S.No.

Content Page No.

biology

1. Heredity and Evolution 1

2. 15
3.
4. Reproduction in Plants 51
5. A Representative Study of Mammals 73
6. Life Processes 87
7. Conservation of Environment 105
8. Waste Water Management 121
chemistry
9. Solutions 133

10. Atoms and Molecules 143

11. Chemical Reactions 153

12. Periodic Classification of Elements 174

13. Carbon and its Compounds 194
physics
14. Measuring Instruments 211
15. Laws of Motion and Gravitation 216
16. Electricity and Energy 232
CONTENT

17. Magnetic Effect of Electric Current and light 254

Syllabus 286
Practicals 291

III
 Chapter 1

HereDity
and Evolution
 1. HEREDITY and Evolution
Heredity and Variation parents, in body design, function etc., The
rules of heredity determine the process
A cow gives birth to a calf. Both the by which the traits and the characteristics
mother cow and calf share common are relatively inherited.
characteristics like body design,
physiological function etc, that are specific “The inheritance of characteristics
to their species. However on a very close through generation is called heredity”
observation of the mother cow and the The inheritable characteristics may be
calf and the bull which is the calf’s other morphological/anatomical/physiological/
parent , we will come across a number reproductive and are also known as
of differences among them, like colour traits.
pattern in the skin. By virtue of being
If we take a very close look at the
Activity 1.1 rules of inheritance, both father and
•• Ask your classmates to roll their mother contribute equal amount of
tongues. Observe how many can genetic material to the child. This means
and how many are not able to roll that each trait can be influenced by
their tongues. Record your findings. both paternal and maternal genetic
material – i.e, DNA.
•• Similarly record the variation in the
eye colour noticed among your Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884)
classmates. worked out the first ever scientific
experimental study on heredity.
the progeny of the parent, the progeny Mendel, an Austrian Augustinian monk
individual, need not just be the replica observed variations in the characteristics
of what its parents are. (Inheritance of garden pea plant (Pisum sativum)
of characters from the parents to the which he had cultivated in his monastery
progeny ( i.e. , Heredity) ensures the garden. Mendel was curious  to find out
passing of the parental characters to the
the results of crossing of pea plants
progeny). The difference or change in the
with the variation in traits. The visible
characteristics between the individuals
contrasting characters that Mendel
is called Variation. Human population
shows a great deal of variation. observed in the garden pea plants were
BIOLOGY

1.1. HEREDITY • Seed shape - Round/Wrinkled

The progeny produced through the

• Seed colour - Yellow/Green
reproductive process is similar to its • Flower colour - Violet / White

2
 HEREDITY and Evolution

Character Dominant trait Recessive trait • Pod shape - Full / Constricted

• Pod colour - Green / Yellow
Seed shape
Wrinkled
Round • Flower position - Axillary / Terminal
• Stem height - Tall / Dwarf
Seed colour Green
Yellow
1.1.1. Mendel’s monohybrid cross
Flower colour Mendel selected the garden pea plant,
Pisum sativum for his experiments. He
Violet White selected tall and dwarf plants and allowed
them to grow naturally. As pea plants
Pod shape produce seeds only by self pollination, he
observed that tall plants produced always

Full Constricted

Pod colour X
Parental

Tall Dwarf

→
Green Yellow
Flower
Position

F1 generation
X

Tall Selfing Tall

F2 generation
→

Axial Terminal

Tall Tall Tall Dwarf

Fig. 1.2 Diagrammatic representation of

Monohybrid cross

tall plants generation after generation

CHAPTER 1

Stem
height under natural condition.Similarly, dwarf
plants produced always dwarf plants
generation after generation. Hence, he
Tall Dwarf
termed the tall and dwarf plants as wild
Fig. 1.1 Seven pairs of contrasting
traits in Pea plant studied by Mendel. types or pure breeding varieties.

3
 Then he crossed a tall plant with medium height plants or dwarf plants.
a dwarf plant, produced progeny and This means that only one of the parental
calculated the percentage of tallness and traits were seen and not the mixture of
dwarfness in subsequent generations. the two. When such a F1 tall plant was
allowed to have self pollination, both the
When a pure breeding tall plant was tall and dwarf plants appeared in second
crossed with a pure breeding dwarf filial generation (F2). in the ratio of 3:1.
plant, all plants were tall in the first filial This indicates that both tallness and
generation (F1) i.e., there was not any dwarfness were inherited in the F1 plants
but only tallness trait was expressed.
Gregor Johann Mendel(1822-1884)
The first experiment of Mendel
Mendel was considering the inheritance of a single trait
educated in a (Height of the plant Tall/Dwarf) is called
monastery and went Monohybrid Cross.
on to study science
Expression of morphological
and mathematics
characters as tall or dwarf plant, violet or
at the university of
white flower is called Phenotype.
Vienna. Failure in the
examinations for a teaching certifi­cate The expression of gene (or
did not suppress his zeal for scientific Chromosomal make up) of an individual
quest. He went back to his monastery for a particular trait is called Genotype.
and started growing peas. Many others
1.1.2. Physical basis of heredity
had studied the inheritance of traits
in peas and other organisms earlier, The genotype of a character is
but Mendel blended his knowledge of influenced by factors, called Genes.
Science and Mathematics and was the The genes are the factors which form
first one to keep count of individuals the physical basis for inheritance of
exhibiting a particular trait in each Characters. The alternate expressions
generation. This helped him to arrive of the same gene are called alleles.
at the laws of inheritance that we have The contrasting pair of alleles make
discussed in the main text. up an allelomorph. Examples : Tall and

Activity 1.2 Leaves Buds and Fruit

Observe in your locality for plants
which show different characters for Seeds
the following traits. Count them and
record your findings. Examples:
Coconut Tall Dwarf Insects Grubs
BIOLOGY

Bean Violet Flower White Flower

Sugar Cane White Stem Purple Stem
Fig. 1.3 Variations in the beaks of finches
Clitoria Blue Flowers White Flowers to suit their eating habits.

4
 HEREDITY and Evolution

Activity 1.3 Charles Darwin: (1809-1882) Charles

Darwin set out on a voyage when he was
Find out identical / Non-identical twins
22 years old. The 5 year voyage took him
in your school and locality. Find the
to South America and the islands, off its
minute variations between them.
coast. Interestingly,
after he got back
dwarf plants, wrinkled and smooth seed
coat, white and violet coloured flower. to England, he
Organisms differ or vary in expressing never left to the
phenotype which leads to variation. shores again. He
stayed at home and
1.2. Variation conducted various
All around us , we see different experiments that
organisms belonging to different species, led him to formulate
differing from one another. Variation his hypothesis
may be defined as the differences in the from which evolution took place due to ral
characteristics among the individuals selection. He did not know the mechanism
of the same species (intra specific
from where the variations arose in the
variation) or among the different genera
species. Had he been enlightened by
Mendel’s experiments, he would have
contributed more. But these two great men
did not know of each other or of their works!

We often associate Darwin solely with

the theory of evolution. But he was an
accomplished naturalist, and one of the
studies he conducted was, to do with the
role of earthworms in soil fertility.
Fig. 1.4 Identical twins
(intergeneric variation) or different
species (Inter specific Variation). No two b. Germinal Variation - It pertains
individuals are identical to each other. to germ cells or gametes and it is
Asexual reproduction produces, very inheritable. It leads to speciation
closely resembling offsprings. Asexual and evolution.
reproduction thus results in offsprings with
minor variations.Sexually reproducing Significance of Variation
organisms produce offsprings with
CHAPTER 1

marked,significant and visible variations. ¡ It is the source of raw material for
evolution.
1.2.1. Types of variations
¡ Animals are able to adapt themselves
a. Somatic Variation - It pertains to
bodycells and it is not inherited. to the changing environment.

5
 Lamarckian of a race, would be identical in all
View on organic evolution: aspects.

1.2.2. Theory Of Natural Selection

Charles Darwin made a number of
observations in many parts of the world
and put forth the law of natural selection
involving struggle for existence and
survival of the fittest.
Variation leads to genetic
diversity,which is the key for evolution.
Fig. 1.5 Giraffe
1.3. Evolution
Jean Baptise Lamarck (1744-1829)
postulated the Use and Disuse Theory. Evolution may be defined as a gradual
According to Lamarck, use of a part development of more complex species
/ organ efficiently by a species, for from pre-existing simpler forms.
generations over a long period of time,
It is an extremely slow process and
results in that part / organ being well
has occurred over millions of years,as
developed in the subsequent generations revealed by fossil evidences.
and disuse of part/organ for a long period
would make that part / organ diminished or Evolution has thus resulted in the
degenerated. diversity of organisms, influenced by
environmental selection.
Lamarck quotes the example of
development of long neck of Giraffe. 1.4.  Speciation
Giraffes were forced to extend their neck
and stretch their legs to reach the leaves of
Mankind in India and all other parts
of the world, form a single species
tall trees. Over a long period of time, this
called Homo sapiens. As in India,
resulted in long neck and legs in giraffe.
morphological features of people living
Lamarck remarks that the “will or want”
in different geographical areas like
for a character makes the organisms to
South India, North India, North Eastern
posseses it at a later time. region, Kashmir and Andaman are not
the same as the people living in different
continents are different in morphological
¡ Organisms are better suited to face features.
the struggle for existence
Men, with these differences in their
¡  Variations give the organisms an bodily features, differentiate more
BIOLOGY

individuality of their own. and more, if there is no chance of

interbreeding among them.
¡  Without variation, there would be no Imagine a situation, where this
science of heredity as all individuals would result in the impossibility of

6
 HEREDITY and Evolution

breeding between two such individuals 1.5.  Human evolution

of geographically isolated populations.
Then they would be  ready to become Fifteen million years ago, in Africa
two different species. existed hairy bodied Gorilla and
Chimpanzees like Hominids. After that
When two populations are isolated by 3-4 million years ago, men like hominids,
geographical barriers, or reproductive walked into Eastern Africa. Evidence
barriers, there is a chance for a change to shows that they hunted with stone
develop in their gene flow (Genetic drift), weapons but were mostly fruit eaters.
leading to formation of a new species. They were probably not taller than four
Genetic drift with changes in the gene feet but, walked upright in the grass
flow imposed by isolation mechanism lands of East Africa. These creatures
acts as an agent of speciation. were called the First human like being
– the hominid. The hominid was called
Thus speciation is arising of a new Homo habilis.
species from a sub-population of a
species which is geographically or The next stage of human evolution
reproductively isolated over a long period came into existence 1.5 million years
of time from the other population of the ago with the rise of Homo erectus  who
same species. were meat eaters
The Neanderthal man who lived in
East and Central Asia 1 million years

CHAPTER 1

Fig. 1.6 A comparison of the skulls of adult

modern human being, baby chimpanzee
and adult chimpanzee. The skull of baby
chimpanzee is more like adult human skull than
adult chimpanzee skull. Fig. 1.7 Evolutionary tree

7
 ago, used to hide to protect them and based upon similarities and differences in
buried their dead. their physical and genetical characters.
Archaic Homo sapiens arose in South 1.7. Genetic engineering
Africa and moved across continents and
developed into distinct races during the Genetic engineering is the modification
ice age. Between 75,000 – 10,000 years, of the genetic information of living
the modern Homo sapiens arose. Pre- organisms by manipulation of DNA by
historic caves were developed about adding, removing or repairing part of
18,000 years ago, agriculture came genetic material (DNA) and changing the
around 10,000 years back and human phenotype of the organism. It is also known
settlements started. as gene manipulation or recombinant DNA
Technology (r-DNA Technology)
1.6. Evolution tree
Recent advances made in Genetics,
To understand evolution, a branching
Molecular Biology and Bio-Chemistry
diagram or “Tree” is used to show the
have resulted in the origin of this new
inferred evolution, relationships, among
branch of science. The benefits derived
various biological species or other entities
through the Genetic Engineering include:

Medical products
1. Insulin Fuel
2. Growth hormone Biogas Microbial metabolites
3. Vaccines 1. Enzymes
4. Antibiotics 2. Vitamins
5. Monoclonal 3. Steroids
antibodies 4. Ethanol

Genetic engineering Scope of Waste treatment

1. Transgenic plants Bio-technology 1. Sewage
2. Transgenic animals 2. Toxic wastes
3. Waste oil
4. Agricultural wastes

Mining Fruit and Drink

Organic acids
Mineral extraction 1. Acetic acid 1. Dairy product
BIOLOGY

2. Citric acid 2. Brewing

3. Butyric acid 3. Baking
4. Single cell protein

8
 HEREDITY and Evolution

¡Understanding of the gene structure It was Edward

and function through basic research. Jenner (1749-
1823) in 1791
¡ Production of large quantities of
who coined the
insulin, interferon(Anti-Viral Protein
term vaccine
produced by Virus infected cells) and the term
human growth hormones, proteins vaccination
(Polypeptides) and vaccines for foot for protective
and mouth disease of cattle (komari – inoculation.
in Tamil) etc., Vaccines
produced by Edward Jenner
¡ This technique is also employed in the Bio-technology differ from others. In that,
transfer of genes involved in Nitrogen they do not contain weakened or killed
fixation(NF–genes). This will help the agents. Instead they are so refined as
cultivator to increase productivity. to consist only the reactive material ie.,
the antigen protein only. The first such
1.7.1. Basic techniques in Genetic vaccine was used against Hepatitis B
Engineering Virus (HBV)
Genetic Engineering has developed
after the discovery of two enzymes. anti-biotics, organic acids, vitamins,
The enzymes which can cut DNA into
vaccines, steroids and monoclonal
fragments, and enzymes which can join
anti-bodies.
such fragments.
Brewing Industry: Fermentation in
Restriction enzymes or Restriction
alcoholic beverages like beer, wine etc.,
endonucleases are molecular scissors
which cut DNA at specific sites. DNA Enzyme Technology : Enzymes are
ligases are the paste enzyme which bio-catalysts that speed up reaction in
helps to join the broken DNA fragments. cells. They can be used to catalyze the
industrially important reactions and are
1.8. Bio-technology and
more efficient than inorganic catalysts.
Cloning Many enzymes are utilized in the
Bio-technology has contributed towards pharmaceutical industry.
exploitation of biological organisms or
Anti-Biotics : These are substances
biological processes through modern
produced by some microbes that
CHAPTER 1

techniques which could be profitably

help in increasing the immunity to
used in medicine, agriculture, animal
human beings which are toxic to other
husbandry and environmental cleaning.
micro-organisms.
There are several applications of
Bio-technology such as brewing Industry, Organic Acids: Acetic acid is used for
enzyme technology, manufacturing of the production of vinegar.

9
 Development of Dolly

Fig. 1.10 Dr. Ian Wilmut with dolly

Cloning
Dolly was a cloned sheep, developed not furnish energy but are very essential
by Dr.Ian Wilmut and his colleagues in for energy transformation and regulation
Roselind Institute in Scotland in July of metabolism.
1996.
Vaccines:  Vaccines are substances
The scientists used nucleus of udder that confer immunity against specific
cell (somatic cell taken from mammary disease. They act as antigens and stimulate
gland) from a six year old Finn Dorset the body to manufacture antibody.
white sheep. Steroids:  They are a type of derived
The nucleus of the udder cell contains, lipids Ex: Cholesterol, containing steroid
drugs like prednisolone is produced from
diploid number(2n) of chromosomes with
fungus Rhizopus.
all the genes. They preserved the diploid
nucleus in a suitable preservative. Then Monoclonal anti-bodies : These are
they took an ovum from the ovary of the anti bodies produced by cloned cells.
another sheep. The haploid nucleus (n) Monoclonal anti -bodies, are now used
in the ovum was removed.
for treatment of cancer.

The diploid nucleus of the udder cell Cloning: Cloning is an experimental

technique wherein a group of
was injected into the cytoplasm of the
morphologically and genetically identical
enucleated ovum. Then the ovum with
organisms are produced. The “Clone”
the diploid nucleus, was implanted into is an organism derived from a single
the uterus of the surrogate mother sheep. parent by asexual method. A clone may
Since the ovum had the diploid nucleus, be defined as an exact carbon copy or
it developed into a young clone. It was copies of a single parent.
named “Dolly” by Dr.Ian Wilmut.
BIOLOGY

The word clone refers only to living

species.
Vitamins: These are chemical
compounds present in variable minute If the cloning technique is to be
quantities in natural food stuffs. They do applied to veterinary science, valuable

10
 HEREDITY and Evolution

animals could be cloned from desirable The inner mass of undifferentiated cells
adult cells. are isolated and they are considered as
embryonic stem cells.
1.8.1 Types of Clones
2.  Adult or Somatic Stem Cells:
Natural clones:  The natural clones
The body of higher animals and human
include identical twins.
beings have many well differentiated
Induced clones:  The induced tissues like epithelial, connective,
(artificial) clones are developed by muscular, vascular, supporting, nervous
nuclear transfer into the host cell and reproductive tissues. In these tissues,
there are some undifferentiated cells and
1.9. Stem Cell (Organ) are considered as the adult or somatic
Culture: stem cells. They can grow, multiply and
One of the most fascinating branches can be differentiated into same type of
in applied embryology is stem cell tissues into which they are implanted.
culture. The stem cells are the most The mechanism of adult or somatic stem
unspecialized mass of cells. They cell culture is similar to that of embryonic
are derived from animals and plants. stem cell culture. The somatic stem cells
They have two important characteristic are derived from sources such as bone
features. They are: marrow, embryos, amniotic fluid and
umbilical cord.
1.Unspecialized cells which have the
potentiality of growing and multiplying 1.10.  Microbial Production
into enormous number of same type of As we discussed earlier, the field of
cells by repeated mitosis. Bio-technology is so vast and has great
2.They can be introduced to become scope for different fields like agriculture,
any other type of tissues with specific medicine, foodindustry etc.,
functions i.e., they can be induced to The microbial products of every day
become a cardiac muscle, beta cells use are:
of pancreas (which produce insulin),
special neurons in brain etc., Vaccines :  Killed or live germs
suspension which is employed to induce
1.9.1. Types of Stem Cells the production of antibodies and bring
There are two kinds of stem cells forth immunity.

1. Embryonic Stem Cells: The Antibiotics :  Antibiotics are chemical

embryonic stem cells can be derived substances derived from microbes like
CHAPTER 1

from early embryo which is developed fungi, bacteria etc., employed to kill the
by “invitro fertilization” (fertilisation made infectious germs and cure a disease.
artificially in the laboratory). Vitamin B12 :  Bio technologically
After fertilization the zygote develops synthesized vitamin B12 is used, to cure
into a hollow blastula by cell division. pernicious anaemia.

1111
 2.In the laboratory, a virus Bio-Chips
is altered so that it cannot
1. Cells are removed reproduce.
from patient Bio-Chips are microchips which are
3. A gene developed by employing techniques
is inserted
7. The genetically into the of Bio-technology. In future, biological
altered cells virus
produce the desired computers will be developed using
protien or hormone. bio-chips. Bio-Chips will be useful in
6.The altered cells defence, medicine etc.,
are injected into the
patient.
1.12 Science today - Gene
Therapy
4. The altered virus Insulin dependent diabetes is
5. The cells from is mixed with cells
the patient become from the patient. treated with insulin injection. Insulin
genetically altered .
dependent diabetes is caused by the
Fig 1.11 Gene therapy
degeneration of beta cells due to a
Enzymes :  Bio-Chemically significant defective gene. Applying the principle
enzymes are derived from microbes \ Ex. of Bio-technology, it is possible to
Amylase is derived from amyloproteins correct the defective gene. When the
of bacteria. defective gene is corrected with a new
gene, the genetic defect developed is,
Insulin :  Diabetes is treated by the rectified and cured.
biotechnologically produced insulin.
Gene Therapy is the means to treat
1.11. Bio-sensor and or even cure genetic and acquired
Bio-chips diseases like cancer and Aids by using
normal gene to supplement or replace
Bio sensor: It is a device consisting  the defective gene.
of immobilized layer of biological material
such as enzyme, antibody, hormone, It can be used to treat defects in
nucleic acids, organelles or whole Somatic i.e., (body) or Gametic (sperm
cells and its contact with a sensor. The or eggs) Cell.
sensor converts biological signals into an Types of Gene Therapy
electrical signal. It is used in medicines
and industry. 1. Somatic gene therapy:- The
genome (gene set) of the
1. Blood glucose level can be recipient is changed. But this
detected. change is not passed along to
2. Production of any toxin in the body the next generation.
due to infection can be detected.
2. Germ line gene therapy:- Egg
BIOLOGY

3. Pollution in drinking water can be and sperm of the parents are

monitored. changed, for the purpose of
4. Odour, freshness and taste of food passing the changes to the next
can be measured. generation.

12
 HEREDITY and Evolution

Evaluation
Part A
7. T
 he heritable characters are varying
1. Mendel observed 7 pairs of contrasting in different species and within the
characters in Pisum sativum. One same species.
of the following is not a part of that.
Find out. Name the variation in the following cases.

• Tall and dwarf,  he eye colour among the human

T
• Yellow and green seed colour, beings are varied as blue, black,
• Terminal and axial Flower, brown, green, etc.,
• Smooth and rough stem a) This is called as _______variation.
2. Primitive man evolved in – (Africa, The dentition in rabbit and
America, Australia, India) elephant are not the same.

