝐪𝐪𝐪 = 𝐪𝐪𝐪𝐪𝐪𝐪𝛉𝛉𝛉𝛉𝛉𝛉. The vertical
stress 𝐝𝐝𝝈𝝈𝒛𝒛 at point P due to point load 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 is
expressed as:
Integrate as follows:

91 Vertical stress:
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
F: Stress under uniformly loaded
circular footing (cont.….)
The influence diagram for vertical normal stress at various points within an
elastic half-space under a uniformly loaded circular area.

Iz is the influence factor,

which can be used to
calculate vertical stress,
𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 𝑞𝑞𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧

92
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 13 (Stress under uniformly
loaded circular footing )
A water tank is required to be constructed with a circular
foundation having a diameter of 16 m founded at a depth of 2 m
below the ground surface. The estimated distributed load on the
foundation is 325 kN/m2 . Assuming that the subsoil extends to a
great depth and is isotropic and homogeneous, determine the
stresses 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 at points:
(i) z = 8 m, r = 0,
(ii) z = 8 m, r = 8 m,
(iii) z = 16 m, r = 0 and
(iv) z = 1 6 m , r = 8m,
where r is the radial distance from the central axis. Neglect the
effect of the depth of the foundation on the stresses.
93
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-13: Solution

By using the chart and data provided, q = 325 kN/m2 , R o = 8 m, the

results are provided in a tabular form as follows:

94
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-13B: Vertical Stress Increase
Due to a Ring Load

A silo is supported on a ring foundation, as shown in Figure (a). The total

vertical load is 4 MN. (a) Plot the vertical stress increase with depth up to 8 m
under the centre of the ring (point O, Figure (a)). (b) Determine the maximum
vertical stress increase and its location.

95 (a) (b)
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-13B: Vertical Stress Increase
Due to a Ring Load (Solution)
(a) Stratergic plan
To use the equation for a uniform circular area to simulate the ring foundation,
you need to create two artificial circular foundations, one with a radius of 5 m
and the other with a radius of 3 m. Both foundations must be fully loaded with
the applied uniform, vertical stress. By subtracting the vertical stress increase
of the smaller foundation from the larger foundation, you would obtain the
vertical stress increase from the ring foundation. You are applying here the
principle of superposition.
(b) Calculate the imposed surface stress

96
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-13B: Vertical Stress Increase
Due to a Ring Load (Solution)
(a) Create two solid circular foundations of radii 5 m and 3 m.
As shown in Figure (b), large denotes the foundation of radius 5 m and small
denotes the foundation of radius 3 m.
(b) Create a spreadsheet to do the calculations.
Large Small 𝑰𝑰𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝝈𝝈𝒛𝒛 (𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌)
z 𝒓𝒓⁄ 𝑰𝑰𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒐� 𝑰𝑰𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝑰𝑰𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 -𝑰𝑰𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒒𝒒𝒔𝒔 𝒙𝒙𝑰𝑰𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝒛𝒛 𝒛𝒛
1 5 0.992 3 0.986 0.024 1.9
2 2.5 0.949 1.5 0.829 0.119 9.5
3 1.67 0.864 1.0 0.646 0.217 17.3
4 1.25 0.756 0.75 0.488 0.268 21.3
5 1 0.646 0.60 0.369 0.277 22
6 `0.83 0.547 0.50 0.284 0.262 20.9
7 0.71 0.461 0.43 0.223 0.238 18.9
97 8 0.63 0.390 0.38 0.179` 0.211 16.8
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example-13B: Vertical Stress Increase
Due to a Ring Load (Solution)
(c) Plot the vertical stress increase variation with depth..
This is shown in the Fig. below:

(d) Determine the maximum vertical stress increase and depth

From Fig. (c), the maximum vertical stress increase is 22 kPa and the depth of
98 occurrence is 5 m from the surface.
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
G: Stress due to loaded area of
irregular shape
When the foundation consists of a large number of footings or when the
loaded mats or rafts are not regular in shape, a chart developed by
Newmark (1942) is more practical than the methods explained before. The
Newmark chart is based on the concept of the vertical stress below the
centre of the circular area. The vertical stress underneath the centre of a
uniformly loaded circular area has been shown to be:
1
𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 𝑞𝑞 1 −
1 + 𝑎𝑎⁄𝑧𝑧 2 3/2
Where: a is the radius of loaded area, q is intensity of uniform load, and z
is the depth at which the vertical stress is required. The equation above
may rewritten in the form of : The ratio (𝑎𝑎⁄𝑧𝑧) is interpreted as relative radii of
−2�3 circular-loaded areas required to cause particular
𝑎𝑎 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 values of the ratio of the vertical stress to the
99 𝑧𝑧
= 1−
𝑞𝑞
−1 intensity of the uniform loading applied.
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
G: Stress due to loaded area of
irregular shape
S.N of 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧�𝑞𝑞 𝑎𝑎⁄
𝑧𝑧 Number of
If a series of values is assigned for the ratio cycles influence per ring
𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧
⁄𝑞𝑞, such as 0, 0.1, 0.2, ..., 0.9, and 1.00, a
1 0.0 0.000 −
corresponding set of values for the relative
radii, 𝑎𝑎⁄𝑧𝑧, may be obtained as shown in the 2 0.1 0.270 20
table below. If a particular depth is specified, 3 0.2 0.400 20
then a series of concentric circles can be
drawn. Since the first has a zero radius and 4 0.3 0.518 20
the eleventh has infinite radius, in practice, 5 0.4 0.637 20
only nine circles are drawn. Each ring or
annular space causes a stress of q/10 at a 6 0.5 0.766 20
point beneath the centre at the specified depth 7 0.6 0.918 20
z, since the number of annular spaces (c) is
ten. From this table it can be seen that the 8 0.7 1.110 20
widths of the annular slices or rings are 9 0.8 1.387 20
10 greater the farther away they are from the
10 0.9 1.908 20
centre. The circle for an influence of 1.0 has
0 an infinitely large radius. 11 1.0 ∞
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
G: Stress due to loaded area of
irregular shape
Assume a set of equally spaced rays, call it S in number, is drawn emanating
from the centre of the circles, thus dividing each annular area into CxS
sectors, and the total area into CS sectors. If the value of 20 is adopted for S,
the total number of sectors in this case will be 10 × 20 = 200. Each sector
will cause a vertical stress of 1/200 of the total value at the centre at the
specified depth and is referred to as a ‘mesh’ or an ‘influence unit’. The value
1/200 = 0.005 is said to be the ‘influence factor’ for the chart. Each mesh
may thus be understood to represent an influence area. Based on this theory,
the construction of Newmark’s influence chart is given as follows:
1. For a given depth 𝑧𝑧 (say, 10 m), the radii of the circles, 𝑎𝑎, are calculated
from the relative radii as calculated in the Table (2.70 m, 4.00 m, 5.18
m, ... and so on).
10 2. The circles are then drawn to a convenient scale (say, 1 cm = 2m).
1 3. A number of uniformly spaced rays (say, 20) is drawn, emanating from
the centre of the circles (see the Figure on the next slide).
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
G: Stress due to loaded area of
irregular shape
The resulting diagram appears as
shown in the Fig.; on it is drawn a
vertical line 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 , represent the
depth z to the scale used in drawing
the circles (if the scale used is 1 cm
= 2 m, 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 will be 5 cm). The
influence value for this chart will
1
be = 0.005. The diagram can
10x20
be used for other values of z by
simply assuming that the scale to
which it is drawn alters; thus, if z is
to be 5 m the line 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 represent 5 m
and the scale is 1 cm = 1 m
10 (similarly, if z = 20 m, the scale
2 becomes 1 cm = 4 m).
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
G: Stress due to loaded area of
irregular shape (cont.….)
The procedure for obtaining vertical pressure at any point below a loaded area is as
follows:
1. Determine the depth z below the uniformly loaded area at which the stress
increase is required
2. Plot the plan of the loaded area, on a tracing paper, with a scale of z equal to the
unit length of the chart (the same scale to which the distance ON on the chart
represents the specified depth)
3. Place the plan (plotted in step 2) on the influence chart in such a way that the
point below which the stress is to be determined is located at the centre of the
chart.
4. Count the number of elements (N) of the chart enclosed by the plan of the
loaded area.
5. The stress 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 at the specified depth at the specified point is then given by: 𝝈𝝈𝒛𝒛 =
10 𝑰𝑰 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵, where I = Influence factor of the chart.
3 Note: The stress may be found at any point which lies either inside or outside the
loaded area with the aid of the chart.
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 14 (Stress due to loaded area
of irregular shape)
The plan view of a foundation of uniform thickness for a building
is shown in the Figure. Determine the vertical stress increase at a
depth of 4 m below the centroid. The foundation applies a vertical
stress of 200 kPa on the soil surface.