3. Which of the following is inheritable b) This is called as __________

(an altered gene in sperm, analtered variation.
gene in testes, an altered gene in 8. Sexually reproducing organisms
zygote ,an altered gene in udder cell) produce offsprings with marked,
4.  Theory of natural selection was significant and visible variation.
proposed by - (Charles Darwin, Hugo 
Asexually reproducing offsprings
de Vries, Gregor Johann Mendel,Jean show minor variations.
Baptise Lamarck)
a) Do you agree with the above
5. Somatic gene therapy (affects sperm, statements?
affects egg, affects progeny ,affects
body cell) b) Among the following organisms
list out the asexually reproducing
Part B organisms.
(Paramoecium, Euglena,
6. Mendel has observed Tallness as
Earthworm and Bird).
dominant character in Garden pea
plant. Similarly tongue rolling is a 9. Here is a certain important hereditary
dominant character in man. In a group jargons, fix a suitable one from the list
of 60 students, 45 can roll their tongue given below.
and 15 are non rollers.
a) __________ are the factors
a) In the above context, calculate which form the physical basis of
the percentage of dominant and inheritance.
CHAPTER 1

recessive characters.
b)__________ is alternate expression
b) In Garden pea plant, draw the of same gene.
diagrammatic representation of
mono hybrid cross as explained by c)__________ are contrasting pairs of
Mendel. alleles.(alleles, variation, speciation,
gene, allelomorph)
13
 10. A change that affects the body cell a) Identical twins are __________
is not inherited. However , a change (Natural clones / Induced clones)
in the gamete is inherited. Radiation b) Identical twins are ____________
effects of Hiroshima has been (dissimilar to each other / similar
affecting generations. Analyzing to each other).
the above statements, give your
interpretation. 14. The ancestor of particular type of frog
found in India and Srilanka were the
11. Sequentially arrange the different same,
species of man from primitive to
modern man. (Neanderthal man,
Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo
sapiens)
12. Bio-technology , the modern science
in biology, has helped in producing
different types of products.
 ne of the following group does not
O
a) With reference to the above map,
have a product of bio-technology.
identify the factor that has resulted
Pick out and give reasons.
in the formation of a new species.
a) Enzymes, Organic acids,
b) State a few other factors that help in
Steroids, Vaccines
the formation of new species.
b) Vaccines, Enzymes, Anti Part C
biotics, Organic acids
15. Human evolution has a record of
c) Anti biotics, Hormones, changes for the past of 15 milion
Steroids, Vaccines years.
d) Steroids, Enzymes, Anti bodies, a) Name the different species of
Vaccines. mankind in chronological order
13. Identical twins are syngenic with from primitive to modern man.
similar chromosomal contents. b)When were the primitive caves
Natural clones are those who developed.?
possess identical chromosomes. Fill
up with the suitable word given in c) Narrate the life led by early man like
the bracket. hominids.

further reference
BIOLOGY

Books: 1. Biology - A Modern Introduction B.S.Beckett, Second Edition,

Oxform University Press

14
 Chapter 2

IMMUNE
SYSTEM
 2. IMMUNE SYSTEM
IMMUNE SYSTEM and has no black rings around his
eyes.
“Health is Wealth” is an apt proverb.
There can be no wealth greater than 2. Mental dimension : A mentally
the good health that a person enjoys. In healthy person who knows his
a healthy state, a person keeps himself capacities, does not overestimate or
physically, mentally and socially, fit. Our underestimate himself and can judge
body has a complex defense mechanism his shortcomings and weaknesses.
to keep itself fit and work against various 3. Social dimension : A person
agents which disturb our well being.
Being exposed to diseases, we develop
resistance towards diseases and gain
immunity. Physical Mental
Well being Well being
2.1. Health and its significance
“Health is a state of physical, mental and
social well being of an individual and not
merely absence of a disease or infirmity”. HEALTH
When a person is in good health, the
different organ systems, not only function
well discharging their duties, but the body
as a whole is also able to adjust itself and
strike a balance with the physical, mental
and social environments.
Social
The varying environmental factors such Well being
as temperature, humidity, wind, pressure,
sun, rain, pollution caused by man, atomic
radiation, malnutrition, the millions of Fig. 2.1 Dimensions of health
microbes that surround our bodies, the
inter-personal conflicts are all other factors
adjusting himself in society, does not
affect our lives and are challenges to our
find fault with others. He maintains
health.
interpersonal relationships with his
biology

Dimensions of Health family members and colleagues at

1. Physical dimension : A person who workspot and is free from interpersonal
is free from disease, is bright with
conflicts and will not quarrel.
his skin shining enjoying normal
metabolism, has a good lustrous hair

16
 IMMUNE SYSTEM

Activity 2.1 Nutritional

Genetical
Following the above criteria, make a
survey of your classmates/people in
your neighbourhood and record your Environmental
finding

• of students/neighbours who
are healthy.

• of students/neighbours who
Metabolic Pathogens
do not have good interpersonal
relationship and do not enjoy so-
cial well being. Fig. 2.2 Causes of diseases

• of students/neighbours who Diseases not caused by organisms –

have diseases affecting their me-
Non communicable diseases
tabolism.
1. Organic diseases or Metabolic
• List out positive qualities that you disorders: Healthy body maintains a constant
admire in your friend. blood sugar level which is normally 80-
120 mg / 100 ml of blood under, fasting
conditions. When large quantities of glucose
enter the blood stream, as it happens after
2.2. Diseases and causes
a meal, the excess glucose is converted into
The word disease means, “without insoluble glycogen and stored in liver and
ease or not at ease” and it is opposite to muscles for future use. Later when required,
health. The condition of malfunctioning glycogen is reconverted into glucose and
of the organ system or systems is called reintroduced into blood stream. All these
disease. There are numerous diseases processes are controlled by the hormone,
that damage our health. Insulin, secreted by beta cells of Islets of
Langerhans of Pancreas. If Insulin is not
Causes of the diseases
produced in sufficient quantity, excess of
Diseases are caused due to various sugar cannot be stored and utilized. As a
factors such as pathogens, environmental result, sugar continues to get accumulated
factors, nutritional factors, genetic factors, in the blood, till it is lost through urine. This
metabolic factors, etc. leads to other complications and results in
CHAPTER 2

diabetes mellitus. Diabetes mellitus is a state

Based on the causative agent, diseases of expulsion of excess unused glucose in the
are classified into: urine due to less production of insulin.
1. Diseases not caused by organisms Similarly, Diabetes Insipidus, Coronary
2. Diseases caused by organisms heart diseases, Renal failure, Hypertension,

17
 Obesity, Alzheimer’s disease, Stroke 4.  Diseases caused by Organisms:
affecting the functions of the brain, etc, are Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur were
all caused due to metabolic disorders. the first to establish the Germ theory of
diseases. A germ or microbe gains entry
2.  Hereditary diseases or Genetical
into the host, such as man, multiplies so
disorders: The genetical disorders are
fast that it can increase in large numbers,
caused due to defective or mutated
produce poisonous substance called Toxins
genes. Albinism is an inherited disorder
and interfere with the host metabolism and
of melanin metabolism, characterized by
produce a characteristic set of symptoms
the absence of melanin in the skin , hairs
by which the disease can be diagnosed.
and eyes. The recessive mutant genes
cause this disorder. The clinical symptoms Disease producing organism
of Albinism are milky white coloured skin
and marked photophobia (high sensitivity
to light). Haemophilia, sickle cell anaemia,
Thalassemia, Down’s syndrome, Bubble
boy syndrome, etc,. are a few other
genetical disorders.
3.  Nutritional Deficiency Diseases: A
diet which contains all essential nutrients
in correct proportion, is indispensable for
maintaining good health. Deficiency in
certain food constituents, causes various
kinds of diseases. Protein deficiency
causes Marasmus and Kwashiorkar. In
Marasmus, the child loses weight and
suffers severe diarrhoea and it will appear Fig. 2.4 Kwashiorkar
as though bones are covered by the
skin. In Kwashiorkar the child develops
an enlarged belly with swelling in the
face and feet.
biology

Fig. 2.3 An albino Fig. 2.5 Marasmus

18
 IMMUNE SYSTEM

Some important vitamin deficiency diseases are tabulated below:

Vitamin Deficiency disease Symptoms

Vitamin A Nyctalopia Night blindness

Vitamin B1 Beri-Beri Nervous disorder

Dementia, dermatitis,
Vitamin B5 Pellagra
diarrhoea

Vitamin B12 Pernicious anaemia Destruction of RBC

Bleeding gums and

Vitamin C Scurvy
loosening of teeth

Defective calcification of
Vitamin D Rickets
bones

Vitamin E Sterility Inability to reproduce

Vitamin K Haemorrhage Profuse loss of blood

1. Parasitic Micro-organism: The Bacteria are unicellular prokaryotes and

causative organism of a large number of visible under Compound Microscope.
diseases in man, are micro-organisms Though many bacteria are harmless,
belonging to different groups. They are some are parasitic and produce ­diseases.
Bacteria can enter the host body through
viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoans.
the mouth, nostrils or cuts and bruises on
2. Viruses and viral diseases in man: the skin. They multiply rapidly, ­producing
Viruses are living substances inside the toxins in high concentration to affect
host cell and behave as dead particles health. Some bacterial diseases in man are
outside the host cell. The Viral body Tuberculosis, Leprosy, Cholera, Typhoid,
consists of a nucleic acid, DNA or RNA and Diphtheria, Tetanus, Plague, Pneumonia,
CHAPTER 2

a protein cover. All the known viruses are Syphilis, Gonorrhoea, etc.
parasitic and some of them cause deadly
Fungi and Fungal Diseases: Fungi
diseases such as. polio, rabies, hepatitis,
are non green saprophytic or parasitic
meningitis, encephalitis (brain fever), etc. plants living on dead and decaying organic
3. Bacteria and Bacterial Diseases: matter or living organisms. Certain species

19
 of fungi are parasitic on man and cause Protozoan and Protozoan Diseases:
Ringworm attacking the keratinized layer Protozoans are unicellular animalcules,
of skin, destroying it in circular patches. some parasitize man and cause diseases
such as malaria, amoebic dysentery,
sleeping sickness, etc.
Parasitic macro-organisms:
Infestations of the body with tapeworm,
liver fluke, round worm, filarial worm, etc,.
cause diseases in man like Taeniasis,
Ascariasis, Filariasis, etc,.
2.3. Diseases causedby
Microbes and
prevention
A disease caused by a parasitic
organism and transmitted from one person
to another by the transfer of the parasite is
known as infectious disease.
We shall study the cause, spread and
Fig. 2.6 Bacilli
prevention of a few selected infectious
Dandruff, Athletes’ foot are some other diseases prevalent in our country so that
fungal diseases in man. we will know how to guard ourselves
against them and other similar diseases.

Membranous
RNA Capsomere envelope
DNA Head DNA
Tail
Sheath
Capsomere RNA Tail
of capsid Fiber
Capsid
Glycoprotein
Glycoprotein
biology

(a) Tobacco (b) Adeno viruses (c) Influenza viruses (d) Bacteriophage
mosaic virus
Fig. 2.7 Types of Viruses

20
 IMMUNE SYSTEM

2.3.1. Viral diseases Control and prevention: There are

2.3.1.1. Common Cold no effective measures to control common
cold. However, a good nourishing food,
More than hundred strains of viruses avoiding contact with patients and wearing
are responsible, for causing common cold suitable clothing are suggested, to keep
in man. Children are more susceptible to away from common cold.
common cold than adults.
2.3.1.2. Influenza
Symptoms
It was a dreadful disease once and
1. Inflammation of upper respiratory
worldwide in distribution (pandemic) in
passage – nasal epithelium.
1970s.
2. Flow of mucous.
Causative agent : A(H1N1) Virus , is
3. Headache, slight rise in temperature,
etc,.
It lowers the resistance of the body,
leading to a number of secondary infections
like pneumonia, bronchitis, etc,.
Transmission
i) It spreads mostly through the droplets
discharged from the nose and the
mouth of the patient in the process of
talking, laughing, sneezing, etc,.
ii) It may also spread through close
Fig. 2.9 H1N1 Virus
inanimate objects like handkerchief,

spherical in shape and highly contagious,

causing influenza.
Symptoms
Sudden onset of fever accompanied by
aches and pains in the back and limbs.
Transmission
It spreads through nasal and mouth
droplets of patients and enters into the
respiratory tract of normal man. It also
CHAPTER 2

spreads through fomites.

Fig. 2.8 Human rhino virus
Prevention
bedding, clothes, utensils, toilet i. Avoid contact with the patients.
articles, etc,. (called fomites) ii. Avoid crowding.

21
 2.3.2. Bacterial diseases viable germs. The waxy cell wall of the
tuberculosis bacillus prevents it from drying
Bacteria are prokarotic organisms.
up and so it can remain ­viable outside
Some of the bacteria are parasitic in
the body for a long period. The germs
man, causing diseases like TB, Cholera,
suspended in the air may be inhaled by
Typhoid, dysentry etc.,
a healthy person.
2.3.2.1. Tuberculosis
Prevention
It is an airborne disease affecting the
i) Keeping oneself healthy and avoiding
lungs and also parts of our body such as
insanitary conditions, overcrowding
bones, joints, lymph glands, alimentary
and poor ventilation.
tract, liver, kidney, etc,.
ii) Sunlight and fresh air are important
Causative agent: Mycobacterium agents, as they act as natural
tuberculosis, a rod shaped bacterium disinfectants readily destroying the
causes tuberculosis (TB). germs.
Symptoms iii) Isolation of the patients and frequent
sterilization of articles used by them
i) T he affected parts develop lesions
are also important.
in the form of small nodules called
iv) Incineration (burning) of the droplets,
tubercles from which the disease gets
the sputum from the patients to
its name.
prevent its occurrence in the air.
ii) Persistant cough
v) Immunization with BCG vaccine is
iii) Loss of body weight
an effective measure to prevent this
Transmission
disease.
Tuberculosis is transmitted through air.
Large number of bacteria leave the patients
through the droplets of sputum expelled Activity 2.2
by the patients while eating, sneezing, Making a culture of live bacteria
talking, laughing and so on by the patients.
Boil a few grams of chopped meat,
The droplets may ­remain suspended in
carrot and potatoes in water for 15
the air for a long time. The dust arising
minutes, then filter off the solid matter
from the sputum may also contain
to obtain a fairly clear broth.
Leave the broth in open test tubes
for a few hours. Plug the tubes with
cotton wool and leave them in a warm
o
palce (approximately 25 C) until the
broth has “gone bad” owing to the
biology

growth of bacteria.
What you have produced, is a
bacteria culture.
Fig. 2.10 Tuberculosis bacteria

22
 IMMUNE SYSTEM

Prevention and control: Isolation of

the patient, control of flies, hygienic food
Central Nervous habits, proper public sanitary measures
System
Appetite loss
are effective means of prevention of
Fatigue this disease. Artificial immunization with
typhoid vaccine is advised. A recovery
from typhoid usually confers a permanent
immunity.
Lungs
Chest Pain 2.3.3 Protozoan diseases:
Coughing up blood
Some of the unicellular protozoans are
parasitic pathogens and cause diseases in
Prolonged cough
man.
2.3.3.1 Malaria
Skin
Causative agent: A tiny protozoan –
Night sweats,
Plasmodium is responsible for causing
Pallor
malaria. Four different species of
Plasmodium namely, P.vivax, P.malariae,
P.falciparum and P.ovale occur in India
Fig. 2.11 Symptoms of tuberculosis
causing malaria. Of these, the malignant
and fatal malaria, caused by Plasmodium
vi) The patient should cover his mouth falciparum is the most serious one.
and nose while coughing.
Transmission
2.3.2.2. Typhoid
Through the vector - the female
Causative agent: A short rod shaped Anopheles mosquito.
bacterium with numerous flagella –
Symptoms
Salmonella typhi causes typhoid.
i) Malaria is characterized by chillness
Symptoms
and rise in temperature. This is
i)  Continuous fever. followed by perspiration and lowered
ii) Inflammation and ulceration of body temperature. The person feels
intestine. normal for some time but the fever
recurs at regular intervals.
iii)Enlargement of spleen and a
characteristic red spot eruption on ii) Successive attacks of malaria result
the abdomen. in the distension of spleen and
destruction of liver tissues.
Transmission
CHAPTER 2

Prevention and control:

Transmission of typhoid is through food
and water contaminated with the germ, the i) Sanitary measures include ground
personal contact with patients and carriers. fogging with disinfectants.
Flies are also important transmitting agents ii) Closure of stagnant pools of water
of this disease. and covering ditches is suggested.

23
 Ruptured Human
oocyst liver stages

Mosquito blood Infected

meal: Injects Liver cell
Release of sporozoites Liver cell
sporozoltes Exo-erythrocyte
Ruptured cycle
Oocyst Sporogonic schizont
cycle Schizont
Ookinete Immature
Mosquito trophozoite
stages Merozoites
Red blood
Exflagellated Mosquito blood cell
Microgametocyte meal: Injects Erythrocyte
gametocytes cycle

Ruptured Human Mature

schizont blood stages trophozoite

Microgametocyte
entering Schizont
macrogametocyte Macrogametocyte Gametocytes
Gametocytes

Fig. 2.12 Life cycle of malarial parasite

Life cycle of malarial parasite – Plasmodium: The sexual stage of Plasmodium

takes place in female Anopheles mosquito whereas the vegetative stage occurs in man.
When a female Anopheles mosquito bites an infected person, these parasites enter
the mosquito and undergo further development in the mosquito body. The parasites
multiply within the body of the mosquito to form sporozoites that are stored in the
salivary glands of mosquito. When these mosquitoes bite a person, the sporozoites
(the infectious stage) are introduced into his body; they multiply within the liver cells
first and enter the RBC of man, resulting in the rupture of RBC. This results in the
release of toxic substance called haemozoin which is responsible for the chill and high
fever, recurring three to four days.

Sir. Ronald Ross

Sir. Ronald Ross (1857-1932), a British – Indian physician was born
in Almora, India. He had his school education and higher studies
in medicine in England. Later he was posted at the Presidency
General Hospital, Calcutta. Ross studied about malaria between
1882 and 1899. As he was working in Bangalore, he noticed the
connection between water as breeding ground of mosquitoes
and the spread of malaria. He discovered the presence of
biology

malarial parasites in the female Anopheles mosquito when he

was working on malaria at Secunderabad. He demonstrated that
malaria is transmitted from infected individual to a healthy person
by the bite of mosquito. In 1902, he was awarded the Nobel prize
for his work on malaria.

24
 IMMUNE SYSTEM

iii) Using mosquito nets and repellants Prevention and control: Precaution
also, will grossly lower the chance may be taken by providing germ free clean
for infection. water; clean food ­habits. Good sanitary
2.3.3.2. Amoebic dysentry (Amoebiasis) facilities will control the flies.
Causative agent: Entamoeba 2.3.4. Fungal diseases in man
histolytica – a protozoan parasite in the Some of the fungi are parasitic on man
large intestine of man causes Amoebiasis. and cause diseases
Symptoms
i) Fever.
ii) Constipation and abdominal pain and
cramps.
iii) Stools with excess mucous and
blood clot.
Transmission
It is a water and food borne disease.
House flies act as mechanical carrier and
serve to transmit the parasite from the
faeces of infected persons to the food –
thereby contaminating the food and water.
Fig. 2.14 Ringworm

2.3.4.1. Ringworm
Six stages of hand washing technique Three different genera of fungi namely,
Epidermophyton, Microsporum and
­Trichophyton cause ringworm.
Symptoms

1. Palm to Palm 2.Back of Hands The above fungi live on the dead cells
of outer layer of skin in man and cause
­superficial infections in skin, hair, nail, etc;
and form patches and Itching
Transmission
3. Interdigital spaces 4. Finger Tips By direct contact or through fomites such
as towels, combs, etc,.
CHAPTER 2

Control and prevention: Avoid contact

with infected person and articles used by
them.
5. Thumbs and wrists 6.Nails

Fig. 2.13 Clean habits 2.4. Modes of transmission

25
 of infectious germs he gets infected.

The transfer of a disease causing germ Through the umblical cord, the germs
from an infected person to a normal are transferred from the infected mother
healthy person through certain agents or to the child at the time of childbirth by the
direct contact is called transmission of the direct contact method.
disease. The transmission can take place Indirect transmission through
in one of the following ways; fomites: Some germs may remain viable
Direct Transmission : By direct outside the body of the hosts and may
transfer of germs from the patient to normal be transferred indirectly through close
healthy person through close contact, inanimate objects used by the patients
the diseases like diphtheria, pneumonia, like clothing, bedding, handkerchief,
cholera, typhoid, measles, mumps, etc,. toilet articles, utensils, drinking cups and
are transmitted. glasses that are freshly soiled with the
germs present in the discharges of the
During sneezing, coughing and­ patients. Such contaminated objects are
­talking, the droplets from the patients are called fomites.
­discharged from the mouth and the nose
and enter the air. While a normal person is Transmission by animals: Various
inhaling such air, laden with the droplets, animals such as ticks, mites, birds, insects
and mammals transmit diseases like
cholera, malaria, rabies, etc;

2.5. Immunization
Immunity: Immunity is part of a complex
system of defence reaction in the body. It
means the defence against or specific
resistance exhibited towards the infectious
organisms and their products.

The infectious organisms that invade

the body and the toxins produced by them
and any foreign protein entering the body
are called antigens.

The immune system which includes

blood plasma, lymph and lymphocytes
analyze the chemical nature of the antigens
biology

and produce the suitable proteinaceous

substances called antibodies to detoxify
Fig. 2.15 Cover face while
caughing and sneezing the antigens.

26
 IMMUNE SYSTEM

2.5.1. Types of Immunity during the first infection of any pathogen.

The antibodies produced in the blood
Natural or Innate Immunity: The
stays for a long period and kills the similar
natural or innate immunity that enables
pathogens whenever they enter the body.
an individual to resist the disease, to which
the particular species is immuned. E.g. If the antibody production is stimulated
Plant diseases do not affect animals. naturally, after recovery from a disease, it
is called Natural Active Acquired Immunity.
Acquired or Specific Immunity:
The resistance against some infectious If the antibody synthesis is
diseases developed by an individual during stimulated by application of vaccines or any
lifetime on exposure to the infections is other man made methods, the­­ immunity
called acquired or specific immunity. gained is called Artificial Active Acquired
Immunity. E.g. The polio drops and
The acquired or specific immunity is of triple antigen injected into the child in the
two kinds – active acquired immunity and immunisation programme.
passive acquired immunity.
Passive Acquired Immunity: In this
Active acquired immunity: This kind type of immunity, a readymade antibody
of immunity is developed by our body,
is introduced from outside instead of

TYPES OF IMMUNITY
IMMUNITY

Natural or Innate Acquired or specific

naturally available right developed in the body
from birth after birth

Active Passive
Antibodies are Pre-formed
produced by bring forth immunity
antigenic stimulus

Natural Artificial
CHAPTER 2

Natural Artificial through mother’s antibodies extracted

developed developed by breast milk from other animals
after recovering immunization antibodies of are introduced
from a disease by introducing mother enter the child
vaccines

27
 stimulating the body to produce antibody with antigenic stimulus.

If the readymade antibody is taken from the mother’s blood into the foetus, it is called
Natural Passive Acquired Immunity. If the readymade antibody is given to an individual
artificially, (produced in some other animal and extracted) it is called Artificial Passive Acquired
More to know
What kind of Immunity does a child get when it is breast fed ?BREAST FEED IS THE
BEST FOOD. Antibodies or Immunoglobins are found in breast milk. Through breast milk
antibodies are passed on to the nursing baby. Bottle fed infants do not have the advantage
of fighting the ingested pathogens on their own until the antibodies are produced in them.
An infant should be breast fed for a minimum of six months.
Medical establishment knows that infants who are breastfed contract fewer infections than
bottle fed infants. Breast milk protects the child, against bacteria like Escherichia coli, Sal-
monella, Shigella, Streptococci, Staphylococci, Pneumococci and viruses like Polioviruses
and Rotaviruses.

Immunization schedule
The immunization schedule indicates the stages at which the vaccinations and
inoculations have to be given to safeguard children against different diseases. The
table given below lists the names of vaccines, their dosages and the stage at which
they have to be administered.
biology

28
 IMMUNE SYSTEM

pathways of the disease without affecting

ourselves.
Treatment not involving medicine:
As a person is recovering from the effect
of fracture or neurotic problem, yoga and
physiotherapy do a great deal of help to
do normal activities. People addicted to
Fig. 2.16 Oral Polio immunization

Immunity. This immunity is not permanent.

Immunization: ­Administering vaccines to
prevent the disease is called immunization.
This process of Immunisation develops
Artificial Active Acquired Immunity.
Immunisation through inoculation is a mass Fig. 2.17 Yoga practice
means of protecting a greater number of
people against the spread of diseases. alcohol and drugs are given counselling to
overcome the habit.
BCG Tuberculosis Vaccine
Prevention: Getting rid of a disease
DPT Diphtheria, Pertussis,
causing germs,is a means of prevention of
Tetanus Vaccine (Triple antigen) the disease.
MMR Mumps , Measles, Rubella Prevention can be achieved in two ways:
DT Diphtheria, Tetanus (Dual antigen) i. General – preventing the infectious
TT Tetanus toxoid germs by keeping away from the
2.6. T
 reatment and prevention exposure to the germs. Hygienic life
of the diseases style, avoiding overcrowding, fresh
air, safe drinking water and good
Treatment means medical management sanitary measures are all ways to
of the symptom of the disease. prevent a disease causing germ,
Medical management includes: coming into contact with us.
i) Treatment involving medicine. ii. Specific – This relates to a peculiar
property of the immune system that
ii) reatment not involving medicine. usually fights the microbial infections.
Treatment involving medicine: e.g. Immunisation programme.
CHAPTER 2

Medicines are generally used to treat 2.7. Bio-technology in

infectious diseases. These medicines medicine
either reduce the effect of the disease A detailed account of the role of
or kill the cause of the disease.The Biotechnology in healthcare, has been dealt
antibiotics are used as blocks to the with in chapter 1.

29
 Biotechnologically synthesized insulin Symptom s: Sign ifican t wei gh t
has been effectively used replacing the loss, chronic diarrhoea, prolonged
defective insulin to treat diabetes mellitus fever, opportunistic infections such as
in the field of medicine. tuberculosis, candidiasis and recurrent
2.8. HIV and Prevention herpes zoster (viral) infection.
Acquired Immune Deficiency Test for Virus:
Syndrome (AIDS) is a dreadful disease 1. Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent
transmitted through sexual contact or Assay (ELISA)
through blood and blood products. Robert
Gallo at National Institute of Health, USA 2.  Western Blot – a confirmatory test.
and Luc Montagnier at Pasteur Institute, Prevention:
Paris isolated the virus, Human Immuno
1.  Protected sexual behaviour.
Deficiency Virus (HIV) which causes
AIDS. 2.  Safe sex practices.
3. Screening the blood for HIV before
HIV is a retro virus with glycoprotein
blood transfusion.
envelope and the genetic material – RNA.
HIV causes profound Immuno suppression 4. Usage of disposable syringes in the
in humans. It is due to the depletion of hospitals.
one type of WBC, which is involved in the 5. Not sharing the razors / blades in the
formation of antibodies called CD4 plus saloon.
T-helper cells (lymphocytes).
6. Avoid tattooing using common needle.

Evaluation
PART A 2. Which one of the following is a state
of a disease in which a person is not
1. Pick out a case of healthy state of an
socially balanced.
individual.
He enjoys a birthday party,
Mr. X is recovering from an infectious
disease, He behaves rudely even for menial
matters,
Mr. Y is taking insulin injection
biology

everyday, He is adjusting to the surrounding

situation,
Mrs. Z is very much depressed,
He is attending to his ailing mother
Mr. K is attending to his duty and
at the hospital.
spends time joyfully,

30
 IMMUNE SYSTEM

3. Pick out the bacterial disease. PART B

Meningitis,Rabies,Tetanus, Small pox.
11. In order to lead a healthy life a
4. One of the following is transmitted person should enjoy physical,
through air. Find out. mental and social well being
Tuberculosis, Meningitis,Typhoid, If a person lacks any one of them,
Cholera. then that person is suffering from
_________.
5. The most serious form of malaria is
caused by Plasmodium ________. 12. Tamil selvan has inherited colour
P.ovale, P.malariae, P.falciparum, blindness from his father. Name the
P.vivax. causative factor responsible for this
defect _______.
6. An example for protozoan infecting our
intestine is _______________. 13. Marasmus and Kwashiorkar are both
protein deficiency defects. Marasmus
Plasmodium vivax, Entamoeba
differs from Kwashiorkar in enlarged
histolytica,Trypanosoma gambiense,
Taenia solium. belly and swelling in the face. Are these
symptoms for the above diseases correct?
7. One of the means of indirect If not, correct it.
transmission of a disease is _____.
14.  A list of disorders are given below. Pick
Sneezing,Droplet from mouth, out the odd one out and give reasons.
Placenta,Utensils of patients. (colour blindness, haemophilia,
8. When antibodies, extracted from some night blindness, albinism, sickle cell
other animal is injected into your body, anaemia)
what kind of immunity do you gain? 15. Ramya is suffering from bleeding gum
Artificial active acquired immunity, and loosening teeth. On a diagnosis,
it was found to have been caused by
Artificial passive acquired immunity, vitamin deficiency.
Natural active acquired immunity,
Suggest Ramya the kind of vitamin that
Natural passive acquired immunity. is lacking in her food and tell your friend
9. The first vaccine injected into a just the name of deficiency disease that she
born baby is ___________. suffers from.

Oral polio, DPT, (A) Vitamins

(B) Deficiency diseases and
DPT and Oral polio,BCG.
CHAPTER 2

(C) Symptoms are given.

10. Pick out a non-antigen. Entry of
____________.
(Germ,Toxins of germs,New forms of
Match B, C with A.
protein, Mother’s Milk.

31
 A B C
Vitamins Deficiency diseases Symptoms
e.g. Vitamin A Nyctalopia Night Blindness
Vitamin B1 Scurvy Nerbvous disorder
Vitamin C Rickets Bleeding Gum
Defective calcification
Vitamin D Haemorrhage of bones
Vitamin K Beri-beri Profuse loss of blood
16. Kavitha is suffering from common cold. What are the questions you will

put forth to Kavitha to confirm the 18. There is a widespread outbreak of

disease? malaria in your area.
a. ____________________ a. S uggest some controlling
b. ____________________ measures to the local authorities
concerned.
b. Pick out the right symptom for
malaria. (chill and shiver and a rise
PART C in temperature / diarrhoea )
17. Kala has delivered a baby, 19. 15th October is observed as
‘Handwashing Day’
a. Suggest the immunization schedule
a. Tell your friend the effects of hand
for the baby, in the first six months
washing.
b. What are all the diseases that can
b.  In a day what are the occasions in
be cured as per the schedule? which you wash your hand?

furthEnce
Books: 1. Biology - RAVEN, Johnson WCB Mc Graw - Hill
2. Biology - A Modern Introduction, B.S. Beckett, Second Edition Oxform
University Press.
ZOOLOGY

32
 Chapter 3

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

OF HUMAN BODY-Organ
syStem
 3. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF
HUMAN BODY-Organ sytems

Nervous system – through hormones. In this chapter, we will

Introduction learn the structure and functioning of the
nervous system and the endocrine sys-
Two or more people when gather to- tem in man.
gether, each one is set with an interest
and aptitude and performs his works in Dendrite
his own way. But when it is the question
Nissl granule
of maintenance of an order, a systematic
working among them, there is a need for Nucleus
someone to control and co-ordinate them Cell body
so that a harmony prevails. Similarly the Nodes of Ranvier
functions of organs and organ system is
our body cannot go on in their own way Cytoplasm Terminal
but must be coordinated to maintain the branches
Nurilemma
harmonius steady state of body function- Axon
ing called Homeostasis. Coordination is Myelin sheath
the process through which two or more Neuron
organs interact and compliment the func-
tions of one or the other. In our body the
neural or nervous system and the endo-
Dendrite
crine system do the function of coordinat-
ing and integrating all the activities of the
Nucleus
organs so that the body works efficiently
by synchronizing the functions.
BIOLOGY

Axon Axon
The nervous system provides an organ- Bipolar
Unipolar Multipolar
ized network of point to point connections
for a quicker coordination. The endocrine Fig. 3.1 structure of neuron and types
system provides chemical ­integration

34
 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN BODY

3.1 Nervous system The distal branches terminate as

bulb like structures called synaptic
The nervous system of an animal is knob filled with chemicals called neuro
composed of transmitters. Axon contains axoplasm
i) Specialized cells called neurons inside and is covered by a membrane
or nerve cells which can detect, called neurilemma. Neurilemma en-
receive and transmit different kinds closes the axon except at the branched
of stimuli. distal ends. In some neurons called
myelinated neurons an additional white
ii) The nerve fibres which are certain fatty fibre called myelin sheath covers
bundles of extended processes of the neurilemma. Myelin sheath is not
nerve cells. continous over the neurilemma. The
gaps left by the myelin sheath on the
3.1.1 Nerve cells
axon are called Nodes of Ranvier. Over
Nerve cells or neurons are the the myelin sheath are found certain
structural and functional units of the cells called Schwann cells.
nervous system.
Types of nerve cells
Billions of nerve cells make up our brain.
A nerve cell is a microscopic structure a) Myelinated or Medullated or White
consisting of three major parts namely neurons:
cell body, dendrites and axon. When the axon is enclosed by the
white fatty myelin cover it is called My-
Cell body
elinated or Medullated or White neu-
It is the cell structure irregular in rons. This forms the cerebral cortex of
shape or polyhedral structure, it is also our brain.
called as cyton. Cell body contains
b) Non- Myelinated or Non-Medullated or
cytoplasm with typical cell organelles
Grey neurons:
and certain granular bodies are called
Nissl granules . This neuron is not enclosed by myelin
sheath; so it appears greyish in colour.
Dendrites
The axon is covered by only neuri-
Dendrites or Dendrons are shorter lemma and Schwann cells. This type
fibres which branch repeatedly and of neuron is found in the white matter
project out of the cell body. Dendrites of cerebrum.
transmit electrical impulses towards the
c) Unipolar neurons:
cyton.
CHAPTER 3

The embryonic nervous tissue con-

Axon
tains unipolar neurons. An unipolar
One of the fibres arising from the cell neuron has a nerve cell body with a
body is very long with a branched distal single process or fibre, which will act
end and it is called as Axon. both as axon and Dendron.

35
 d) Bipolar neurons: which convert the electrical impulse
into chemical impulse and pass it to the
The sensory hair cells of the sense
neighbouring neuron.
organs like rods and cones of retina
are made up of bipolar neurons. Each 3.1.3 Human nervous system
bipolar neuron has a cell body and two
process at the ends, one acting as The human nervous system is divided into
axon and the other acting as Dendron. a) The Central Nervous System
e) Multipolar neuron: (CNS) and

The cerebral cortex contains the b) The Peripheral Nervous System

multipolar neurons; each multipolar (PNS)
neuron has a cell body with many c) The Autonomic Nervous System
dendrites and an axon. (ANS)
Synapse: The dendrites and the synaptic The CNS includes the brain and spinal
knobs of the axons of neighbouring cord and it is the site of information
processing and control.
Activity 3.1 The PNS comprises of the nerves of the
Visit a hospital in your locality and study body associated with the central nervous
the principle behind the administration system.
of anesthesia at the time of surgery.
Find out if the fat soluble anesthetic 3.1.3.1 Central Nervous System
substances like chloroform, ether etc,. It is organized of two organs namely
merge with medullary sheath and the brain and the spinal cord. The CNS
prevent conduction of nerve impulse. is accommodated in the protective bony
structures namely skull and vertebral
column.
neurons are in physical contact with
one another without fusing. This point of Meninges: The central nervous
contact between the neighbouring nerve system is covered by three protective
cells is called synapse. coverings or envelops collectively
called meninges. The outermost cover
3.1.2 Nerve impulse: lying below the skull and vertebral
The conduction of stimuli by the column is doubly thick and is called
nerve cells is called nerve impulse. The Duramater. The middle covering is
dendrites will receive the stimuli from thin and vascularised and is called
the receptor (sense organ) and conduct Arachnoid membrane. The innermost
BIOLOGY

the same as electrical impulse to the cover is a very thin delicate membrane
axon through the cyton. At the synapse, and is closely applied on the outer
the synaptic knobs release out chemical surface of brain and spinal cord and it
substances called neuro transmitters is called Piamater.

36
 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN BODY

3.1.3.1.1 The Brain in the organization of the brain. The brain

is the central information processing
Man is a vertebrate and a mammal organ and acts as the command and
belonging to the animal kingdom. But, control system.
he stands unique and supreme and this
supremacy in the living world is reflected The human brain as in the case of other
vertebrates, is divided into three ­major
parts:

Cerebellum a) Fore brain b) Mid brain

Cerebrum
c) Hind brain
Spinal cord
Fore brain
Fore brain consists of cerebrum,
Cervical nerves
thalamus and hypothalamus.

Cerebrum

Thoracic nerves
This forms the major part of the human
brain (nearly two third of the brain is
cerebrum). A deep cleft called median
cleft divides the cerebrum longitudinally
into two halves as right and left cerebral
hemispheres, which are united at the
base by a sheet of nervous tissue called
Lumbar nerves corpus callosum, The outer region of
the cerebrum is distinguished as, the grey
matter or cerebral cortex and the inner
Femoral nerve region is called white matter.

Cerebral cortex
Sciatic nerve
It consists of the nerve cell bodies of
several layers of greyish nerve cells giving
grey colour – so called as grey matter. The
increased surface area of the cerebral
Tibial nerve cortex in man is folded and thrown into
a pattern of convolutions consisting of
ridges and furrows.
CHAPTER 3

Cerebral cortex contains

a) motor areas
b) sensory areas and
c) association areas (a region that is
Fig. 3.2 Human Nervous System
neither sensory nor motor).

37
 Motor areas Within the cerebral hemispheres are
present cavities called ventricles, filled
Motor areas are the sites of order or
with a nutritive fluid called cerebro spinal
command of the cerebrum, from where
fluid.
the order arises to control the activities
of the different organs of our body. Functions of cerebrum: Cerebrum is
Initiation of voluntary activities takes the seat of consciousness, intelligence,
place here. memory, imagination and reasoning. It
receives impulses from different parts
Major Internal Parts of the Human Brain of the body and initiates voluntary
Cingulate activities. Specific areas of cerebrum
sulcus are associated with specific functions.
Corpus Thus there is a centre for hearing,
callosum
Midbrain another for seeing, another for tasting,
another for smelling, another for
speaking and so on. A damage in
Temporal a specific centre of cerebrum will
lobe
Pons deprive the particular faculty from doing
its functions.
Medulla Cerebellum
Fig. 3.3 Major internal parts of human brain. Thalamus
Cerebrum wraps around a structure
Sensory areas called thalamus – a major conducting
These are the sites where the sensory centre for sensory and motor signalling.
functions of the various sense organs are Hypothalamus
received through the sensory nerves.
It lies at the base of the thalamus.
Association areas It controls body temperature, urge to
These are responsible for complex
functions like intersensory associations, Speech Motor control
Touch and
memory and communication. Pressure
Taste
White matter of cerebrum: The inner Hearing
part of the cerebrum lying below the Language
cerebral cortex is called white matter Reading
and it consists of bundles of nerve Vision
fibres with myelin sheath giving the
white colour. Some of these bundles of Smell
BIOLOGY

nerve fibres connect the different parts

of the cerebrum while others connect the
cerebrum with the rest of the brain and
spinal cord. Fig. 3.4 Functional areas of human brain.

38
 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN BODY

eat and drink, regulation of sexual involved in the regulation of heartbeat,

behaviour, express emotional reactions blood vessel contraction, breathing, etc,.
like excitement, anger, fear, pleasure
The ventricle of the medulla remains
and motivation.
connected with the ventricles of the
Mid brain cerebral hemisphere.

The mid brain is located between the 3.1.3.1.2 The Spinal cord
thalamus and the hind brain. A canal
This is a tubular structure, a continuation
called cerebral aqueduct passes through
of the brain lying in the neural canal of the
the mid brain. The dorsal portion of the
vertebral column. The three meninges –
mid brain consists of four hemispherical
Piamater, Arachnoid membrane and the
bodies called corpora quadrigemina
Duramater cover the spinal cord as in the
which controls and regulates the various
case of brain.
visual reflexes and optical orientation.
The spinal cord has two enlargements
Mid brain with hind brain together form
– one in the neck region of the body
the brain stem.
called cervical plexus and another in
Hind brain the lumbar region of the vertebral column
called lumbar plexus.
Hind brain comprises of pons,
cerebellum and medulla oblongata. The spinal nerves arise from these
enlargements. The lower end of the
Cerebellum spinal cord is filamentous and is called
It lies below the cerebrum and consists Filum terminale. On the mid dorsal
of a median portion and two lateral lobes. side of the spinal cord is found a narrow
Cerebellum regulates and coordinates the depression called dorsal fissure and on
group movements of voluntary muscles the mid ventral side of the spinal cord is
as in walking or running. found a deep depression called ventral
fissure. Running through the center
Pons of the spinal cord is the central canal,
It is the bridge of nerve fibres that an extension of the ventricle filled with
connects the lobes of cerebellum. It relays cerebro spinal fluid. Outer region of the
the information from the cerebrum to spinal cord contains medullated white
cerebellum. It also contains sleep centre neurons and the inner region contains
and respiratory centre. non-medullated grey neurons. The spinal
cord conducts impulses to and from the
Medulla oblongata
brain and acts as a reflex centre.
CHAPTER 3

Medulla is the posterior most part of the

brain where it merges with the spinal cord. 3.1.3.2 Peripheral nervous system
It acts as a coordination pathway for both (PNS)
ascending and descending nerve tracts. The nerves arising from the brain and
Medulla is the centre for several reflexes spinal cord constitute the PNS.

39
 a) Cranial nerves: hormones are carried by the blood from
the site of production to the site of action.
Twelve pairs of cranial nerves arise
from the brain. Some of the cranial Endocrine glands in man are distributed
nerves are sensory nerves (taking in the different regions of the body without
impulse from the sense organ to the interconnections. The various endocrine
brain e.g., optic nerves from the eyes). glands found in different regions in man
Some of the cranial nerves are the are as follows:
motor nerves taking impulse from the
brain to the effector organ. e.g. vagus
nerve innervating the heart and some Hypothalamus
are mixed nerves with both sensory
and motor functions. e.g facial nerve Pineal
b) Spinal nerves: Pituitary
Thirty one pairs of spinal nerves arise
from the spinal cord. Each spinal nerve Thyroid and
has a sensory root and a motor root. parathyroid
Thus, all spinal nerves are mixed nerves. Thymus
3.1.3.3 The Autonomic Nervous
System (ANS)
It controls the functions of the vital organs Pancreas
of the body through its two antagonistic Adrenal
divisions namely, sympathetic nerves and
parasympathetic nerves. Ovary
(In female)
3.2. Endocrine system in
man Testis
(In male)
The chemical coordination of
physiological processes to maintain the Fig. 3.5 Endocrine system in man
homeostasis is the work of endocrine
system. Endocrines control and coordinate Head – a) pituitary gland
the physical processes of growth,
reproduction and sustenance of life. b) pineal gland

Endocrine system consists of a number Neck –  a) thyroid gland

of endocrine glands and their hormones.
BIOLOGY

b) parathyroid gland
Endocrine glands are ductless glands
Thorax – thymus gland
(without ducts), secreting the chemical
substances called hormones. The Abdomen – a) pancreas – Islets of
Langerhans

40
 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN BODY

b) adrenal glands –
adrenal cortex and
adrenal medulla
c) gonads – testes in man
and ovaries in woman Adenohypophsis
Hormones (Anterior Pituitary)

Chemically hormones are proteins Infundibular

or amino acids or steroids. Though the stalk
hormones are secreted in small quantities,
their performance is profound in action.
Pituitary gland
It is a tiny gland of the size of a pea
attached to the hypothalamus of the brain.
Since some of the endocrine glands are Neurohypophsis
regulated by the pituitary gland, it is called (Posterior Pituitary)

as the conductor of endocrine orchestra.

Divisions of pituitary : Pituitary gland

is differentiated into an anterior lobe called
Fig. 3.6 Diagrammatic internal
adenohypophysis and a posterior lobe view of pituitary gland
called neurohypophysis.

Hormones of
Functions and malfunctions
adenohypophysis
•• It brings forth growth in general
•• Less production in children – dwarfism
Somatotropic or with retarded growth
Growth hormone •• Excess production in children – gigantism
(STH or GH) with excess growth
•• Excess production in adolescents –
acromegaly with large limbs and lower jaw
Thyrotropic or Thyroid It stimulates the growth of thyroid gland and
stimulating hormone (TSH) its production – the thyroxine
CHAPTER 3

Adrenocorticotropic
It stimulates the adrenalcortex to produce the
or Adrenal cortex
hormones aldosterone and cortisone
stimulating hormone (ACTH)

41
 It stimulates the maturation of graafian follicles (in
Follicle stimulating
the ovary) in the female, to produce the eggs and
hormone (FSH)
sperm formation in the males.

Lutenizing hormone (LH) LH in female causes discharge of egg from graafian

in female follicle – a process, called ovulation and production
of female sex hormone oestrogen and progesterone.
or interstitial cell
stimulating hormone ICSH in male, induces the interstitial cells to produce
(ICSH) in male male sex hormone – testosterone

Lactogenic hormone It stimulates the growth of mammary glands in

(LTH) female and milk production after child birth.

The hormones of neuro

hypophysis namely, oxytocin
and vasopressin are secreted
by hypothalamus and are
released on specific stimuli.
Thus the neurohypophysis
hormones are secretions of a
part of the nervous system and
are chemically octapetides and
decapetides

Hormones of Neuro
Functions and malfunctions
hypophysis
It speeds up the child birth process, by stimulating the
Oxytocin contraction and relaxation of the uterus in the female.

It helps in the reabsorption of water, producing

concentrated urine in small quantity.
Vasopressin
It constricts the blood vessels and raises up the blood
BIOLOGY

or Antidiuretic
pressure
hormone (ADH)
Less production of ADH results in diabetes insipidus,
leading to production of excess of dilute urine.

42
 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN BODY

Thyroid gland Functions of thyroxine

The bilobed thyroid gland is located •• It increases the rate of metabolism.

in the neck, one lobe on each side of •• It stimulates a rise in the body
temperature.
•• It promotes growth and differentiation
of tissues.
•• Since it affects indirectly growth of
Vocal cord the body, thyroxine is also called as
personality hormone.
•• it regulates iodine and sugar level in
the blood.
•• it controls working of kidneys and
Thyroid urine output.
Trachea Thyroid disorders
(a) 1) Hypothyroidism – less secretion
of thyroxine causes many
abnormalities. like simple goitre,
myxoedema and cretinism.
a) Simple goiter – It is due to the
deficiency of iodine in our diet.
Thyroid gland bulges as a swelling
in the neck and it is called as goiter.
b) Myxoedema – It is caused in the
adults, the symptoms are, low

Parathyroid

Fig. 3.7 Thyroid gland a) Dorsal view

b) Ventral view
CHAPTER 3

larynx, which secretes a hormone called

thyroxine. Thyroxine is an iodinated
protein, composed of the amino acid,
tyrosine and iodine. Fig. 3.8 a person with goitre

43
 metabolic rate, loss of mental cells and beta cells. Alpha cells produce
and physical vigour, increase in a hormone called glucagon and Beta
weight, thickening of skin, lowered cells produce insulin and amylin.
heartbeat, mental dullness, etc,.
Insulin
c) Cretinism – This is produced in
•• It promotes the uptake of glucose by
children and the symptoms are
the cells for tissue oxidation.
stunted growth, retarded mental
development, defective teeth, •• It favours conversion of glucose,
protrusion of tongue and loose skin. into glycogen and its storage in the
liver and the muscles.
2) Hyperthyroidism – The excess
production of thyroxine causes •• It prevents the formation of glucose
exophthalmic goiter or Grave’s from protein and fat.
disease. The symptoms are high •• It maintains normal blood glucose
metabolic rate, high blood pressure, level at 80 – 120 mg / 100 ml of
high irritability, profuse sweating, loss blood.
of weight, fatigueness and protrusion
of eyeballs. Diabetes mellitus

The islets of Langerhans Less production of insulin causes

Diabetes mellitus, in which the excess
Pancreas is a dual role playing unused glucose is excreted in the urine.
endocrine gland. The exocrine parts
produce pancreatic juice. The endocrine Glucagon
portion is called islets of Langerhans. It •• It is secreted when glucose level in
consists of two type of cells namely, alpha the blood is low.
•• It influences conversion of glycogen
into glucose, thus raising the blood
glucose level.
Duodenum
Stomach
Adrenal gland Adrenal cortex
Pancreas
Fat

(a) (b)
BIOLOGY

Group of cells Kidney

forming islets of Adrenal medulla
langerhans
Pancreatic duct (Endocrine part)
Fig. 3.9 Pancreas showing Fig. 3.10 a) Adrenal gland
islets of Langerhans b) LS of Adrenal gland

44
 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN BODY

Adrenal gland (Supra renal gland) •• They increase the respiratory rate.
On each kidney is found an adrenal •• They promote the conversion of
gland. It is composed of two portions, an glycogen into glucose.
outer adrenal cortex and an inner adrenal
medulla. •• They cause dilation of pupil.