10 m

2m
2.5 m

10
2m
4
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-14: Solution
(a) Hints
You need to locate the centroid of the foundation, which is obtained by
using the given dimensions. The shape of the foundation does not fit
neatly into one of the standard shapes (e.g. rectangles or circles)
discussed. The convenient method is to use the Newmark’s chart.
(b) Solution
(i) Centroid
Divide the loaded area into a
number of regular shapes. 1
Take the sum of moments of
the areas about y-y and divide
by the sum of the areas to get 2 3
10 y
x and moments about x-x to
5 get y. x
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-14: Solution (cont.……)

(b) Solution (cont.….)

(i) Centroid (cont.…)
1 1
1x10x5 + 1.5x2x1 + x8x1.5x 2+ x8 81
𝑥𝑥̅ = 2 3 = = 4.26 m
1 19
1x10 + 1.5x2 + x8x1.5
2

1 1
1x10x0.5 + 1.5x2x1.75 + x8x1.5x 1+ x1.5 19.25
𝑦𝑦� = 2 3 = =1m
1 19
1x10 + 1.5x2 + x8x1.5
2

10
6
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-14: Solution (cont.……)

(b) Solution (cont.….)

(ii) Scale and plot
The scale on the chart is set equal
to the depth z. The centroid is
located at the centre of the chart
and the foundation is scaled
using the depth scale.
(iii) Count the number of segment
(𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 ) covered by the foundations.
𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 = 61
(iv) Calculate the vertical stress.
10 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 = 200x0.005x61
7 𝝈𝝈𝒛𝒛 = 61 kPa.
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
H: Stress due embankment
loading
The embankment with sloping sides
represent trapezoidal loads. When the top
width of embankment reduced to zero, the
loads becomes a triangular strip loads.
Required to determine the stresses due to
a linearly increasing vertical loading on
the surface. As shown in Fig. (a), a
linearly increasing vertical loading starts
from zero at A to a finite value q per unit
length at B. Assume a strip element db at
a distance b from A, the load per unit
length , dq, can be written as:
10 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑞𝑞
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
8 𝑎𝑎
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
H: Stress due embankment
loading (cont.…)

If dq is considered as a line load on the surface, the change in vertical stress,

d𝝈𝝈𝒛𝒛 , can be written as:
𝐈𝐈𝐳𝐳 is non-dimensional coefficient
whose values for various 𝑥𝑥⁄𝑎𝑎 and 𝑧𝑧⁄𝑎𝑎
are given in the table in the next slide.
If P lies in the plane BC, in Fig. (a),
then 𝛽𝛽 = 0, at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎, then 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 reduced
to:

10
9
 Stresses in soil (Cont.…)
H: Stress due embankment
loading (cont.…)

Vertical stress 𝝈𝝈𝒛𝒛 for asymmetrical Trapezoidal Loading

Based on the concept discussed in the previous slides, the vertical stress of
symmetrical trapezoidal load can be expressed as:

Where, 𝛼𝛼1 , 𝛼𝛼2 and 𝛼𝛼3 are the angles

subtended at the point P and R = 𝑎𝑎1⁄𝑎𝑎2 .
When R=1, the stresses are due to that
of trapezoidal loading. When b=0,
𝛼𝛼2 =0, 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 will be due to triangular
loading and can be calculated as:
11
0
 Stress concept (Cont.…)
H: Stress due embankment
loading (cont.…)

The figure shows the cross section

of an embankment of height H. For
this two-dimensional loading
condition the vertical stress increase
may be expressed as

11
1
 Stress concept (cont.…)
Graphs for determine vertical stress
due embankment loading

11
2
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 15 (Vertical stress due
embankment loading )
A 3 m high embankment is to be constructed as shown in the Figure. If the
unit weight of soil used in the embankment is 19 kN/m3 , calculate the
vertical stress due to the embankment loading at point P1 , P2 and P3 .