Adrenal cortex •• They cause profuse sweating.

It secretes two hormones namely, •• They make the hair stand erect.
Aldosterone and Cortisone (gooseflesh)

Aldosterone (Mineralocorticoid) •• In short noradrenaline and adrenaline

mobilize the body, to face the
It maintains mineral metabolism, by emergency by fighting with it or running
favouring reabsorption of sodium and away from it.
water and excretion of potassium and
phosphate ions. Testes

It maintains electrolyte balance, body They are both cytogenic (producing

fluid volume, osmotic pressure and blood sex cells) and endocrine (producing male
pressure. sex hormones) in functioning.

Cortisone (glucocorticoid) The endocrine part secretes male sex

hormone called testosterones (androgen).
It stimulates the breakdown of glycogen
into glucose raising the blood glucose, Testosterone stimulates the growth of
level. reproductive organs and the production
of male sex cell, the sperms.
It also produces an anti-inflammatory
reaction and suppresses the immune Testosterone determines the
response. s­ econdary sexual characters in male,
such as growth of facial hairs, hoarse
Adrenal medulla voice, broadening of shoulder, etc,.

It is made up of modified Ovaries

neuroectodermal cells. It secretes
Ovaries are both cytogenic (producing
two hormones, namely adrenaline
egg cells) and endocrine (producing
(epinephrine) and noradrenaline
reproductive hormones, such as
(norepinephrine). They are together
­oestrogen, progesterone and relaxin) in
called emergency hormones or
functioning.
CHAPTER 3

hormones of flight and fight as they

rapidly mobilize the body to face a stress Oestrogen is responsible for growth
or emergency situation. of female reproductive organs and the
­appearance of secondary sexual­­characters
•• They increase the heartbeat.
in female, such as growth of pubic hairs,
•• They increase alertness. soft voice, feminine body, etc.,

45
 Progesterone maintains pregnancy and You have studied the process of ­mitosis
regulates menstrual cycle. in the previous year. We will ­understand
the various stages of meiosis and its
Relaxin relaxes the muscles of the
­significance in this unit.
pelvic region at the time of child birth.
MEIOSIS
Parathyroid gland Paternal
homologue
These are found within thyroid
and produce the hormones mainly Chromosome Maternal
parathormone and calcitonin which replication homologue
maintain the mineral metabolism.
Thymus gland Pairing of
homologous
chromosomes
I t ’s a l y m p h o i d m a s s , p r e s e n t
above the heart. It secretes thymosin
which stimulates the differentiation of Synapsis and
crossing over
“T”lymphocytes to resist infection.
Pineal gland
It lies under the corpus callosum in the
brain. It produces melatonin ,causing
concentration of pigments in some specific
areas like areola, scrotal sacs, etc,.
Cell division - I
3.3. Cell division
A matured cell divides into two
daughter cells. Unicellular animalcules
like amoeba, undergo binary fission –
without any change in the chromatin
reticulum by a type of cell division called
Amitosis. Cell division - II

Body cells of all animals and plants

undergo a cell division called Mitosis
,involving changes in the structure of
chromosomes, but without any change Fig. 3.11 Meiosis - stages
in the chromosomal number. Meiosis
BIOLOGY

The germinal epithelial cells of Meiosis is a kind of cell division, which

animals undergo Meiosis cell division, occurs in the germinal epithelial cells
involving changes in the structure and of the gonads to form the gametes.
number of chromosomes. ­Meiosis takes place in the specialized

46
 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN BODY

­ iploid cells of gonads and produces

d Pachytene
four haploid gametes, each having
half the number of chromosomes as The paired chromosomes become
compared to the parent cell. Meiosis shorter and thicker. Each bivalent
is completed in two successive appears to have four strands called as,
divisions – Meiosis-I and ­Meiosis-II. tetrads or quadrivalents. The point
In Meiosis-I, as the ­chromosomal number of contact between the homologous
is reduced to half, it is called Reduction pair of chromosomes are called,
division. Meiosis-II is similar to Mitosis. Chiasmata. At the point of chiasmata,
exchange of chromosomal segment
Meiosis - I takes place, between the chromatids of
the homologous pairs. This exchange
The various events of Meiosis-I are
of segments of chromatids between
studied under four substages namely
homologous chromosomes, is called
Prophase-I, Metaphase-I, Anaphase-I and
crossing over.
Telophase-I.
Diplotene
Prophase - I
After the crossing over is completed, the
The chromatin reticulum unwebs and
homologous chromosomes separate and
individual chromosomes are liberated
this separation is called ­terminalization.
from one another. The nuclear membrane
Terminalization may begin in ­chiasmata
dissolves. The chromosomes undergo,
and move to the terminal end of the
,marked differences in their shape and
­chromosomes.
structure. Based on the shape of the
chromosomes, this stage is studied under Diakinesis
five sub-divisions as Leptotene, Zygotene,
Pachytene, Diplotene and Diakinesis. The nuclear membrane and the
nucleolus disappear. The spindle
Leptotene apparatus is formed in the cytoplasm.
The chromosomes condense and appear Metaphase - I
like threads. Each chromosome splits up
longitudinally, except at the centromere. The chromosomes get condensed.
Bivalents now appear on the equator of
Zygotene the spindle with their chromatids, pointing
towards the equatorial plate and the
The homologous chromosomes come
centromere pointing towards the poles.
closer and start pairing. (a homologous
pair of chromosomes consist of a paternal Anaphase - I
CHAPTER 3

chromosome and maternal chromosome

with similar genes). The pairing starts from The spindle fibres contract pulling the
the tip or from the middle and get attached chromosomes, towards the opposite poles.
laterally throughout the length. This pairing is The entire chromosome, with the two
called Synapsis, the paired chromosomes chromatids move to the opposite poles.
are called ­Bivalents. This involves, a reduction in the number

47
47
 of chromosomes. Now two groups of chromosomes. The daughter ­chromosomes
chromosomes are produced, one at each move ­towards the opposite poles.
pole with half the number of chromosomes.
Telophase - II
Telophase - I
The haploid set at the two poles coil
At the poles, around the group of to form chromatin material. The nuclear
chromosomes, a nuclear membrane membrane and nucleolus reappear. Thus
develops. Thus two daughter nuclei each two daughter nuclei are formed.
with half the number of chromosomes, Cytokinesis
are formed at the poles. The spindle
fibres disappear. The cytoplasmic division takes place
at right angles to the position of the ­nuclei
At the end of Meiosis-I at right angle to ,­resulting in the formation of four gametes.
the position of the nuclei, the cytoplasmic
constriction takes place leading to the Significance of Meiosis
division of the cell. The cytoplasmic
1. Haploid sex cells are produced, in
division is called Cytokinesis.
­order to maintain the constancy in the
Meiosis - II number of chromosomes of a species.
Meiosis-II is similar to Mitosis and so 2. Crossing over results in variation of
it is called Meiotic Mitosis. The events genetic traits in the offspring.
of Meiosis-II are studied in four sub-divi-
3. Variations form the raw material for
sions as, Prophase-II, Metaphase-II, Ana-
evolution.
phase-II and Telophase-II.
3.4. Heredity
Prophase - II
The resemblance of son or daugh-
The bivalent chromosomes gets
ter with his or her father or mother, is an
shortened. The centrioles form asters
­interesting feature in nature. Inheritance
and move to the poles. The nucleolus and
of c­ haracters from the parents to the
nuclear membrane disappear.
­progeny, (i.e ­heredity) ensures the passing
Metaphase - II of the parental characters to the progeny.
The ­inheritance of characteristics through
Chromosomes, each consisting of two
generations is called heredity.
chromatids held together by a ­centromere
are arranged at the equator of the ­spindle The inheritable characters may be
fibres. The centromeres are ­attached with morphological or physiological or ­anatomical
the spindle fibres. or reproductive and are also known as traits.
Anaphase - II Both the mother and ­father ­contribute equal
BIOLOGY

amount of ­genetic ­material to the child. This

The centromere divides into two and the means, that each trait can be influenced, by
two chromatids separate and now they are both paternal and maternal genetic material
called as daughter ­chromosomes or new i.e DNA.

48
 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN BODY

EVALUATION
Part A 8. Normal blood glucose level in 100 mlof
blood is _________.
1. Unipolar neurons are found in
___________. 9. The “T” lymphocytes are diffe­ren­tiated
to resist infection in _____. (parathyroid
Brain, Spinal Chord, Embryonic gland, lymph gland,thymus gland,
nervous tissue, Adult nervous adrenal gland).
tissue.
10. In Meiosis-I, the pairing of homologous
2. The sensory organs contain chromosomes take place during
___________. _____ stage. (leptotene, zygotene,
Unipolar neuron,Bipolar neuron, pachytene, diplotene)
Multipolar neuron, Medullated neuron. Part B
3. The part of brain which controls 11. Copy the diagram and label any two
emotional reactions in our body is parts in the group given.
____.
Cerebellum, Cerebrum, Thalamus,
Hypothalamus.
4. One of the following is the part of the
brain stem. Pick out.
(cyton, axon, dendron, endplate)
Fore brain and mid brain, Mid brain
and hind brain, 12. This diagram is human brain, and the
functions of different parts are given
Fore brain and hind brain, Fore below.
brain and spinal cord.
A. Seat of smell
5. Spinal nerves are ________.
B. Seat of vision
Sensory nerves, Motor nerves,
Mixed nerves, Innervating the brain.
6. An endocrine gland found in neck is Mark A and B in the parts of the brain,
___________. Corresponding with the function.

adrenal gland, pituitary gland, 13. On the basis of the function performed,
CHAPTER 3

thyroid gland, pancreas. Pick out the right statements.

a. Pitutiary gland secretes hormones
7. An endocrine gland which is both and enzymes
exocrine and endocrine is _______.
b.Thyroid gland secretes thyroxine
(pancreas, pituitary, thyroid, adrenal). and insulin.

49
49
 c.Testes produces sperms and the 17. In Amoeba, the cell division takes
hormone androgen. place –––––––––
d.Pancreas produces enzymes and (involving changes in the
harmones. chromatinreticulum,
14.Based on relationships fill in the blanks. without involving changes in the
Thyroxine: personality hormone; chromatin reticulum,
adrenaline :_________.
leading to reduction in the number
15. Correct the statements if they are of chromosomes,without dividing
wrong. the nucleus. )
a .alpha cells produce insulin and 18. Pick out the item which has sequential
beta cells produce glucagon arrangements
b. cortisone suppresses the immune a. zygotene -> Leptotene -> Pachytene
response -> Diplotene -> Diakinesis
c. thymus gland is a lymphoid mass. b. Diakinesis -> zygotene -> Leptotene
d. O
 vary produces eggs and -> Pachytene -> Diplotene
Androgen..
c. Leptotene -> zygotene -> Pachytene
16. Reduction division is the process by -> Diplotene -> Diakinesis
which gametes are produced,. The
cells in which reduction division take 19. The important event of meiosis is the
place are crossing over. It occurs during
(germinal epithelial cells, the sensory (Leptotene,Pachytene,Diplotene,
epithelial cells,cuboidal epithelial Zygotene. )
cells,columnar epithelial cells.)

further reference
Books: 1. Biology - RAVEN, Johnson WCB Mc Graw - Hill
2. B  iology - A Modern Introduction, B.S. Beckett, Second Edition
Oxform University Press.
BIOLOGY

50
 Chapter 4

Reproduction
in plants
 4. Reproduction in plants

Reproduction in plants Adult frog

tadpole frog
Do you know that all living organisms
­reproduce (both plants and animals)?
­Reproduction is a special biological
­process, by which new individuals of the Eggs
Start of
pulmonary
same species are produced. It is one breathing
Embryo
of the biological processes like nutrition, front legs
tadpole break
­respiration and excretion etc. through

What will happen if there is no

­reproduction?
Fig. 4.1 Life cycle of Frog

Some of the methods of reproduction in organisms are:

Reproduction in animals Reproduction in plants

Fission – Protozoan Fission – Bacteria
Budding – Coelenterates Budding - yeast
Fragmentation – Flatworms Fragmentation – Algae
BIOLOGY

Spores – Fungi
Sexual reproduction – Mammals Pollination and Fertilization – Flowering
plants

52
 Reproduction in plants

4.1. MODES OF REPRODUCTION

4.1.1. Modes of reproduction in
single cell organism
Let us examine how different organisms
actually reproduce. The methods by which
organisms reproduce depend upon the
body shape and structure of organisms.
FERTILIZATION
Unicellular organisms, like amoeba
POLLINATION and bacteria, split into two equal halves
and produce new ones which is called
binary fission.

Some Bacteria, like Lactobacilli,

Salmonella multiply rapidly, others
like Mycobacterium tuberculosis,
multiply slowly.

Fig. 4.2 Pollination and fertilization

Questions Activity 4.1

•• Wet a slice of bread and keep it in a
1. What is meant by ­r­eproduction? cool, moist and dark place.
2. Mention a few methods of •• Observe the surface of the slice
reproduction in plants and animals. with a magnifying glass.
•• Observe for a week and record.
South African fossil records show that
the first formed organism in the Earth
is a Bacterium, i.e, Eobacterium which
Beneficial activity to humans :
came into existence approximately
four billion years ago. In the past two Conversion of milk into curd by
billion years, life got diversified into Lactobacilli
multitude of varieties of organisms Harmful activity to humans :
that exist today or existed and became
extinct in the past, whereas bacteria Bacteria like Mycobacterium
CHAPTER 4

continues to live as bacteria without tuberculosis cause tuberculosis.

much change.

53
 Reproduction in unicellular organisms :
By Fission

Amoeba Bacteria
DNA Replication

Septum Formation

Cell Separation

Fig. 4.3 Reproduction in unicellular organisms

4.1.2. Modes of reproduction in

Think, read and analyse, multicellular organisms:
1. Vegetative propagation 2. Asexual reproduction 3. Sexual reproduction
why there are so many methods of re-
production?
Fragmentation Budding Spores Pollination Fertilization
Evolution may be defined as a grad-
ual development of more complex Depending upon the body organization
of multicellular organisms, there are
species from pre-existing forms. On
various methods of reproduction.
this basis, the reproduction in simpler
forms, like Amoeba and Bacteria, is Vegetative propagation: is the ability
very primitive by means of Binary Fis- of plants to reproduce by bringing forth
new plants from existing vegetative
sion, Fragmentation, etc., If, the com-
structures without sexual rproduction.
plexity of the body design of organisms
increases, the method of reproduction Fragmentation
also gets complicated involving two In multicellular organisms with simple
organisms (male and female). body organization, simple reproductive
methods have been noticed.
In Spirogyra algae, the plant body
Activity 4.2 breaks up into smaller fragments. Each
•• Observe a permanent slide of fragment grows into a new individual.
bacteria under a microscope.
Nucleus
• • Similarly, observe another
permanent slide of bacteria showing Septum
BIOLOGY

Binary Fission.
Spiral
•• Now compare the observations of Chloroplast
both the slides.
Fig. 4.4 Fragmentation in spirogyra

54
 Reproduction in plants

get detached from the parent body to

Activity 4.3 become new independent individuals.
•• Collect water from a lake or pond Similarly, buds produced in the notches
that appears dark green and along the leaf margin of Bryophyllum fall
contains filamentous structures. on the soil and develop into new plants (in
•• Put one or two filaments on a slide. Tamil katti pottal kutti podum).
•• Put a drop of glycerin on these 4.1.3. Asexual reproduction
filaments and cover it with a cover
In lower group of plants, reproduction
slip.
takes place by means of spores. The spores
•• Observe the slide under a
are covered by thick walls that protect them
microscope.
until they come into contact with another
Budding moist surface and can begin to grow.
In Hydra, a bud develops as an
outgrowth due to repeated cell division at
one specific site. These buds develop into
tiny individuals and, when fully mature,

Aplanospores Zoospores
Shoot

Bud Notch
Akinetes Conidia
Fig. 4.5 Bryophyllum
Fig. 4.6 Different kinds of spores

Some of the spores in different algae and fungi are

APLANOSPORES ZOOSPORES AKINETES CONIDIA

In algae, the protoplast A zoospore is a motile In algae, the vegetative Conidia are
of the vegetative asexual spore that cells secrete thick uninucleate, non-
cells contract and uses a flagellum for additional wall layers. motile, asexual spores
produce ovoid bodies locomotion. These During adverse produced by the
surrounded by a thin spores are created by conditions, food fungus like penicillium,
wall. These thin walled some algae, bacteria materials are filled etc.
non-motile spores are and fungi to propagate up in cells. These
CHAPTER 4

called Aplanospores. themselves. structures are called

New filaments akinetes. When the
are formed by the Zable, they develop
germination of these into new filaments.
spores.

55
 Questions
1. D
 ifferentiate vegetative Stigma Style
Ovary
propagation and sexual Filament Anther
reproduction.
2. M
 ention some of the spores of
asexual reproduction.
4.1.4. Sexual reproduction in plants
What is sexual reproduction?
Sexual reproduction is the process in
which two components ( male and female)
are involved to produce offsprings of their
own kind.
A bull alone cannot produce new calves. It
needs a cow. Female sheep alone Corolla
Ovule Calyx
cannot produce new ones. It needs a
male sheep.
Fig. 4.7 Parts of a flower
Both the sexes, male and female, are
needed to produce new offspring.
As you have already studied in your
earlier classes, the flower is a
reproductive organ of a flowering plant.
To understand this we need to look first
at the structure of a flower.
1

Parts of a typical flower

A flower is a modified shoot with a 2
limited growth. Flowers vary in size,
shape,structure and colour.
1. Anther,

2. FiIament
The main parts of a flower are,
1. Calyx Fig 4.8 Androecium
BIOLOGY

2. Corolla Androecium is the male part of a

3. Androecium and flower,and Gynoecium is the female
part.
4. Gynoecium.

56
 Reproduction in plants

Androecium is a group of stamens. 4.2. Pollination

Each Stamen consists of a stalk called
How does sexual reproduction take
the filament and a small bag like structure
place in flowering plants?
called the anther at the tip. The pollen
grains are contained in the anther within The sexual reproduction in flowering
the pollen sacs. plants involves
Gynoecium 1. Pollination
Gynoecium is the female part of the 2. Fertilization
flower and consists of the carpels or ovary. 1. Pollination
Gynoceium has three parts 1) Stigma 2)
Style and 3) Ovary. Transfer of pollen grains from the
anther to the stigma is called pollination.
The ovary contains the ovules and Pollen grains are transferred mainly by
each ovule carries within it an embryo wind, water and insects. They are called
sac, within which lies the egg cell or the as pollinating agents.
female gamete.
Pollination is the first and important
event in the development of the fruit
and seed. Pollination is followed by
fertilization.
Types of Pollination
Stigma
Pollination is of two types. They are
Style
Ovary 1. Self pollination
2. Cross pollination

Fig. 4.9 Gynoecium

Activity 4.4 Cross

pollination
•• Take a shoe flower from a growing
plant.
• • Observe the floral parts Calyx,
Corolla, Androecium and Self
Gynoecium. pollination
•• Separate the stamens and carpels
CHAPTER 4

and observe the parts.

•• Dust the pollen grains on a Self
pollination
slide and observe under the
microscope.
Fig. 4.10 Pollination

57
 4.2.1. Self Pollination 4.2.3. Agents of cross pollination
Self pollination is also known as How is it possible for the transfer of
autogamy. The transfer of pollen grains pollen grains from one flower to another?
from the anther of a flower to the stigma In order to bring about cross pollination,
of the same flower or another flower of the it is necessary that the pollen should be
same plant is known as self pollination. carried from one flower to another of a
different plant. This takes place through
Advantages of self pollination agency of animals, insects, wind and water.

1. Self pollination is certain in Pollination by birds (Ornithophily)

bisexual flowers. ­Pollination by insects and animals
2. Flowers need not depend on agents
of pollination.
Activity 4.5
3. There is no wastage of pollen grains.
Observe the flowers in a garden
near to you.Identify the insects, and
Disadvantages of self pollination
birds,that act as pollinating agents.
1. The seeds are less in number. Maintain a record detailing the pol-
2. Endosperm is minute. Therefore, linating agents and the plants they
the seeds produce weak plants. pollinate
3. New varieties of plants cannot
be produced resulting in the
degradation of the plant. Zoophily
Animals and insects – Birds, squirrels
and insects are attracted to the bright
4.2.2. Cross Pollination (Allogamy) petals of the flowers. These flowers are
The transfer of pollen grains of a also large in size and have a sweet smell.
flower to the stigma of another flower of Some of these flowers have nectar and
a different plant of the same species is a sweet scent. This is the most common
called cross pollination or allogamy. of all methods of pollination. This kind of
pollination is called Zoophily. (Pollination
Advantages of cross pollination by animals and birds).

1. The seeds produced as a result of cross

pollination develop, germinate properly
and grow into better plants, i.e., cross
pollination leads to the production of
BIOLOGY

new varieties.
2. More viable seeds are produced.
Fig. 4.11 Zoophily

58
 Reproduction in plants

Anemophily (Pollination by wind)

The flowers pollinated by air are mostly
small in size and without any attractive
colour, smell and nectar. They produce a
large number of pollen grains to make up
for the wastage of pollen in times of transit.

Fig. 4.13 Hydrophily

4.3. FERTILIZATION
Recall what you have studied about
pollination.
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains
Fig. 4.12 Anemophily from the anther to the stigma. Each pollen
grain has protective walls called exine and
The pollen grains are dry and powdery, intine. The outer wall exine is thick and it
and hence are easily carried by the wind. has small pores called germination pores.
Some pollen grains even have wings. The inner wall is thin and elastic.
Stigmas are large and protruding, even
branched and feathery. e.g.Maize. Germination of pollen grain
Flowers pollinated by wind are called If pollen grain falls on a suitable
Anemophilous, e.g. Grass and pine. stigma, it starts germinating. A mature
pollen consists of two cells. The larger
one is vegetative cell and the smaller
Activity 4.6
one is generative cell. The vegetative cell
•• Collect some of the zoophilous, starts growing and emerges through the
anemophilous,hydrophilous germination pore. It develops through the
flowers. style as a long tube known as pollen tube.
•• Prepare a chart and make a note The generative cell gets into the tube and
of their adaptations to suit the divides into two male gametes (sperms).
corresponding pollination.

Pollen grain
Pollination by Water (Hydrophily)
CHAPTER 4

This pollination takes place in water Sperm

plants or plants that are adapted to water Pollen tube
habitat. e.g. Vallisneria. This pollination Tube nucleus
is known as hydrophily. The flowers are
small and inconspicuous. Fig. 4.14 Germination of pollen grain

59
 4.3.1. Process of fertilization Endosperm is a nutritive tissue meant
The pollen tube enters into the embryo for the development of the embryo. The
sac through micropyle. At this time, process of fusion of a male gamete with
egg and the other gamete with secondary
the pollen tube bursts open, gametes
nucleus is known as double fertilization.
released from the pollen tube and enter
into the embryosac. One of the gametes 4.3.3. Post fertilization changes :
fuses with the egg, and the other fuses
i. The ovule develops into seed.
with the secondary nucleus. The fusion
ii. The integuments of the ovule
of a male gamete with egg is known as
develop into seed coats.
fertilization. The fertilized egg is known
iii.The ovary enlarges and develops
as zygote which develops into embryo.
into fruit.
Pollen grain
4.4. FRUIT FORMATION
Style Pollen tube
You are all very familiar with fruits. They
are inseparable with us in our day-to-day
life. Fruits are rich in vitamin and give
Ovule Embryo sac energy to us. Now let us discuss about the
development of fruits and their types.
As we discussed earlier, fruits are the
product of fertilization. The ovary will
Fig. 4.15 Process of fertilization become fruit after fertilization. It has two
parts namely pericarp (fruit wall) and
4.3.2. Double fertilization
seeds.
The other male gamete fuses with
the secondary nucleus. The secondary Some fruits develop without the act
nucleus is diploid in nature. of fertilization. Such fruits are called
Parthenocarpic fruits. e.g. seedless
grapes, guava, mango etc.
4.4.1. Classification of fruits
The fruits are classified as follows:
Simple fleshy fruits
In simple fleshy fruits, the pericarp is
succulent and juicy when fully ripe. The
Fig. 4.16 Double fertilization
fleshy fruits are indehiscent in nature. The
pericarp is distinguished into three parts,
BIOLOGY

The fusion of this nucleus with the namely epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp.
second male gamete is known as triple There are mainly two types of fleshy fruits
fusion. The triple fusion nucleus is called – Baccate and Drupaceous. Baccate is
endosperm nucleus because it develops further classified into berry, hesperidium,
into endosperm. pome and pepo.

60
 Reproduction in plants

Simple dry fruits

These fruits have a dry pericarp.
They are classified based on mode
of dehiscense as dry dehiscent,
dryindehiscent and schizocarpic fruits.

4.4.2. Dry dehiscent fruit Fig. 4.18 Custard apple

These fruits split open at maturity to
liberate the seeds. 4.4.6. Composite or Multiple fruit
4.4.3. Dry indehiscent fruit Multiple or composite fruit is formed
by all the flowers of whole inflorescence
These fruits do not split open at maturity and give a single fruit. There are two
and the seeds are liberated by the decay types of multiple fruits namely sorosis and
of pericarp syconus.
4.4.4. Schizocarpic fruits
Activity 4.7
At maturity, these fruits break into many
one seeded parts called mericarps. The Collect a variety of fruits. Identify what
mericarps containing the seeds remain type of fruit they belong to and make a
indehiscent. Thus the schizocarpic note on them.
fruits show characters of dehiscent and
indehiscent fruits.
Think, read and find out :
4.4.5. Aggregate Fruit
Why are there so many varieties of
It is developed from a single flower fruits?
with multicarpellary, apocarpous, superior
ovary.Each free carpel develops into a 4.4.7. Seed Formation
fruitlet. Hence, the aggregate fruit has a
Seed is a fertilized ovule. It possesses
cluster of fruitlets attached to a common
embryo, food materials and are protected
stalk (e.g) Polyalthia
by the seed coat. During favourable
In Annona squamosa (custard apple), condition, the seed germinates and gives
the margin of the carpels are united and rise to a new seedling.
appears like a single fruit.
Seeds have great variations in the size,
shape, colour and surface. In orchids,
there are many seeds which are tiny dust
like particles. In coconut, there is a large
CHAPTER 4

sized seed. The seed grows into a full

plant.
On the basis of the number of cotyledons
in the embryo (seed), the angiosperms
Fig. 4.17 Polyalthia have been divided into two groups.

61
 Simple fleshy fruits

Sl.No Type Diagram Description

1. B a c c a t e - Tomato It is one or many seeded fruit.
Berry Epicarp is thin and the mesocarp
is fleshy. They form a pulp which
is edible and the seeds are
embedded in it.

2. Hesperidium Orange It develops from ­multicarpellary,

superior ovary with axile
­placentation. The epicarp is
thick, leathery and contain oil
glands. The whitish spongy
layer lining the epicarp is called
mesocarp. The endocarp forms
distinct chambers. Juicy hairs
produced from the endocarp is
the edible part.
3. Pome Apple The fruit develops from
­pentacarpellary syncarpous
­inferior ovary with many seeds.
The thalamus becomes fleshy
and develops into a fruit which is
edible. The true fruit containing
seeds remain inside.
4. Pepo Cucumber It develops from a tricarpellary,
syncarpous inferior ovary with
parietal placentation.The pulp
contains many seeds.

5. Drupaceous Mango It is a one seeded fleshy fruit and

develops from monocarpellary,
Drupe
syncarpous ovary. The pericarp
is differentiated into outer skinny
epicarp,fleshy middle mesocarp
and stony inner endocarp. Be-
BIOLOGY

cause of the presence of stony

endocarp, the fruit is also known
as stone fruit.

62
 Reproduction in plants

Simple dry fruits Dry dehiscent fruits

Sl.No Type Diagram Description

1. Legume Beans It develops from
­m onocarpellary, unilocu-
lar, ­s uperior ovary with
­m arginal ­p lacentation. Peri-
carp ­d ehisces along both
dorsal and ventral sutures
(e.g.) pea, bean, etc.

2. Follicle Calotropis It is like a legume fruit, but the

pericarp dehisces along one
suture only. (e.g.) Calotropis.

3. Capsule Cotton This is a many seeded fruit

developing from superior
(a) Septicidal
or inferior, syncarpous
capsule
multicarpellary ovary.
Capsules dehisce by
various methods.
Lady’s finger
(b) Loculicidal
capsule

Dry indehiscent fruits

Sl.No Type Diagram Description

1 Achene Clematis,Mirabilis This is a single seeded fruit which

develops from monocarpellary,
CHAPTER 4

unilocular ovary. Pericarp is hard

and leathery, remains free from
the seed coat

63
 2. Caryopsis Paddy It is a one seeded fruit which
develops from superior mono-
carpellary ovary. Pericarp is
fused with the seed coat (e.g
paddy, wheat, maize).

3. Cypsela Tridax This fruit develops from in-

ferior, bicarpellary syncar-
pous ovary. The pericarp and
the seed coat remains free
(e.gTridax).

4. Nut Cashew nut It is a dry indehiscent, one

seeded fruit with hard and
woody pericarp. Nut is devel-
oped from superior, bi or multi-
carpellary ovary (e.g. Cashew
nut, Walnut etc).
BIOLOGY

64
 Reproduction in plants

Schizocarpic Fruits

Sl.No Type Diagram Description

1. Lomentum Acacia It resembles a legume and
breaks transversely at con-
strictions between the seeds
(e.g Acacia).

2. Cremocarp Coriandrum It is a two seeded fruit which

develops from bicarpellary
syncarpous, bilocular and in-
ferior ovary. It dehisces longi-
tudinally into two indehiscent
mericarps (e.g) Coriandrum.
3. Regma Castor It develops from tricarpellary
syncarpous superior ovary
and breaks up into three one
seeded cocci (e.g Castor).

Composite Fruits

Sl.No Type Diagram Description

1. Sorosis Jack fruit In jack fruit, the rachis (inflo-
rescence axis) and other floral
parts of the female inflores-
cence fuse together forming a
composite fruit. It consists of
a fleshy central axis. The ed-
ible part represents the peri-
anth which is bag like and one
seeded. There are numerous,
elongated, whitish flat struc-
tures in between the edible
CHAPTER 4

flakes. They represent the ster-

ile or unfertilized flowers. The
pines on the tough rind repre-
sent the stigma of the carpels.

65
 Sl.No Type Diagram Description
2. Syconus Fig It is derived from a special
type of inflorescence known
as hypanthodium which has a
fleshy receptacle. It has large
number of minute unisexual
flowers. On ripening, the
receptacle becomes fleshy
and juicy and forms the edible
portion (e.g.) banyan, peepal ,
fig, etc.

1. Dicotyledons: Seeds with two The embryo is enclosed by the seed

cotyledons (e.g) pea, bean, gram and coat. It consists of cotyledons attached to
castor. the primary axis which has rudimentary root
portion called the radicle and a rudimentary
2. Monocotyledons: Embryo with one stem portion known as plumule.
cotyledon (e.g) maize, rice, wheat and onion.
The tip of the radicle projects outside ,and
1. Structure of a dicot seed (bean) is nearer to the micropyle. The plumule is
The seed is bulky, oval and slightly placed between the two cotyledons and
indented on one side. On this side there consists of a short axis, and a small bud
is a short longitudinal, whitish ridge called having two tiny little folded leaves.
the raphae. At one end of the raphae
2. Structure of monocot seed (paddy)
there is a minute opening known as germ
pore or micropyle. In paddy, the so called seed is actually
a fruit. It is a simple indehiscent one
If a water soaked seed is pressed
seeded fruit known as caryopsis, (you have
gently a small drop of water along with air
already studied about this in the lesson
bubbles will be found coming out though
of fruits.).The seed coat is very thin. The
the micropyle.
fruit wall (pericarp) is thin and fused with
the seed coat. The fruit is covered by
Seed coat
generally yellowish bract and bracteoles
which are commonly known as chaff. The
embryo consists of single cotyledon called
scutellum and a short axis. The lower
Cotyledons
part of the axis is the radicle, covered by
Radicle a sheath called coleorrhiza (root sheath).
Endosperm The upper part is known as plumule which
BIOLOGY

is covered by a sheath called coleoptile. In

a day or two, after the seed is placed in a
moist soil, the coleorrhiza pierces the base
of the seed. The radicle comes out next
Fig. 4.19 Dicot Seed (Bean) after splitting the coleorhiza.

66
 Reproduction in plants

The radicle does not form the root

system. Meanwhile, roots are formed
Activity 4.9
from the lower most nodes of the stem. •• Soak a few seeds of bengal gram
These roots are called adventitious roots. (Channa) and keep them over night
These adventitious roots form fibrous root in a wet cloth.
system of matured plant. •• Take care that the bengal gram is
not swollen absorbing exess of
water. ( The bengal gram should not
Seed coat be decayed with excess water.
•• D
rain the excess water and cover
the seeds with the wet cloth and
leave them for a day. Make sure
that the seeds do not become dry.
Embryo •• Cut and open the seed carefully and
observe the different parts.

Fig. 4.20 Monocot seed (Paddy)

•• Compare your observations with the
diagram and see if you can identity
all the parts.
More to know
Darwin used seeds of cress,
cabbages, lettuces and onions. 4.5. Dispersal of seeds :
Darwin also studied longer
periods in sea water, the effect The seeds fall off far away from the
of water temperature on mother plant. Why?
germination and floating of seeds. The reproductive capacity of plants is
His experiments overturned the so tremendous that a very large number of
idea that sea water kills seeds. Of
seeds is produced by a single plant. If all
the 87 species he used, Darwin
these seeds fall directly below the parent
found almost three-quarters of
the seeds studied could tolerate plant, the seedlings would have to compete
solt water at least 28 days in salt for space, water, oxygen, minerals and
water. sunlight, leading to competition. When
the seedlings are grouped together at one
place, they could easily be destroyed by
Activity 4.8 grazing animals. Such a situation would
be detrimental to the species.
CHAPTER 4

Label jars, filled with sea water and

seeds. After 7 days put the seeds The fruits and seeds of plants have
in a sieve, rinse under a tap, and evolved various devices by which they
plant out in labeled pots. can be distributed far and wide through
various agencies.

67
 This not only eliminates the unhealthy The spongy thalamus with air chamber
competitive struggle that would arise of Lotus floats in water streams and after
from over crowding, but also ensures the some time the fruits get separated, and
successful spreading and establishment the seeds germinate.
of a species on the earth. Most fruits
Zoochory: Zoochory is a mechanism
and seeds have evolved adaptations for
in which dispersal of fruits and seeds is
dispersal.
by animals. Some fruits are provided with
Agents for the dispersal of fruits and hooks, spines, bristles, stiff hairs, etc.,
seeds: on their outer coat. With the aid of these
Based on the agents involved in out growths, these fruits stick to the furry
dispersal, there are various types of coats of skins of some animals and get
dispersal mechanisms of fruits and seeds carried away from one place to another.
in plants. The fruits of Xanthium have sharp-
Autochory: Autochory is an active pointed stiff hooks and the Achyranthus
mechanism of self dispersal of fruits and the perianth and bracts are pointed. Many
seeds. Fruits like Balsam burst with a fleshy fruits are eaten by animals and
sudden jerk and disperse the seeds by an human beings and the seeds are thrown
explosive mechanism. away.
Anemochory is the wind dispersal of
fruits and seeds. Alternatively, the wind
may blow them away, for which they
have to be light, so that their buoyancy
may enable them to float on air over long
distances. Some of them are provided
with hairs and membranous wing-like
structures which enable them to be carried
away easily (e.g. Seeds dispersed by the
wind are Calotropis (Erukkum), Moringa
(drum sticks) etc.,
Fig. 4.21 Autochory (Balsam)
Fruits of Tridax carry a persistent calyx
modified into a pappus (a ring of fine,
feathery hairs) which act like a parachute
and aids in the dispersal by wind.
Hydrochory: Hydrochory is a mecha-
nism in which dispersal of fruits and seeds
BIOLOGY

is by water. Fruits which are dispersed by

water have outer coats that are modified
to enable them to float. The mesocarp of
coconut is fibrous, which is easily carried
away by water currents. Fig. 4.22 Anemochory (Tridax)

68
 Reproduction in plants

In fruits like tomato and guava, the

seeds are eaten along with the edible
portion and later passed out by excreta.
These types of seeds are protected from
the digestive juices by their seed coat.
Man is responsible for the dispersal
Fig. 4.23 Hydrochory(Lotus)
of many fruits and seeds. In the pursuit
of more economy, useful plants like
Cinchona, Rubber and Eucalyptus have
been successfully introduced by man and
they have acclamalised well to the new
surroundings far away from their original
mother land.

Activity 4.10
•• Collect a few fruit or seeds which
Fig. 4.24 Zoochory(Xanthium) have wings.
•• Observe the fruit of Tridax and
draw. Look at the pappus calyx.
•• Why is the mesocarp of coconut
fibrous?

Collect some of the plants around

you. What are their local names?
Can you find out their botanical
names?
Fig. 4.25 Zoochory(Achyranthus)

EVALUATION
PART A 2. In sexual reproduction of flowering
1. This is the one of the methods of plants, the first event involved in this is.
(fertilization, germination,
reproduction in unicellular organisms
regeneration, pollination)
like amoeba and bacteria in which
CHAPTER 4

they split into two equal halves and 3. Which of the following statement is true.
produce new ones is called. (Thin walled non mobile spores
(fragmentation, binary fission, are called zoospores,
A motile asexual spore produced
budding, spore formation)
by some algae bacteria and fungi
are Akinetes,

69
 Uninucleate non-motile asexual Fruits of tridax are carry a persistent
spores are produced by the calyx modified into pappus.
fungus are called conidia, The fruits of xanthium have sharp
Thick walled vegetative cells pointed stiff hooks.
produced by the algae during The mesocarp of coconut is fibres)
adverse conditions are called
aplanospores.) 9. The product of triple fusion which
acts as nutritive tissue for the
4. The fertilized ovary is a fruit. The fruit development of embryo is
develops from a single flower with (zygote, placenta, scutellum,
multi carpellary, apocarpous superior endosperm)
ovary is 10. The disadvantage of self pollination
(Aggregate fruit, Composite fruit, is
Simple fruit, Multiple fruit) (There is no wasteage of pollen
grains,
5. If a water soaked seed is pressed, The seeds are less in number
a small drop of water comes out Self pollination is sure in bisexual
through. flowers
(stomata, lenticel, micropyle, Flowers need not depend on agents
radicle) of pollination
6. The mango fruit is called as stone PART B
fruit. because it has.
11. a. Identify the given fig. A and B.
(skinny epicarp, stony mesocarp,
b. Which part of the A is modified in
fleshy endocarp, hard endocarp)
to B.
7. Pick out the wrong statement.
(In a dicot seed there is a short Stigma
longitudinal whitish ridge is called Style
the raphae. Ovary

There is a minute opening in dicot

seed is known as micropyle.
The rudimentary stem portion A B
known as radicle. 12. The methods of reproduction and
The rudimentary root portion is
the organisms are given below.
called radicle)
Match the type of reproduction to
8. Consider the following statement the suitable organisms.
BIOLOGY

regarding the dispersal of fruit by wind

and select the correct answer. Fission Spirogyra Yeast
(Fruits and seeds dispersed with Budding Protozoans Flatworms
a sudden jerk by an explosive
Fragmentation Bryophyllum Bacteria
mechanism.

70
 Reproduction in plants

13. In balsam plant the seeds fall off far b)Give the development process in
away from the mother plant. brief.
a) Is this statement correct or c)D raw a neat diagram of that
incorrect? process and label.
b) Give reason. 17. a) Write the two events involved
14. Composite fruits is formed by in the sexual reproduction of
all the flowers of -------------, flowering plant.
------------ fruit is developed from a b) Discuss the first event and
single flower with multicarpellary write the types
apocarpous superior ovary. c) Give advantages and dis-­
advantages of that event.
15. Redraw the diagram and label the
following parts. 18. a) Fruit is the product of fertilization. Is
there any fruit is formed with out the
a) Exine b) Tube nucleus.
act of fertilization?
b) Represent the classification of
fruits in a diagrammatic sketch
19. Compare aggregate fruit with multiple
PART C fruit with suitable examples.
16. a) N
 ame the process by which the
fruit is developed. 20. Describe the structure of dicot seed.

further reference
Books:
1.Plant Reproduction - S.R.Mishra - Discovery Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

CHAPTER 4

71
 NAME OF THE PLANTS IN ENGLISH AND TAMIL
S.No Botanical Name Common Name in English Tamil Name How it is called locally
1 Abelmoscus esculentus Lady’s finger ntz;il
2 Acacia coccina Soap acacia rpiff;fha;
3 Achyranthes aspera ehAUtp
4 Anacardium occidentale Cashew nut Ke;jphp
5 Anona squamosa Custard apple rPjhg;gok;
6 Artocarpus integrifolia Jack fruit gyh
7 Bryophyllum fl;bg; Nghl;lhy; Fl;bg; NghLk;
8 Calotropis gigantea Madar plant vUf;F
9 Citrus sinensis Sweet orange rhj;Jf;Fb
10 Cocus nucifera Coconut njd;id
11 Coriandrum sativum Coriandar nfhj;Jky;yp/jdpah
12 Gossypium arboreum Cotton gUj;jp
13 Cucumis sativus Cucumber nts;shpf;fha;/
Njhirf;fha;
14 Cucurbita maxima Pumpkin G+rzpf;fha;/
guq;fpf;fha;/
murhizf;fha;
15 Ficus glomerata Fig mj;jp
16 Impatiens Balsam ghy;nrz;L/ghy;rk;
balsamia
17 Lablab Bean mtiu
purpurreus
18 Lycopersicon Tomato jf;fhsp
esculentum
19 Mangifera Indica Mango kh
20 Mimosa pudica Touch me not plant “njhl;lhy;thb/
njhl;lhy;RUq;fp/
njhl;lhy;rpZq;fp”
21 Mirabilis jalapa Four o clock plant “me;jpke;jhiu/
me;jpky;ypif”
22 Nelumbo nucifera Indian lotus jhkiu
23 Oryza sativa Paddy/ rice ney;
24 Pisum sativum Pea gl;lhzp
25 Polyalthia longifolia Mast tree nel;bypq;fk;
26 Pyrus malus Apple Mg;gps;
BIOLOGY

27 Ricinus communis Castor Mkzf;F/

Kj;Jf;nfhl;il
28 Tridax ntl;L
; f;fhag; G+zL
; r; nrb

72
 Chapter 5

A REPRESENTATIVE
STUDY OF MAMMALS
 5. A REPRESENTATIVE STUDY OF
MAMMALS
Mammals are the diverged group of whiskers of cats and dogs are sensitive to
animals, occupying different biomes of the touch. Hair is also defensive for porcupine
environment ,successfully fitting in their and hedgehogs with long, sharp, stiff
habitats. Mammals are found almost in hairs called quills to protect them from
all habitats like oceans , freshwater, hilly predators.
regions , forests, deserts, polar regions
and swamps.
Activity 5.1
Observe the hair of dog, cat, cattles,
5.1. Morphology
man, horse and donkey. Look for the
Mammalian morphology is so divergent, structural details like shape, texture
as they occupy different habitats . The sea and curly or straight condition and
living dolphins, whales etc., look like fish, record your findings.
by form and structure. A nocturnal bat
gliding in the sky, looks like a bird. All the
Milk producing glands
large land animals are mammals. The size
of mammals sets them apart from all other All female mammals possess mammary
kinds of land animals. glands that secrete milk. New born
­mammals, born without teeth suckled by
Mammals are distinguished from
the mother. Milk producing glands are
other vertebrates by two fundamental
modified sweat glands.
characteristics that all mammals ­possess
and no other living vertebrate possess. They 5.2. Habitat
are The place of living of an organism is its
1. Epidermal Hairs habitat. Mammals exhibit a great ­degree of
functional adaptation to fit in the ­habitats in
2. Milk producing glands.
which they live. We find ­mammals ­living in
Epidermal Hairs high mountains, plains and ­forests, ­tundra,
grassland, deserts, fresh water and marine
All mammals have hairs, even
habitats. Some important mammals in their
apparently naked whales and dolphins
different ­habitats are listed below;
grow ­sensitive bristles on their snouts.
­Mammalian hair is a new form of skin High mountains - mountain goats, big
BIOLOGY

structure a ­derivative from the skin; the horned sheep, grizzly

hair is an insulator against heat loss. bears, etc.,
The colouration and pattern of mammal’s Plains and forests - porcupine, giant
skin usually matches its background. squirrel, deers,
Hairs also are sensory structure, as the

74
 A REPRESENTATIVE STUDY OF MAMMALS

elephants, Desert - black buck, Indian wild

tiger, ­leopard, ass etc.,
rhinoceros,
Fresh water -beavers, platypus,
Hippopotamus,
otters, etc.,
etc.,
Marine - whales, dolphins,
Tundra - reindeer, muskdeer
dugong, porpoise, seal,
ox, rodents, etc.,
walrus, etc.,

CHAPTER 5

Fig. 5.1 Diverged group of mammals with their young ones

75
 5.3. Mammalian Adaptations v) Mammals have heterodont dentition
with different types of teeth that are
Mammalian group is the most
highly specialized to match particular
successful animals adapted to different
eating habits. For example, the
conditions of life.
carnivorous animals have tearing
i) In the marine whales, dolphins, etc,. teeth - the canine. In elephant the
the limbs are modified into flippers incisors are modified into tusks as a
which are used as oars to swim in specialized weapon.
water. They also posseses huge vi) Bats are the only mammals capable
subcutaneous fat deposits to of powered flight. The forelimbs
conserve heat. The jaws of the whales of bats are modified into wing like
are modified into baleen plates to structure. The bat’s wing is a leathery
sieve the water and trap the minute membrane of skin and the muscle
planktonic organisms as their food is stretched over the bones of the
called krill. four fingers. Bats prefer to hang
ii) The skin of camels is doubly thick upside down from their legs while
and contains water storing osmotic resting. The nocturnal bats can fly
cells to conserve water, as they live without crashing into things and still
in deserts. They have thick bunchy capture insects by echo location. As
eyebrows covering the eyes to a bat flies, it emits very rapid series
protect the eyes from sandy wind. of extremely high pitched clicking
Their nasal hole can be closed during sounds. The sound waves bounce
desert storms to prevent the entry of off objects or flying insects and the
sand particles. bat hears the echo.
iii) Most mammals are herbivores, vi) The marsupials, kangaroo have
eating mostly or only plants. To digest developed abdominal pouches to
the cellulose rich food, they have bear the tender young ones.
developed a mutual partnership with vii) The polar bears have thick skin coats
bacteria that have cellulose splitting and woolly fur to bear the biting cold
enzymes. of the polar regions.
iv) Mammals such as cows, buffaloes, viii) The supreme mammal – man is
antelopes, goats, deers, etc,. have highly adapted as an intellectual
huge four chambered stomachs that social animal. The fingers and toes
BIOLOGY

function as storage and fermentation are adapted for handling extremely

vats. The stomach of cattles also fine movements in holding of fine
helps them to ruminate or cud the objects, in writing and using very
food. delicate instruments.