11
3
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 15 (Vertical stress due
embankment loading )
𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠 = 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = 19x3=57 kN/m2 Point Block b (m) a (m) b/z 𝐚𝐚/𝐳𝐳 𝑰𝑰𝑩𝑩
z=3m 𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 ACEF 1.5 3 0.5 1.0 0.39
EDBF 4.5 3 1.5 1.0 0.477
The embankment is divided
into blocks as shown in the 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐 AGH 0 1.5 0 0.5 0.15
figure (previous slides), for GKDB 7.5 3 2.5 1.0 0.493
making use of the graph given
in the previous slides. The HKC 0 1.5 0 0.5 0.15
calculations are given in the 𝑷𝑷𝟑𝟑 MLDB 10.5 3 3.5 1.0 0.498
Table. MACL 1.5 3 0.5 1.0 0.39
The vertical stress is calculated as shown below

11
4
 Stress concept (Examples)
Example 16 (Stress due to loaded area
of irregular shape)
An embankment is shown in the Figure. Determine the stress increase under
the embankment at point A.

11
5
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-16: Solution

Refer to Fig (b) and (c),

From Fig. (b)

11
From the chart (slide 112), 𝐈𝐈𝟐𝟐(𝟏𝟏) =
6
𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
 Stress concept (Examples)

Example-16: Solution

Also, from figure (c): →

From the chart shown in slide

112, I2(2) = 0.39

Therefore:

11
7
 Stress concept (Summary)

A: Summary/Conclusion

In this lecture, we consider the vertical stresses induced on soils

from some common types of surface loads, and the principle of
effective stresses, which ``is the most important principle in soil
mechanics. The distribution and amount of vertical total stress
transmitted to a soil by surface loads is determined using
Boussinesq elastic solution. The vertical total stress increase from
surface loads are distributed such that their magnitudes decrease
with depth and distance away from their points of application. The
most important principle in soil mechanics is the principle of
effective stress. Soil deformation is due to effective stress and a
11 not total stress. Seepage stresses can increase or decrease the
8 effective stresses depending on the seepage direction.
 Stress concept (Summary)

B: Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lecture you should be able to:

 Understand how surface loads are distributed within soil as an elastic
material.
 Understand the concept of effective stress.
 Be able to calculate total stress increase from surface loads and the effective
stresses within soils.

 Understand and be able to determine the effects of seepage stresses on

effective stresses within soils.
11
9
 Stress concept (Summary)

C: Definitions of key terms

Stress, or intensity of loading, is the load per unit area. The fundamental
definition of stress is the ratio of the force Q acting on a plane surface area A.
Effective stress (𝛔𝛔𝐳𝐳 ′ ) is the stress carried by the soil particles.
Total stress (σ) is the stress carried by the soil particles and the liquids and
gases in the voids.
Stress (strain) state at a point is a set of stress (strain) vectors corresponding to
all planes passing through that point. Mohr’s circle is used to graphically
represent stress (strain) state for two-dimensional bodies.
Porewater pressure (u) is the pressure of the water held in the soil pores.
Isotropic means the material properties are the same in all directions, and the
loadings are the same in all directions.
12 Elastic materials are ideal materials that return to their original configuration
0 on unloading and obey Hooke’s law.
 Stress concept (Summary)

D: Key points
1. The effective stress in a saturated represents the average stress carried by the soil
solids and is the difference between the total stress and the porewater pressure.
2. The effective stress principle applies only to normal stresses and not to shear stresses.
3. Deformations of soils are due to effective stress not total stress.
4. Soils, especially silts and fine sands, can be affected by capillary action.
5. Capillary action results in negative porewater pressures (suction) and increases the
effective stresses.
6. Downward seepage increases the resultant effective stress; upward seepage decreases
the resultant effective stress.
7. The increases in stresses below a surface load are found by assuming that the soil is
an elastic, semi-infinite mass.
8. Various equations are available for the increases in stresses from surface loading.
12 9. The stress increase at any depth depends on the shape and distribution of the load.
1 10. A stress applied at the surface of a soil mass by a loaded area decreases with depth
and lateral distance away from the centre of the loaded area.
12
2