76
 A REPRESENTATIVE STUDY OF MAMMALS

of heat lost is lowered. Now the kidneys

­excrete out more urine.
Mammalian respiration is more­efficient
in comparison to other vertebrates. Red
blood cells of mammals are fully packed
with the respiratory red blood pigment
haemoglobin, to carry the maximum
amount of oxygen. The mammalian
RBCs are without nucleus, as the space
occupied by the nucleus is taken up by the
haemoglobin molecules.
Fig. 5.2 Bat
Activity 5.2
5.4. Basic physiological
functions Note the body temperature of some
of your classmates at 10 a.m, 1 p.m
Mammals perform the physiological
and 4 p.m. Record the same. Do you
functions more efficiently compared to
find any change in the temperature at
other vertebrates.
different timings?
Mammals are warm blooded or
homeotherms, maintaining a constant
body temperature, irrespective of the 5.5. Circulatory system
temperature in the surroundings. The body of man
temperature in man is maintained at 98.4o In order to transport substances from
F to 98.6o F. The temperature regulation is one part of the body to the other, the
done as a team work, by the sweat glands circulatory system has evolved. In man,
the circulatory system is composed of
of skin, kidneys, lungs and blood.
In summer, we sweat more as a cooling i) the heart
up mechanism, to conduct the heat out ii) the blood vessels namely arteries,
in the sweating process. This is possible veins and capillaries
with increased blood supply to the sweat
iii) the blood and
glands. The kidneys expel less urine since
much of water is lost in the sweat. iv) the lymph.
CHAPTER 5

In winter, we produce little sweat as William Harvey in 1628 discovered the

a warming up mechanism to conserve circulation of blood in man, until then it
heat. The sweat glands are supplied with was thought that the body is a blood filled
less amount of blood, so that the amount entity, and the blood is stagnant in it.

77
 the body. Into the left auricle open the
four pulmonary veins emptying the
oxygenated blood brought from the
two lungs.
Ventricles
These are thick walled lower
chambers of the heart. A partition
called inter ventricular septum divides
William Harvey 1578-1657 was an the ventricle into right and left ventricle.
English physician. He was the first to The ventricles pump the blood out
give the details of blood circulation, from the heart. From the right ventricle
the properties of blood and the the deoxygenated blood is pumped
pumping of blood by the heart. into pulmonary artery to supply the
two lungs. From the left ventricle
The heart oxygenated blood is pumped into the
aorta to supply the oxygenated blood to
The human heart is a hallow fibro
the different parts of the body through
muscular organ. It is conical in shape.
the heart is covered by a protective
its branches.
double walled sac called pericardium Apertures of the heart
filled with pericardial fluid. The heart
Between the right auricle and right
is made up of special type of muscles,
ventricle is found the right auriculo
called ­c ardiac muscles. The partitions
within the heart divide the heart into four ventricular aperture and between the
chambers as ­a uricles and ventricles. left auricle and left ventricle is found the
The right half of the heart receives and left auriculo ventricular aperture.
pumps off ­deoxygenated blood and the
left half of the heart receives and pumps
Aorta
out oxygenated blood. Superior Pulmonary
vena cava artery
Auricles Left Pulmonary
veins
These are thin walled upper Right Left
atrium
chambers. The auricles are divided into atrium
Semi -
a right auricle and a left auricle, by a lunar valve
Tricuspid
partition called inter auricular septum. valve Mitral valve

Auricles are the receiving chambers Left

ventricle
BIOLOGY

Right
of blood. Into the right auricle open ventricle
the superior venacava and inferior Inferior Cardiac
vena cava muscle
venacava emptying the deoxygenated
blood brought from different parts of
Fig. 5.3 Human heart

78
 A REPRESENTATIVE STUDY OF MAMMALS

Valves of the heart as “lubb” and “dubb”. The human

heart beats 72 times in a minute at rest.
A tricuspid valve with three flaps is
Heartbeat is an inherent capacity of
found in the right auriculo ventricular
the heart, begun and conducted by the
aperture to regulate the flow of blood, specialized muscle bundle in the heart.
from right auricle to right ventricle and
not backwards. Blood vessels
There are three distinct types of
A bicuspid valve or mitral valve with
blood vessels, namely, arteries, veins
two flaps in the left auriculo ventricular
and capillaries.
aperture regulates the flow of blood,
from left auricle to left ventricle and not Arteries
backwards. Arteries carry the blood from the
heart to different parts of the body.
At the base of the pulmonary artery
They are the branches of aorta,
is present the semi-lunar valve, which
supplying oxygenated blood to the
regulate the blood to flow from the right
different regions of the body (except
ventricle to the pulmonary artery.
pulmonary artery which carries
At the base of the aorta is present the deoxygenated blood). The aorta
aortic valve, to regulate the flow of blood branches into arteries. Arteries branch
from left ventricle into aorta. into arterioles. Arterioles branch into
Working of heart fine tubes called meta arterioles. The
meta arterioles end up in the tiny blood
Human heart works by contraction vessels called capillaries.
and relaxation of the cardiac muscles.
The contraction phase is called systole Capillaries
and relaxation phase is called diastole.
When the auricles are filled with blood
they are in relaxation phase (auricular
diastole). By now ventricles will push the
blood into aorta and pulmonary artery by Venule
their contraction (ventricular systole).
When the auricles contract (auricular
systole) the blood is pushed into the
ventricules through the bicuspid and
CHAPTER 5

tricuspid valves, leading to ventricular

relaxation (ventricular diastole).
Heartbeat
Arteriole
The closure of the valves of the heart
produce two different cardiac sounds Fig. 5.4 Arteries, capillaries and veins

79
 Capillaries have nuclei, the matured ones are
These tiny blood vessels form a without ­n uclei. The red blood pigment
network, called capillary network around haemoglobin is fully packed in the RBCs.
the tissues to enable the passage of They are concerned with carriage of
substances from the blood into the tissues. respiratory gases.

Veins White Blood Cells – Leucocytes

The veins drain the blood from WBCs are amoeboid in shape with
­different parts of the body to the heart. prominent nuclei. WBCs are concerned
The ­capillaries reunite to form venules, with phagocytosis of engulfing the germs
which drain the deoxygenated blood from and producing antibodies to resist the
the tissues. The small venules united germs entering the body.
with the big veins open into ­superior Blood Platelets – Thrombocytes
­v enacava and inferior venacava.
Platelets are irregular broken up pieces
­Except the pulmonary veins all other of certain giant cells. They are concerned
veins carry deoxygenated blood. with blood clotting to prevent the loss of
The blood blood.
Blood is the river of life – providing the­
­internal environment to the body. Blood is
the connective tissue, consisting of the fluid
part, the plasma and the solid ­components,
the blood cells.
Plasma Platelets Red blood
cells
The liquid component of blood, the plasma
is composed of water, organic ­substances,
inorganics substances, etc,. The ­important
organic substances of plasma are the
­p lasmaproteins namely globulin (for Neutrophil Monocyte
­immunity), fibrinogen (for blood clotting)
and albumin (for water balance).
Blood cells
There are three types of blood cells Lymphocyte Eosinophil
namely Red Blood Cells, White Blood
Cells and Blood Platelets freely floating in
BIOLOGY

the plasma.
Red Blood Cells –Erythrocytes Basophil

RBCs are circular, biconcave and Fig. 5.5 Blood Cells

disc shaped. While the young RBCs

80
 A REPRESENTATIVE STUDY OF MAMMALS

5.6. Excretory system in man

Excretory organ Excretory products Sent out as
Nitrogenous waste products –
Kidneys Urine
urea, uric acid, creatinine, etc,.
Carbondioxide and
Lungs Expired air
water vapour
Skin Excess water and salt Sweat

Excretion is the removal of metabolic vertebral column attached to the dorsal

waste products called excreta. The body wall. A thin transparent membrane
important excreta and the excretory organs called capsule covers the kidney. The
which remove them are shown in the kidneys are bean shaped with outer
above table.
convex surface and inner concavity. The
The principal excretory organs of our depression in the concavity is called renal
body are the kidneys, which maintain the hilus, from which arises the muscular tube
chemical composition of the blood and so called ureter. The two ureters open into
are called as master chemist of our body. the distensible muscular sacs called the
External structure of kidney urinary bladder which is the store house of
A pair of kidneys are present in the upper urine. From the urinary bladder arises the
abdominal region, one on either side of the urethra which delivers the urine out of the body.

Adrenal
gland Medullary
Inferior pyramid
venacava Renal
artery Renal
column
Pelvis Renal vein

Kidney Calyx
Medulla
Cortex Renal
Ureter artery
Cortex Renal vein
Pelvis
Renal
capsule Ureter
CHAPTER 5

Urinary
bladder
Urethra

Fig. 5.6 Excretory system of man Fig. 5.7 LS of Kidney

81
 Internal structure of kidney Malpighian capsule
The outer portion of the kidney is dark in This consists of a network of blood
colour and is called renal cortex and inner capillaries called glomerulus and a
pale region of the kidney is called renal double walled cup called Bowman’s cup.
medulla. Renal medulla contains conical The glomerulus is a network of blood
masses called renal pyramids. On the renal capillaries, formed by the branches of the
pyramids are found the openings called wider afferent renal arteriole. From the
renal papillae, which open into the inner glomerulus arises the narrow efferent renal
space of the kidney called renal pelvis. arteriole, which branches over the rest of
From the renal pelvis arises the ureter. the nephron as network of capillaries. The
The kidneys are composed of millions Bowman’s capsule accommodates the
of units called nephrons. glomerulus.

Structure of a nephron Uriniferous tubules

Nephrons are the structural and From the Bowman’s capsule arises
functional units of the kidney, each kidney the Uriniferous tubules. It is divided into
is composed of millions of nephrons. A three portions as the initial coiled proximal
nephron has two structural components convoluted tubule, the middle U-shaped
namely, Malpighian capsule and the Henle’s loop and the later coiled distal
uriniferous tubules. convoluted tubule. The distal convoluted
tubule straightens as the collecting ducts.
Glomerulus The collecting ducts open on the renal
pyramids as renal papillae. The nephrons
filter the blood and form the urine.

Bowman’s 5. 7 . R el ations h ip of
Distal
capsule convoluted tubule structure and function
Based on the functional need a particular
organ or part gets a suitable modification
Proximal
Convoluted Collecting duct in its structure. Thus a structure is so
tubule adapted to perform a specific function. So
structure and function go hand in hand.
Loop of The fore limbs of different mammals are
henle suitably modified to do different functions
according to their environment. For
example, all the vertebrate animals in
BIOLOGY

general, and all mammals in particular,

have their fore limbs sharing a common
basic pattern of construction. The fore
limbs of mammals consist of five parts
Fig. 5.8 Nephron namely upper arm, fore arm, wrist, palm

82
 A REPRESENTATIVE STUDY OF MAMMALS

and phalanges, but they are differently environment. The stimuli may be as simple
used in different animals like as the odour of the food. Nervous system
perceives and passes the information
i) M
 an uses his fore limb to hold an
concerning the environmental stimuli and
object, write, operate very fine trigger adaptive motor response which we
musical instruments and delicate see as the patterns of behaviour.
digital devices. The thumb is deviant
from other four fingers, to enable 5.8.1. Social behavior
man to do the above jobs. Behaviour is both an instinctive ­process
ii) A horse uses it’s fore limb to gallop. (influenced by genes) and learned
­experience (gained by experience).
iii) A
 rat or bandicoot uses it’s fore limb
Social attachments between ­animals
to make holes in the ground to live. is called imprinting. The binding or
iv) A
 giraffe uses its pretty long and ­attachment between the parents and the
stout fore limbs to reach up the offspring is called filial imprinting. At times,
we find an individual of a species is raised
vegetations, at the height of the
by a parent of another species (e.g the
plants.
chick of cuckoo bird is fed by crow in its
v) A monkey leaps from one branch nest). This behavioural pattern is called
of the tree to another using it’s fore cross fostering.
limb to swing and leap. Many insects, fish, birds and mammals
vi) A whale uses its fore-limbs as oars live in social groups in which information
to swim. is communicated between group

Human Frog Bat Porpoise Horse

Fig. 5.9 Basic pattern of

forelimbs of vertebrates Fig. 5.10 Honey Bee
CHAPTER 5

­ embers. For example some individuals

m
5.8. Animal behavior in mammalian societies serve as guards.
Behaviour can be defined as an In an elephant herd, it is always the
organism’s adaptive response to stimuli in its oldest she elephant that leads the herd,

83
 while the strong males will form the periphery Providing the young one with the milk
of the herd and the young calves and other from its mammary gland and aggression
she elephants will be in the centre. exhibited against the predator are the best
Sexual behavior means of taking care of the young one.
Even after the nutritional independency is
The coming closer of the opposite
sexes is both by instinctive process and
sexual ­a ttraction exhibited by one or
both the partners. The secondary sexual
­characters developed during the breeding
season bring the two sexes together for
sexual ­reproduction. For example , the
bright and colourful plumage of male
peacock is to draw the attention of the
female.

Sexual imprinting

Is a process in which an individual

learns to direct its sexual ­behaviour at a Fig. 5.11 Parental care in elephants
member of its own species. During the
courtship, animals produce ­s ignals to obtained by the young one i.e it takes care
communicate with ­potential mates and of its nutrition by itself, the parental care
with other members of their own sex. A is extended in some species beyond this
character exhibited by one sex to attract level.
the other sex is called courtship signalling. 5.9. A case study by a
Many courtship ­s ignals are species, researcher
specific to help animals avoid making
errors in mating. The behavioural patterns in different
situations are investigated in the research
Parental care projects taken up by leading universities
Any investment or effort by the parent in Tamilnadu.
to take care of the young ones in order The abstract of case study by
to increase the chance of survival Arun Venkatraman, Asian Elephant
of the offspring and hence increase Conservation Centre, Centre for Ecological
the reproductive success is called Science, Indian Institute of Science –
parental care. The parents care for the Bangalore on Dholes is given below.
BIOLOGY

young ones and provide high nutrition,  ourtesy to the researcher – Mr.Arun
C
protect the young ones from predators Venkatraman)
and enable the young ones to lead a
successful life.  siatic wild dog (Chen Nai – in Tamil),
A
commonly called Dholes – Cuon

84
 A REPRESENTATIVE STUDY OF MAMMALS

­ lpines is an endangered species

a them. The other young ones and old
living in ­Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary females usually lag ­behind.
at Nilgiris, Tamilnadu.
The Dholes also exhibit a high
The Dholes live in packs which consist degree of parental care by changing
of old females, males, females and pups.
The pack members co-ordinate while
­pulling down and killing large prey such as
adult Sambar Deer. There is a tendency to
share the meat among the members of the
pack. However there prevails a ­squabbling
among them to get the ­choicest meat.
The young pups are allowed to take
the meat first. The old males follow

Activity 5.3
Case study Fig. 5.12 Dholes
•• Conduct a case study on the the den frequently so that the pups are
behavioural aspects of your pet safe from predators such as leopards
dogs in reference to their territorial
dominance when strangers or other and hyenas.
dogs try to enter into your locality. •• functions efficiently.
Activity •• Behaviour is the adaptive response
•• Follow an ant line and try to break of an organism to the stimuli in the
its route by drawing a line with your environment.
finger without killing any ant.
•• Social behaviour is both instinctive and
•• Observe the behaviour of the ants learned experience.
as to whether they change the route
or go in disarray. •• Sexual behaviour involves courtship
signalling which is species specific.
•• Try to observe for a few minutes
for any change they resort in •• The investment or effort by the parent
their route. Make a report of their on their offsprings to provide nutritive
behaviour and submit. food and safeguard them from
predators is called parental care. CHAPTER 5

85
 Evaluation
PART A
c. antelope, deer, cow, buffalo, black buck
1. Sensitive whiskers are found in
_________. d. dog, cat, crocodile, lion, tiger
Bat, Elephant, Deer, Cat. 7. The epidermis of mammals contains
a. hair, bristle, quills
2. The tusks of elephants are modified
________. b. hair, nail, claw
3. Pick out an animal which has four c. hair, bristle, horn
chambered stomach _______. d. hair, nail, scale
Elephant, Dolphin, Deer, Kangaroo. 8. Based on relationship, fill up:
4. Normal body temperature of man is Whale: Baleen plates; Bat : _______
__________.
9. Fill in the blanks.
98.4 – 98.6 F, 96.6 – 96.8 F, 94.4 –
o o
Plasma : Fibrinogen ; RBC : Carrier
98.6oF, 98.4 – 99.6oF. of oxygen; WBC: –––––––––––––
5. Mitral valve is found between 10.Master chemists of our body are
_________. kidneys. Justify.

Right auricle and right ventricle, Left a. kidneys acquire all chemicals taken
auricle and left ventricle, in the body
Right ventricle and pulmonary artery, b. maintain the chemical composition
Left ventricle and aorta. of blood
c. kidneys send out all chemicals taken
Part B
in the body
6. One of the following groups contains
d. kidneys store the various chemicals
a non mammalian animal. Pick up the
taken in the body
group.
11. Based on modifications make the pairs:
a. dolphin, walrus, porcupine, rabbit, bat
incisor: tusk of elephant;
b. e lephant, pig, horse, donkey,
monkey _____________ : quills of porcupine.

further referEnce :
Books:
BIOLOGY

1. Biology - RAVEN, Johnson WCB Mc Graw - Hill

2. Biology - A Modern Introduction, B.S. Beckett, Second Edition
Oxform University Press.

86
 6. Life processes
How do you differentiate the living sit idle and during sleeping, this maintenance
things and non-living things? job through cells functioning has to go on.
The life process includes the ­activities
If we see a dog running
performed by the different ­organs to
(or) maintain the body.
a cow chewing cud Some of the life processes in the living
(or) beings are described below:

a man shouting loudly on the street, Nutrition

We know that these are living beings. The processes of obtaining energy
What if the dog or the cow or the man through consumption of food.
were asleep? Respiration
We would still think that they were alive, The process of acquiring oxygen through
but how did we know that? We see them breathing and make it available to cells for
breathing and we know that they are alive. the process of breaking down of organic
What about plants? substances into simpler compounds is
called as respiration.
How do we know that they are alive?
Transportation
We see their green leaves and some
kind of movements like the folding and Transportation is the process by which
unfolding of leaves, stages of growth as the food and oxygen is carried from one
common evidences for being alive. organ to other organs in the body.
CHAPTER 6

6.1. What are Life processes? Excretion

The maintenance of living organisms It is the process by which the metabolic
must go on even at the conditions, when waste by-products are removed from the
they are not physically active. Even when we different organs and released out from the body.

87
 Questions stored form of energy. The materials
are taken in the form of carbon dioxide
1. How do we understand the living and water which are converted into
nature of organisms? carbohydrates in the presence of light and
2. What are the materials available from chlorophyll. Carbohydrates are utilized as
external sources for the organism’s energy rich sources to the plant., for their
consumption? entire activity.
3. What processes are essential to The process of photosynthesis is
maintain our body? explained in the form of bio-chemical
reaction shown below:
6.2. nutrition in plants
Chlorophyll
Do you know that we need energy for 6CO2 + 12 H2O C6H12O6+6O2+6H2O
all activities? Sunlight (Glucose)

When do we get that energy?

The raw materials and other necessary
The source of energy is the food we eat. items required for photosynthesis are
Sunlight, Water, CO2 and Chlorophyll.
Types of Nutrition
Sunlight - energy from the sun
Autotrophic Nutrition
Water - plant absorbs water from
Most of the green plants are self- the soil through roots.
dependent, because they synthesize their
own food materials by photosynthesis. CO2 - assimilated from the
atmosphere throughleaves
Such mode of nutrition is described as containing small pores
BIOLOGY

autotrophic nutrition. called stomata.

It is the process by which autotrophic Chlorophyll - the green pigments in the
plants consume substances from the chloroplasts, an organelle
external sources and convert them into of the cells of leaf.

88
 Life processes

Let us do an activity which demonstrates that chlorophyll is essential

for photosynthesis

Activity 6.1

1. Take a potted plant with variegated leaves – for example, money plant or
crotons.
2. Keep the plant in a dark room for three days so that all the starch gets
used up.
3. Now keep the plant in sunlight for about six hours.
4. Pluck a leaf from the plant. Mark the green areas in it and trace them on a
sheet of paper.
5. Dip the leaf in boiling water for a few minutes.
6. After this, immerse it in a beaker containing alcohol.
7. Carefully place the beaker in a water-bath till the alcohol begins to boil.
8. What happens to the colour of the leaf? What is the colour of the solution?
9. Now dip the leaf in a dilute solution of iodine for few minutes.
10. Take out the leaf and rinse off the iodine solution.
11.  Observe the colour of the leaf and compare this with the tracing of the leaf
done in the beginning.
12.  What can you conclude about the presence of starch in various spots of
the leaf?

Heterotrophic nutrition The plants or animals in which the

parasites live for nourishments are called
Fungal cells do not contain chloroplasts hosts. Parasitic plants have some special
and they formed into saprophytes and roots, which penetrate the host plants and
parasites. Likewise all organisms, except the absorb food from the phloem, water and
green plants do not possess ­chloroplasts as minerals from xylem. These roots are called
they do not carry out ­photosynthesis. They haustoria. (e.g.: Cuscutta and Viscum).
depend upon plants or other organisms for
CHAPTER 6

their nutrition. Saprophytes

Parasites Some plants obtain nutrients from non-
Some organisms live on other organisms living organic matter. They are called
for nourishments. They are called Parasites. saprophytes. Many fungi and bacteria are

89
 saprophytes. Certain angiosperms like
Monotropa lack chlorophyll and have
mycorrhizal roots.The plant absorbs
nourishments from the humus through
their mycorrhizal roots.

Fig. 6.3 Viscum - a parasitic plant

Questions
1. What are the differences
between autotrophic nutrition
and heterotrophic nutrition?
2. What are the sources of
materials required by plants for
Fig. 6.1 Variegated Leaf photosynthesis?
(b). After starch test
(a). Before starch test 6.2. human digestive system

Intracellular digestion
White blood cells (leucocytes) in
vertebrate animals are defensive in
functioning and get rid of germs in the body
of the animals. WBCs engulf the invading
germs by producing pseudopodia around
the germs and digest the germs inside
them by phagocytosis.
The unicellular animalcules like
Amoeba also produce pseudopodia to­
e­ngulf the diatoms and other minute
BIOLOGY

­organisms and digest them within the cell.

Paramoecium, an another protozoan has
Fig. 6.2 Cuscutta - a parasitic plant a cytopharynx, a cytoplasmic depression
to swallow the food (i.e microorganisms

90
 Life processes

in water) and digest the food within the digestive juices. Since digestion takes place
cells. In the above mentioned examples in the space or lumen of alimentary canal i.e
the food is directly taken into the cells outside the cell it is called as extracellular
and is digested within the cell. This sort of digestion – an advanced form of digestion.
digestion is called intracellular digestion. Digestion in human beings
Intracellular digestion is a very primitive
form of digestion and does not require Food contains a number of nutrient
an organized digestive system. Even in molecules needed for building up of new
animals like sponges and coelenterates, body tissues, repairing damaged tissues
the digestion is intracellular, though and sustained chemical reactions.
an alimentary canal like structure has
developed in them.
mouth

Extracellular digestion teeth salivary glands

tongue pharynx
As animal body becomes more epiglottis
complex, digestive system has evolved
to digest the food taken into the body. oesophagus
The digestive system in higher animal liver
and man consists of alimentary canal and
stomach
digestive glands that are specialized to
gallbladder
produce digestive juices. Food is taken
into alimentary canal and in the regions pancreas
large
of digestion like mouth, stomach and intestine
duodenum, digestive juice is secreted by small
intestine
the digestive glands and the complex food
appendix
swallowed is broken down to simpler food rectum
molecules by the action of enzymes of the anus

Activity 6.2 Fig. 6.4 Human Digestive System

•• Take I ml of starch solution (1%) into test tubes (A and B)

•• Add I ml of saliva to test tube A and leave both the test tubes undisturbed for
20-30 minutes
•• Now add a few drops of dilute iodine to the test tubes
•• In which test tube do you observe a colour change?
CHAPTER 6

•• What does this indicate about the presence or absence of starch in the two test tubes?
•• What does this tell us about the action of saliva on starch?
•• Is there a difference? If yes, in which case more energy from external sources is
consumed.

91
 Food must be broken down to be In fact, energy is locked up in food
used as a source of energy. The process ­ aterials. During respiration, the food
m
of converting the complex food into a materials are oxidized (degraded). During
simple chemical substance, that can be this reaction, energy is released from the
absorbed and assimilated by the body is food and it is stored in a special chemical
called digestion. The medical speciality (or) biological substance called ATP
that deals with the structure, function, (Adenosine triphosphate).
diagnosis and treatment of diseases
The energy of ATP is utilized in various
of stomach and intestine is called
activities of cells.
gastroenterology.
Apart from ATP, two other substances
The digestive system is composed of
are also formed during respiration. They
two groups of organs. They are
are CO2 and H2O.
1) The gastro intestinal tract
2) Accessory digestive glands
Digestion is brought about in a stepwise Substance that is used in respiration
manner with the help of enzymes which is known as respiratory substrate.
are otherwise called bio-catalysts. Respiratory substrates are of three kinds
viz., carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
The gastro intestinal tract (alimentary ca-
nal) is a long muscular tube, about 9 mts in Types of Respiration
length and it commences from the mouth
and ends in the anus. The mouth, buccal Depending on whether oxygen is used
cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, or not, respiration is of two types:
small intestine, large intestine, rectum and 1. Aerobic respiration.
anus are the parts of the alimentary canal.
2. Anaerobic respiration.
6.3. Respiration in plants
1. Aerobic respiration
Why should we eat?
In majority of living organisms, oxygen
Why should plants synthesize food? is utilized during respiration. Respiration
For the simple reason that all living that uses oxygen is known as aerobic
­organisms ranging from minute bacteria ­respiration.
to large elephants, plants and humans, Aerobic respiration takes place in four stages:
require energy for growth, movement and
1. Glycolysis
reproduction.
2. Oxidative decarboxylation of
Where does this energy come pyruric acid
BIOLOGY

from?
3. Kreb’s cycle
Food that we eat is the starch that is
4. Electron transport chain.
­synthesized by plants and it is the source
of energy.

92
 Life processes

In Glycolysis, glucose (a simple Complete oxidation of a glucose

­carbohydrate) is split into two molecules molecule in aerobic respiration produces
of pyruvic acid. This takes place in the 38 ATP molecules.
­cytoplasm, in a series of reactions and
a number of enzymes are involved. With 2. Anaerobic respiration
the formation of pyruvic acid, glycolysis In some organisms, oxygen is not utilized
comes to an end. for respiration. This type of respiration is
Further oxidation of pyruvic acid takes known as anaerobic respiration. It is also
place in the second and third stages known as fermentation.
­occurring in the mitochondria. [E.g. Conversion of milk into curd.]
During the last stage i.e. electron 6.3. Respiration in animals
transport chain, the energy associated with Amoeba, Hydra, Sponge, etc,. live in
the liberated electrons is used to synthesize water. In these organisms, respiration
the ATP energy molecules at certain stages. takes place through their body ­surface.
Finally the hydrogen, an electron joins with Dissolved oxygen in water diffuses through
the cell membrane or body surface into
oxygen to produce water as a by-product.
Absence of
Oxygen Ethanol + Carbon-di-oxide + Energy
( In Yeast ) ( 2 - Carbon molecule )

In
Cytoplasm
Glucose Pyruvate Lack of Oxygen Lactic acid + Energy
( 6 - Carbon (3 carbon ( In our muscle cells ) ( 3-Carbon molecule )
molecule ) molecule )
+ Presence of
Energy
Oxygen Carbon-di-oxide + Water + Energy
(In mitochondria)
Fig. 6.5 Break down of glucose by various pathways

Activity 6.3
•• Take some fruit juice or sugar solution and add some yeast to this. Take this
mixture in a test tube fitted with a one-holed cork.
•• Fit the cork with a bent glass tube. Dip the free end of the glass tube into the
CHAPTER 6

test tube containing freshly prepared lime water.

•• What change is observed in the lime water and how long does it take for this
change to occur?
•• What does this tell us about the products of fermentation

93
 Lime Water Sugar + Water + Yeast

Fig 6.6 Anaerobic respiration apparatus

ATP
•• ATP is the energy currency for the most cellular processes. The energy released
during the process of respiration is used to make an ATP molecule from ADP
and inorganic phosphate.
Energy
•• ADP + Pi ATP
•• Think of how a battery can provide energy for many different kinds of uses. It
can be used to obtain mechanical energy, light energy, electrical energy and
so on. Similarly, ATP can be used in the cells for the contraction of muscles,
protein synthesis, conduction of nervous impulses and many other activities.

the cell and after its usage, the carbon-di- Terrestrial organisms use the oxygen
oxide produced is passively diffuses out in the atmosphere for respiration, Oxygen
into water. is absorbed by different respiratory
organs in different animals. All these
Repiratory surface for a fish is gill; for
organs have a structure that has bigger
a frog it is lungs and skin the lungs for
surface area, which is in contact with the
land vertebrates.
oxygen-rich atmosphere. The exchange
Since the amount of dissolved oxygen of oxygen and carbon-di-oxide has to
is fairly low, compared to the amount of take place across this surface. But it is
oxygen in the air, the rate of breathing in usually placed within the body. So there
aquatic organisms is much faster than are air passages present, that will take
that seen in terrestrial organisms. Fishes
BIOLOGY

atmospheric air to this area. In addition,

take in water through their mouth and there is a mechanism for blowing the air
force it past the gills where the dissolved in and out of this area where oxygen is
oxygen is taken up by the blood. absorbed.

94
 Life processes

In human beings, air is taken into the body which finally terminate in balloon like
through the nostrils. The air passing through structure called alveoli. The alveoli
the nostrils is filtered by fine hairs that line surrounded by blood capillaries provide
the passage. This passage is also lined with a surface, where the exchange of gases
mucous which helps in this process. From takes place.
here, the air passes through the throat into
6.4. Transportation in plants
the lungs. Rings of cartilage are present in
the throat which keep the air passage open We have discussed earlier, how the
and prevent it from collapsing. plants prepare food by the process
of photosynthesis using various raw
Within the lungs, the air passage
materials, like water, CO2, sunlight and
branches repeatedly into smaller tubules
chlorophyll.
We already know that the chlorophyll
Nasal cavity pigments are in the leaf. So the leaf is the
site for photosynthesis. The food prepared
External nostril from the leaf should be transported to all
Pharynx other parts.
Larynx
Trachea

Secondary
bronchus
Alveoli
Diaphragm
Fig. 6.7 Human respiratory system

Activity 6.4
•• Observe fishes in an aquarium,
and their opening and closing
of mouth and the gill slits (or the
operculum which covers the gill slits)
found behind their eyes also open
and close. Is not the timing of the
openings and closings of the mouth
and gill slits co-ordinated? Fig. 6.8 Root hair region

•• Count the number of times the fish In the same manner, water is ­essential
CHAPTER 6

opens and closes its mouth in a for photosynthesis and all other biological
minute. activities in the plants. For plants, soil is
•• Compare this into the number of the nearest and ­richest source of water
times you breathe in and out in a and other raw materials like nitrogen,
minute. phosphorus and other minerals.

95
 How do the absorbed water and This creates a difference in the
minerals get transported from one place concentration of these ions between the
to all other parts of the plant body? root and the soil. Water, therefore enters
into the root from the soil to eliminate this
Which part of the plant is in contact
difference.
with the soil?
This means that there is a steady
For the above questions, you were
movement of water into root xylem,
getting answers already in your lower
creating a column of water that is steadily
classes.
pushed upwards.
The roots are the absorbing organs of
Is this pressure enough to conduct
the plant.
water over the heights in tall and huge
Thus, plant transport systems will trees?
mobilize energy stores, (food) from Plants use another strategy to move
leaves, and raw materials from roots. water in the xylem upwards to the highest
These two pathways are constructed points of the plant body. This can be
as independently organized conducting achieved by the process of transpiration,
tubes. in which when the plant has an adequate
i) Xylem transports water with supply of water. The water which is lost
dissolved minerals absorbed from
the soil.
water vapour
ii) Phloem transports products of
photosynthesis (food) from the
leaves to the parts of the plant.
Transport of water
In xylem, vessels and tracheids are the
conducting elements of the roots, stems
and leaves. They are inter-connected
to form a continuous system of water
conducting channels, reaching all parts of
the plant. In roots, the root hair cells in Fig. 6.10 Movement of water during
contact with the soil, actively take up ions. transpiration in a tree

through the stomata is replaced by water

from the xylem vessels in the leaf.
BIOLOGY

In fact, evaporation of water molecules

from the cells of a leaf creates a suction
which pulls water from the xylem cells of
roots.
Fig. 6.9 Path of water across the root

96
 Life processes

Activity 6.5
•• Place a potted plant into a clear glass bell jar. The pot is covered with plastic
to prevent water evaporating from the soil.
•• Set up a second bell jar with a potted plant with leaves removed.
•• Keep the bell jars in bright light at room temperature (20oC) for 6 hours.
•• No liquid condenses in the bell jar without leaves.
•• The bell jar containing the leafy plant has much more condensed liquid.
•• Test the liquid it turns dry blue cobalt chloride paper to pink colour. Therefore
the liquid is water.
•• Discuss with your classmates, and find the reason why water droplets are
formed in the potted plants containing leaves.

The loss of water in the form of phloem transports amino acids and
vapour from the aerial parts of the plant other substances. These substances
is known as transpiration. are especially delivered to the storage
Thus, transpiration helps in the organs of roots, fruits, seeds and to
absorption and upward movement of growing organs.The translocation of
water and mineral dissolved in it from food and other substances takes place
roots to the leaves. It also helps in in the sieve tubes (sieve tubes are
temperature regulation. The effect of one of the constituents of the phloem
root pressure in transport of water is which act as pipe line from leaves
more important at night. During the to the other parts of the plant) with
day when the stomata are open, the the help of companion cells both in
transpiration pull becomes the major upward and downward directions.The
driving force in the movement of water translocation by phloem is achieved by
in the xylem. utilizing energy. Materials like sucrose
Transport of food and other is transferred into phloem tissue using
energy from ATP. This increases the
substances
osmotic pressure in the tissue causing
How are the products of photosynthesis water movement. This pressure moves
transported from leaves to other parts the material in the phloem to tissues
of the plant? which have less pressure. This allows
CHAPTER 6

The transport of soluble products of the phloem to move material according

photosynthesis is called translocation to the plant’s needs. For example, in
and it occurs in the part of the vascular the spring, sugar stored in root or stem
tissue known as phloem. Besides tissue would be transported to the buds,
the products of photosynthesis, the which need energy to grow.

97
 Questions would be a tightly packed crowd.
Those in the middle region would not
1. What are the components of get enough oxygen. Hence, most large
the transport system in highly organisms do not rely on diffusion for
organized plants? their supply of food and oxygen. They
have a transport system of some kind to
2. How are water and minerals get carry these substances to all the cells in
transported in plants? the body.

3. How is food transported in In human body, for example the

plants? transport system consists of a pump
called heart which propels the fluid called
Transportation in animals blood around a complex system of tubes
called blood vessels. As it passes through
In microscopic organisms such as
these blood vessels, the blood picks up
Amoeba and Paramecium, the volume of
oxygen from the lungs and transport it to
body is so small that useful substances
every cell in the body. Blood also picks
can be distributed by a process called
up waste product such as carbon-dioxide
diffusion. Oxygen for example, enters an
and many other substances like salts from
amoeba through the cell membrane and
the cells and excrete out from the body.
spreads out i.e diffuses, in all directions at
the rate approximately equal to the rate at Lymph
which oxygen is consumed in respiration.
Similarly, carbon-di-oxide diffuses out There is another type of fluid which
of an Amoeba with sufficient speed to is also involved in transportation. This is
prevent it accumulating to harmful levels called lymph or tissue fluid. It is similar to
within the cell. the plasma of blood but it is colourless
and contains less protein. Lymph drains
In large multi-cellular organisms, into lymphatic capillaries from the
however, the body volume is so great that intercellular spaces, which join to form
diffusion alone is far too slow a process large lymph vessels that finally open
for adequate distribution of oxygen and into veins. Lymph carries digested and
food, and removal of waste. absorbed fat, from intestine and drains
The cells in the multi-cellular excess fluid from extra cellular space
organisms relying on diffusion alone back into the blood.

Activity 6.6
1. Visit a health centre in your locality and find out what is the normal
BIOLOGY

range of haemoglobin content in human beings.

2. Is it the same for children, women and men? Discuss why does the
difference exist?

98
 Life processes

6.5. Excretion in plants resins and gums, especially in old

What is excretion? xylem tissues.

How does the excretion take place in 4. Plants also excrete some waste
plants? substances into the soil around
them.
Excretion is the process by which the
metabolic waste products are removed Excretion in animals
from the plant body. In unicellular protozoans, the ­excreta are
In plants there are different ways for discharged out through the­ ­contractile­
excretion. vacuoles, which are formed by the
­absorption of water and other excreta.
1. Plant waste products are stored in
cellular vacuoles. In coelenterates and sponges,
the excreta diffuse out through the cell
2. Waste products may be stored in
membrane.
leaves that fall off.
3. Other waste products are stored as In flat worms and round worms, the
excretory tubes develop for transporting

Artificial kidney (Hemodialysis)

Kidneys are vital organs for survival. Several factors like infections, injury or restricted
blood flow to kidneys reduce the activity of kidneys, This leads to accumulation of
poisonous wastes in the body, which can even lead to death. In case of kidney failure,
an artificial kidney can be used. An artificial kidney is a device to remove nitrogenous
waste products from the blood through dialysis.

Line from artery Tubling made Artificial kidneys contain a number of tubes
to pump of a selectively with a semipermeable lining, suspended in a
permeable
membrane tank filled with dialysing fluid. This fluid has the
same osmotic pressure as blood, except that it
is devoid of nitrogenous wastes. The patient’s
blood is passed through these tubes. During
this passage, the waste products from the
blood pass into dialysing fiuid by diffusion. The
purified blood is pumped back in to the patient.
Line from dialysing This is similar to the function of the kidney, but
apparatus solution
to vein it is different since there is no re- absorption
CHAPTER 6

involved. Normally, in a healthy adult, the

used
Fresh dialysing dialysing initial filtrate in the kidneys is about 180 L daily.
solution solution (With However, the volume actually excreted is only
urea and
excess salt a litre or two a day, because the remaining
filtrate is re- absorbed in the kidney tubules.

99
 the excreta to exterior. In annelids special joints in his arms, legs and back ­using
kidneys called nephridia are evolved to informations from his sense organs.
­collect excreta from the coelomic cavity. The boy’s nervous system co-ordinates
these muscles so that they ­contract
In vertebrates, an elaborate well-­
in ­correct ­sequence with the correct
defined excretory system has developed
degree of power, and for precisely the
with kidneys and excretory tubes. The
correct length of time needed to get him
­kidney of vertebrates consists of ­nephrons
to the spot where he can catch the ball.
which filter the blood and form the urine
Muscular activities like running to catch
and large amount of ammonia is found in
a ball, involves many other forms of
fish excreta. They are called­­ammoniatelic
co-ordination, such as those which
animals. The birds are called uricotelic
increase the rate of breathing and heart
­animals as their excretory ­substance
beat to adjust blood pressure, remove
is composed mostly of uric acids.In
extra heat from body and maintaining
mammals urea is the main excretory
sugar and salt ­levels in the blood.
products so they are called ureotelic
Furthermore, all these co-ordinations
animals.
occur as an unconscious process.
Nephron
Worms have the simplest form of
Each Nephron consists of a filtering ­coordinating system where an earthworm
­apparatus called glomerulus and ­uriniferous has dual nerve cords. Two ganglia acts
tubules.The glomerulus filters the plasma as brain and eye spots act as photo
part of the blood to form urine. The urini­ receptors.
ferous tubules reabsorb the substances
In insects, ganglia are connected by
­required in the body from that filterate and
a ventral nerve cord function as brain.
the final urine product contains mostly
Well-developed sensory organ for vision
­water and nitrogenous waste products.
and antennae for olfactory function are
6.6. Nervous system present.
The millions of cells and the scores of In mammals and other well-developed
­different tissues and organs in the body vertebrates this co-ordination is achieved
of an animal do not work independently by nervous system and endocrine system.
of each other. Their activities are
In simple, the nervous system consists
co-ordinated. This means that they work
of tissues which conducts “messages”
together, performing the various functions at
called nerve impulses, at a high speed to
certain times and at certain rates according
to the needs of the body as a whole. and from all parts of the body.

One of the most familiar examples of 6.7. Co-ordination in plants

BIOLOGY

co-ordination is the way in which muscles How do plants co-ordinate?

works together during movement. When
Unlike animals, plants have neither
a boy runs to catch a ball, for example, he
nervous systems nor muscles.
uses hundreds of muscles to move the

100
 Life processes

Fig. 6.11 Sensitive Plant (Touch-me-not plant)

So, how do they respond to stimuli? tissue in plants for transmitting the
information. Plant cells change the shape
When we touch the leaves of Touch–
by changing the amount of water in them
me–not plant, they begin to fold up and droop. resulting in swelling or shrinking and
When a seed germinates, the roots go therefore the leaves in touch-me-not plant
down , the stem comes up above the soil. shrinks.
What happens during the above actions? Movement dependent on growth:
In the first instance, the leaves of More commonly, the plants respond to
sensitive stimuli slowly by growing in a particular
Plants show two different types of direction. Because this growth is directional,
movements. it appears as if the plant is moving.

1. Movement independent of growth Let us understand this type of

movement with the help of some
2. Movement dependent on growth
examples.
Movement- Independent of growth
1. Response of the plant to the
Immediate response to stimulus direction of light (Phototropism)
This movement is sensitive to plant. 2. Response of the plant to the
Here, no grow th is involved but, the plant direction of gravitational force
actually moves its leaves in response to (Geotropism)
touch. But there is neither nervous tissue
nor muscle tissue. Activity 6.7
How does the plant detect the touch 1. Go to the field and find the
and how do the leaves move in response? touch-me-not plant.
CHAPTER 6

In touch-me-not plant, if we touch at 2. Touch the plant at one

one point, all the leaflets show the folding point.
movements. This indicates that the
3. Observe what happens.
stimulus at one point is communicated.
But unlike in animal, there is no specialized

101
 3. Response to the direction of water
(Hydrotropism)
4. Response to the direction of
chemicals (Chemotropism)
Negatively
Phototropism geotropic

It is the growth of the stem towards Positively

the direction of sunlight. geotropic

Fig 6.13 Geotropism

Hydrotropism

The roots of very huge trees grow

towards the availability of water source

Fig. 6.12 Phototropism (e.g) The roots of coconut tree are seen
away from the plant for the want of water.
Geotropism
It is the growth of roots towards the Chemotropism
direction of gravitational force. This is the movement of plant parts
Roots cannot grow towards sunlight towards the direction of chemicals. (e.g)
and stem cannot grow towards The pollen tubes grow towards ovule.
gravitational force.

Activity 6.8
•• Fill a conical flask with water.
•• Cover the neck of the flask with a wire mesh.
•• Keep two or three freshly germinated bean seeds on the wire mesh.
•• Take a cardboard box which is open from the side.
•• Keep the flask in the box in such a manner that the open side of the box faces
light, coming from a window.
•• After two or three days, you will notice that the shoots bend towards light and
roots away from light.
•• Now turn the flask so that shoots are away from the light and roots towards
light. Leave it undisturbed in this condition for a few days.
BIOLOGY

•• Have the old parts of the shoot and root changed direction?
•• Are there differences in the direction of the new growth?
•• What do you understand from this activity?

102
 Life processes

6.9. Hormones in animals reactions. These are released into the

blood stream and transported around
The endocrine system consists of
ductless glands and their secretions the body. Harmones co-ordinate the
called hormones. Hormones are bio - physiological activities in our body. A
chemical substances which act as bio detailed account on hormones is dealt in
catalysts speeding up the chemical chapter 3.

Evaluation
PART A a) Name A and B
1. In monotropa the special type of b) What are the materials
root which absorbs nourishment is transported through A?
(Haustoria, Mycorrhizal root, Clinging
c) What are the materials
root, Adventious root)
transported through B?
2. T
 he product obtained in the Anaerobic
d) How do the materials in A move
respiration of yeast is (Lactic acid,
upwards to leaves?
Pyruvic acid, Ethanol, Acetic acid)
3. T
 he roots of coconut tree are seen
away from the plant. Such kind of
movement of root for want of water is
(Phototropism,Geotropism,Chemo-tro-
pism, Hydrotropism)
4. T
 he xylem in the plants are responsi-
ble for (transport of water, transport of
food, transport of amino acid, trans-
port of oxygen) 7. Observe the above diagram

5. T
 he autrotropic nutrition requires (CO2 a) Mention the type of movements
and water, chlorophyll, sunlight, all the shown in fig, A and B.
above) b) How does the movement differ from
PART B the movement of mimosa
6. Name the types of vascular tissues in 8.Match the methods of nutrition of
the plant stem which are labelled as A special organs with suitable examples.
CHAPTER 6

and B
Autotrophs Mycorrhiza Cuscutta
Parasites chlorophyll Monotropa
Saprophytes Haustoria Hibiscus

103
 9. In the process of respiration_____ is into the body through _________ and
carbon compound, the lactic is _____ the dissolved oxygen of water diffuses
carbon compound. into _________.
10. Sugar is converted into alcohol. From PART C
the above statement what kind of 13. Compare the respiration in higher
process takes place? Which micro plants with the respiration in lower
organism is involved? plants
11. Pick out the odd one : The parts 14. Is the pressure created in xylem
of the alimentary canal are enough to conduct water in tall trees.
( Pharynx, mouth, buccal cavity, Give reasons.
pancreas)
15. In touch me not plant the leaves show
12. In human beings air enters into the movements. What type of movement
body through _________ and moves have you observed. Discuss.
into __________ In fishes water enters

Name of the plants in ENGLISH & TAMIL

How it is
Sl. Name in
Botanical Name TAMIL Name called
No. english
locally
1 Monotropa Indian pipe khNdhbNuhgh
uniflora
2 Viscum Parasitic Gy;YUtp
plant
3 Cuscuta Podderplant mk;ikahh; $e;jy;
reflexa /rljhhp

further reference
Books : 1. Modern Plant Physiology Sinha Narosa
2. Fundamentals of plant physiology Jain .V.K.
BIOLOGY

104
 Chapter 7

Conservation of
Environment
 7. Conservation of Environment
Living organisms live in different Environmental science can be
surroundings. Some plants and animals defined as the study of organisms in
completely live in water and some others relation to their surrounding.
live on land. In the course of development,
Man also leads life in different unplanned and vast misuse of natural
surroundings. Some live in cities, some in resources like water, forest produce, land
towns and some in villages. How do they and mineral resources have occurred.
adapt themselves to the place they live in? This has led to an imbalance in nature
and release of many harmful substances
Plants, animals, human beings survive
in the atmosphere.
with the interaction between them and the
non-living things like air, water and land. Mankind is greatly influenced by the
Human beings depend on the resources of surrounding in view of the problem of
nature. These resources include soil, water, over Population, environmental pollution,
coal, electricity, oil, gas, etc. These resources human survival, pest control and
improve the life style of human beings. conservation of natural resources.

NON Living Environment

Land,Water, Air,Minerals

Living Environment Living Environment

Plants Animals

NON Living Environment

BIOLOGY

Land,Water, Air,Minerals

Fig. 7.1 Interaction between non-living and living components in the biosphere

106
 Conservation of Environment

In our daily activities, we generate a lot

Activity 7.1
of materials that we throw away.
•• Find out what happens to the waste
•• What are some of these waste materials? generated at home. Is there a system
•• What happens after we throw them away? in place to collect this waste?
Human activities related to livelihood •• Find out how the local body (panchayat,
and welfare generate waste. All wastes municipal corporation or resident
are pollutants and they create pollution welfare association) deals with the
in one way or another. Air, land and waste. Are there mechanisms in place
water surroundings are affected due to to treat the bio-degradable and non-
bio-degradable wastes separately?
improper disposal of wastes which create Calculate how much waste is generated
an imbalance in the environment. at home in a day.
•• What is Pollution? •• How much of this waste is bio-
•• What are Pollutants? degradable?
Pollution: Any undesirable change •• Calculate how much waste is
in the physical, chemical or biological generated in the class room in a day.
characteristics of air, land and water that •• How much of this waste is non bio-
affect human life adversely is called pollution. degradable?
Pollutant: A substance released into the •• Suggest ways of dealing with this
environment due to natural or human activity waste
which affects adversely the environment
is called pollutant. e.g. Sulphur-di-oxide,
carbon-monoxide, lead, mercury, etc. Think it over
7.1.Classification of Disposable cups in trains
If you ask your parents, they will probably
Wastes
remember a time when tea in trains was
1. Bio–degradable wastes served in plastic tumblers which had to be
returned to the vendor. The introduction
2. Non–bio-degradable wastes of disposable cups was hailed as a step
Substances that are broken down forward for reasons of hygiene. No one at
by biological process of biological or that time probably thought about the impact
microbial action are called bio-degradable caused by the disposal of millions of these
waste. e.g. wood, paper and leather. cups on a daily basis. Some time back,
Kulhads, that is, disposable cups made
Substances that are not broken down of clay, were suggested as an alternative.
by biological or microbial action are called But a little thought showed that making
non-bio-degradable wastes. e.g. Plastic these Kulhads on a large scale would
CHAPTER 6
7

substances and mineral wastes. result in the loss of the fertile top-soil. Now
How to protect us from these hazardous disposable paper-cups are being used.
wastes ? What do you think are the advantages of
disposable paper-cups over disposable
Why do the government and so many plastic cups?
organizations conduct awareness

107
 Progarmmes against using plastics ? Paper
The following methods are adopted for (54% recovery) Can be repulped
the disposal of harmful waste materials. and reprocessed into recycled paper,
cardboard and other products.
1. Land Fills
Glass
There are permanent storage facilities
in secured lands for military related liquid (20% recovery) Can be crushed, ­re-
and radioactive waste materials. High melted and made into new containers or
level radioactive wastes are stored in crushes used as a substitute for gravel
deep underground storage. or sand in construction materials such
as concrete and asphalt, Food waste
2. Deep well injection and yard wastes (leaves, grass etc.,) can
It involves drilling a well into dry be composted to produce humus soil
conditioner.
porous material below ground water.
Hazardous waste liquids are pumped 7.2. Water management
into the well. They are soaked into the
Due to increasing demands for water
porous material and made to remain
and reduced availability of fresh ground
isolated indefinitely.
water resources, urgent measures have
3. Incineration to be taken to conserve each and every
drop of water that is available.
The burning of materials is called
incineration. Clean and fresh water is essential for
nearly every human activity. Perhaps
Hazardous bio-medical wastes
more than any other environmental
are usually disposed off by means of
factors, the availability of water
incineration. Human anatomical wastes,
determines the location and activities of
discarded medicines, toxic drugs, blood,
human beings.
pus, animal wastes, microbiological and
bio-technological wastes etc., are called Can you list out the reasons for
bio-medical wastes. increasing demand of water?

Management of non-hazardous 7.2.1. Sources of water

wastes – solid waste Water is a basic natural resource
management and valuable asset to all nations.
Human beings depend on water for all
Reuse and recycling technique
their needs such as bathing, washing,
The separating out of materials such cooking, transportation and power.
as rubber, glass, paper and scrap metal
BIOLOGY

Water in India is of two kinds. Salt

from refuse and reprocessing them for water and fresh water. Fresh water is
reuse is named as reclamation of waste or obtained from rain water, surface water
recycling. and ground water.

108
 Conservation of Environment

The main sources of water are rain and snow from of excess to areas of deficit using
which form a part of the hydrological cycle. canals and underground pipes.
Surface water iv) Water shed management
India is blessed with a number of rivers, The management of rainfall and
lakes, streams and ponds. resultant run-off is called water shed
management. Water shed is an area
Ground water
characterized by construction of small
Aquifers are under ground reserves of dams to hold back water which will provide
fresh water. useful wildlife habitat and stock watering
facilities.
In the water table, water that percolates
into the ground through porous rocks is v) Rain water harvesting
ground water. These porous rocks are
Rain water harvesting essentially
saturated with water to a certain level. The
means collecting rain water from the roof of
upper layer of waterlevel is the watertable.
building or courtyards and storing it under
The ground water is important for plant
ground for later use. The main idea in
growth, man also taps this water through
harvesting rain water is to check the run-off
tube wells and bore wells. Scanty rainfall
water. The rain water that falls on the roofs
and unnecessary felling of trees affect
of buildings or in courtyards is collected
the ground water level. through pipes and stored in under ground
7.2.2. Fresh water management tanks of the buildings fitted with motor for
To meet out the water scarcity we need
several ways to increase the water supply. Terrace
i) Seeding clouds
Conduit
Seeding clouds with dry ice or potassium
iodide particles sometimes can initiate rain
if water laden clouds and conditions that Rainwater
aquifier
favour precipitation are present.
Well
ii) Desalination: (Reverse osmosis)
Fig. 7.2 Rain water harvesting
Desalination of ocean water is a
technology that has great potential for lifting water for use. The process of rain
increasing fresh water. Desalination is water harvesting is not only simple but
more expensive than most other sources also economically beneficial. It helps in
of fresh water. In desalination, the meeting the increased demand for water,
CHAPTER 7

common methods of evaporation and ­­re- particularly in urban areas and prevent
condensation are involved. flooding of living areas.

iii) Dams, reservoirs and canals vi) Wetland conservation

Dams and storage reservoirs tap run- It preserves natural water storage and
off water in them and transfer the water acts as aquifer recharge zones.

109
 vii) Domestic conservation It is essential to protect and conserve
As an individual, every one can reduce wildlife because they have aesthetic,
the water loss by taking shower, using ecological, educational, historical and
low-flow taps, using recycled water for scientific values, a good biotic diversity
lawns, home gardens, vehicle washing is essential for ecological balance. Large
and using water conserving appliances. scale destruction of wildlife could lead to
ecological imbalance. Wildlife also adds
viii) Industrial conservation aesthetic value and from this, eco-tourism
Cooling water can be recharged and is being promoted in a big way by several
waste water can be treated and reused. countries. Wildlife and their products
could be of great economic value if utilized
properly. The invulnerable plants could
yield products of immense medicinal
value in future. Wildlife also forms as
store of vast genetic diversity which could
be properly used with advances in genetic
engineering. Thus wildlife has been of
great value in the past and will continue
to be so in the future. Protection and
Fig. 7.3 Domestic conservation conservation of wildlife, therefore gains
method of water importance.
SANCTUARIES
7.3. Wildlife sanctuaries
Wildlife sanctuary is an area constituted
Wildlife by competent authority in which hunting or
All non-domesticated and non- capturing of animals is prohibited except
cultivated biota found in natural habitat by or under control of the highest authority
are termed ‘wildlife’. It includes all the responsible for management of the area.
natural flora and fauna of a geographic Wildlife sanctuaries were established
region. Wildlife is an asset to be protected in India in the pursuit of conserving wildlife
and preserved to our own advantage and which was suffering due to ecological
to the benefit of future generations. imbalance caused by human activities.
There are 89 National parks, 500 wildlife
There are approximately 400
sanctuaries, 27 Tiger reserves, 200 Zoos
varieties of reptiles, 200 varieties
and 13 Biosphere reserves in the country
of amphibians, 3000 varieties covering an area of 1.6 lakh sq.km.
of fishes, 3000 species of birds
20,000 species of flowering 7.4. BALANCE IN ECO­SYSTEM
BIOLOGY

plants and 4100 species of What is Ecosystem?

mammals found in our country
•• Fish lives in Water.
according to the latest census
estimate. •• Tiger lives in Forest.

110
 Conservation of Environment

Important sanctuaries in Tamilnadu

Name Location Animals

Tiger, leopard, porcupine,
Indira Gandhi Wildlife,
Western Ghats. nilgiris tahr, civet cat,
Sanctuary
elephant, gaur, pangolin.

Lion tailed macaque,

Kalakkadu Wildlife
Tirunelveli District sambhar, sloth bear, gaur,
Sanctuary.
flying squirrel.

Grizzled squirrels, mouse

Srivilipathur Grizzled
Virudhunagar District deer, barking deer, tree
squirrel wildlife Sanctuary
shrew.

Cormorants, egrets, grey

Vedathangal Bird’s heron, open-billed stork,
Kancheepuram District
Sanctuaries white bears, shovellers,
pintails, stets, sandpipers.

Elephants, gaur, langur,

Mudumalai wildlife tigers, leopards, sloth bear,
The Nilgiris
Sanctuary sambhar, wildbear, jackal,
porcupine, mangoose.

Viralimalai Trichy District Wild peacocks

Gulf of Mannar marine Coast of Rammad and Coral reefs, dugong, tuties,
National Park. Tuticorin district. dolphins, balanoglossus,

Tiger, bonnet macaque,

Mundhanthurai wildlife
Tirunelvelli District langurs, sloth bear, wild
Sanctuary.
dog.

Vallanudu Blackbuck Blackbuck, jungle cat, hare,

Tuticorin District
Sanctuary. mongoose.

Arignar Anna Zoological Lion, elephant, tiger,

Vandalur
Park monkeys.

Mukkurthi National Park The Nilgiris Tigers.

CHAPTER 7

Point calimere wildlife Chital, wild bear, plovers,

Nagapattinam district
Sanctuary stilts, bonnet macaque.

Civet cat, porcupine, gaur,

Anamalai wildlife sanctuary Slopes of western ghats.
tiger leopard, nilgiri tahr.

111
 Important National Parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserves.
Bandhipur National Park Indian bison, chital, sloth
Karnataka
(It is a tiger reserve too) bear, elephants.
Corbett National Park Tigers, chital, elephants,
(India’s first national park) Uttaranchal leopard, Jungle cat and
(Tiger reserve too) sloth bear.
Gir National Park Gujarat Aslatic Lion
Kanha National Park Deer Tiger, Wilddog,
Madhyapradesh
(Tiger reserve) chital.
374 special of bird, e.g.
Indian darters, spoonbills,
Bharathpur Bird sanctuary Rajasthan painted stock, open billed
stork, black necked stork
etc,.
Manas wildlife sanctuary Hispid hare (rere), pygmy
Assam
(Tiger reserve) hog, golden langue
Sunderbans National Park Unique Royal Bengal
West Bengal
(Tiger reserve) Tigers.

How can they lead their life in the Pond Ecosystem

above habitats?
An example for aquatic ecosystem is
A community of organisms that interact a pond.
with one another and with the environment Abiotic factors
is called an ecosystem.
It includes light, temperature, hydrogen
The Ecosystem is of two types, namely ion concentration, inorganic substances
aquatic and terrestrial. like CO2, H2, O2, N, PO4, CO3 and S and
What are the major components in organic substances like carbohydrates,
Ecosystem? proteins and lipids.
There are four major components, namely:
Biotic factors
1. Abiotic factors
It includes producers and consumers.
2. Producers
Producers are the water living plants
3. Consumers
BIOLOGY

like Hydrilla, Vallisneria etc., and

4. Decomposers.
phytoplankton like Chlamydomonas,
Producers, consumers and Volvox and Spirogyra.
decomposers are biotic factors.

112
 Conservation of Environment

Primary consumers or herbivores

Activity 7.2
Zooplanktons like insects, larvae of
Dragon-fly consume the phytoplanktons. •• While creating an aquarium did
Secondary Consumers you take care not to put an aquatic
animal which would eat others?
These are certain fishes, frogs, water
What would happen otherwise?
beetles etc., which feed on the primary
consumers in the pond. •• Make groups and discuss how each
of the above groups of organisms
Tertiary Consumers are dependent on each other.
These are big fishes and kingfisher that •• Write the aquatic organisms in
feed on small fishes. order of who eats whom and form a
Decomposers chain of at least three steps.

Several bacteria and fungi form the •• Would you consider any one group
decomposers in the pond. of organisms to be of primary
importance? Why or why not?

An ecosystem is maintained by the

balance in nature such as the balance
between hawks and mice, if hawk
population is larger than the mice
population, then it is not balanced.
They are balanced between resources
like a banana tree and monkeys. If the
banana trees stop growing, the monkeys
won’t get bananas.
An ecosystem maintains the balance
between the number of resources and the
number of users or the balance between
prey and predators.

What is food chain and food

web?
CHAPTER 7

Fig. 7.4 Flow of energy in an ecosystem Various organisms are linked by food
chains in which the food energy is passed
BALANCE IN ECO-SYSTEM
from one organism to another in a linear
A balanced ecosystem is an ecological fashion.
community together with its environment
and functioning as a complex unit. e.g. Food chain of a grassland ecosystem.

113


Grass → Grass hopper → Frog → Snake→Eagle

(Producers) (Herbivores) (Primary (Secondar (Teritary
consumer) consumer) consumer)

Fig. 7.5 Grassland ecosystem

Activity 7.3
•• Go to a pond and observe the
organisms that lives in the pond.
•• List out the organisms.
Fig. 7.6 Food web
•• Prepare a chart of food chains balance between living components and
its resources of an ecosystem, so that it
remains a stable environment community
Food Web for the better functioning of the organisms.

The food chains are interlinked to form Bio - Geo chemical cycles
food webs, So every component of the In an ecosystem, the energy from
ecosystem is connected to one another. the sun is fixed by the plants. Then it is
How is the ecosystem maintained? transferred to herbivores and carnivores.
i.e. the energy flows in one direction
There are many factors which maintain only. But the minerals required in the
the harmony in an ecosystem naturally. ecosystem are continuously absorbed
Disturbing any one factor could have a by the plants and transferred to animals.
drastic impact upon the living conditions As the minerals are removed from the
of other organisms that will result in an soil, they have to be replaced or cycled.
imbalance. For example, removal of trees These minerals are returned to the soil by
and vegetation would affect both land and the decomposition of dead and decaying
water ecosystems as there will be no materials by saprophytic organisms such
food for organisms. Killing animals and as bacteria and fungi (You have studied
polluting land, air and water also disturb the cycles in earlier classes in detail.)
the balance in nature.
7.5. COAL AND PETROLEUM
Inorder to maintain the eco-balance in
an ecosystem, there should be recycling 7.5.1 Coal
BIOLOGY

of nutrients, minerals, and water. Careful Coal is a compost primarily of carbon

use of natural resources will maintain along with variable quantities of other
the eco-balance. Thus eco-balance or elements chiefly sulphur, hydrogen,
ecological balance is the maintenance of oxygen and nitrogen.

114
 Conservation of Environment

Coal is a fossil fuel and is the largest 2. Sulphur particles present in the
source of energy for the generation of coal will cause acid rain..
electricity world wide, as well as one of
3. Interference with ground water and
the largest worldwide sources of CO2
emissions. Gross CO2 emission from coal water table levels.
usage is high and more than those from 4. Contamination of land and water
petroleum and about double the amount ways.
from natural gas.
5. Dust nuisance.
6. Release of CO2, a green house
gas, which causes climate change
and global warming.
7. Coal is the largest contributor to
the man-made increase of CO2 in
the air.

Activity 7.4
•• Visit Neyveli lignite corporation.
•• See how the coal is mined.
•• Discuss with your classmates
about the uses of coal.

Fig. 7.7 Coal

7.5.2 Petroleum
Coal is obtained through mining or in In modern life today, we are
open pits. Coal is primarily used as a inseparable from petrol and petroleum
solid fuel to produce electricity and heat products.Petroleum or crude oil is a
through combustion. When coal is heated naturally occurring, toxic, flammable
in air, coal burns and produces mainly liquid consisting of a complex mixture
carbon-di-oxide gas. Coal is processed of hydrocarbons and other organic
in industry to get some useful products compounds that are found beneath the
such as coke, coal tar and coal gas. earth’s surface.
Environmental effects of coal Do you know how does petroleum
burning form?
CHAPTER 7

1. Generation of waste products which Petroleum was formed from organisms

contain mercury, uranium, thorium, living in the sea. After the death of those
arsenic and other heavy metals, organisms, their bodies settled at the
which are harmful to human health bottom of the sea and were covered with
and environment. layers of sand and clay. Over millions of

115
 years, absence of air, high temperature Alternatives to petroleum – based
and high pressure transformed the dead vehicle fuels
organisms into petroleum and natural 1. Internal combustion engines
gas. (Biofuel or combustion hydrogen)
Many useful substances are obtained 2. Electricity (for e.g. all electric (or)
from petroleum and natural gas. These hybrid vehicles), Compressed air
are used in the manufacture of detergents, or fuel cells (hydrogen fuel cells).
fibers (polyester, nylon, acrylic etc.), 3. Compressed natural gas used by
polythene and other plastic substances. natural gas vehicles.
Hydrogen gas, obtained from natural
gas, is used in the production of fertilizers 7.6 GREEN CHEMISTRY
(urea). Due to its great commercial
importance, petroleum is also called Green chemistry is the design of
‘Black Gold’. chemical products and processes to
reduce or eliminate the use and generation
Environmental effects of hazardous substances.
The concept of green chemistry was
Oil Spills
introduced in 1995. The Green Chemistry
1. Crude oil (refined fuel) spills from Institute was recently created and the
tanker ship and accidents have Presidential Green Chemistry challenge
damaged natural ecosystem. awards were established in 1999.
2. Oil Spills at sea are generally
causing more damage than those More to know
on land. This can kill sea birds,
mammals, shellfish and other Many countries are making
organisms, because of their lateral commitments to lower green house
spreading on water surface. gas emissions according to the
Kyoto protocol.
Tar Balls
A tar ball is a blob of oil which has been Activity 7.5
weathered after floating on the ocean. Tar
balls are aquatic pollutants in most of the Coal is used in thermal power stations
seas. and petroleum products like petrol
and diesel are used in means of
transport like motor vehicles, ships
and aeroplanes. We cannot really
imagine life without a number of
BIOLOGY

electrical appliances and constant use

of transportation. So, can you think of
ways in which consumption of coal and
petroleum products can be reduced?
Fig 7.8 Petroleum Industry

116
 Conservation of Environment

•• Greener reaction conditions for an List of some of the products

old synthesis e.g. replacement of produced by the process of green
an organic solvent with water or the
chemistry
use of no solvent at all)
•• Lead free solders and other product
•• A greener synthesis for an old
alternatives to lead additives in paints
chemical (e.g. a synthesis which uses
and the development of cleaner
biomass rather than petrochemical batteries.
feed stock or the use of catalytic
rather than stoichiometric reagents). •• Bio-plastics: Plastics made from
plants including corn, potatoes or
•• The synthesis of a new compound other agricultural products.
that is less toxic but has the same
•• Flame resistant materials.
desirable properties as an existing
compound. (e.g. a new pesticide that •• Halogen free flame retardants.
is toxic only to target organisms and e.g. silicon based materials can be used.
bio-degrades to environmentally
benign substances) Future products
Green chemistry / technology has •• A raw material feedstock should
been developed in almost all branches be renewable rather than depleting
of chemistry including organic, bio- whenever technically and
chemistry, inorganic, polymer, toxicology, economically practical.
environmental, physical, industrial etc. •• Catalytic reagents are superior to
The Principles of Green Chemistry stoichiometric reagents.
•• It is better to prevent waste •• Green Chemistry is applicable to
generation than to treat or clean up all aspects of the product life cycle
waste after it is generated.
as well. Finally, the definition of
•• Wherever practicable, synthetic green chemistry includes ‘The
methodologies should be designed term “hazardous”. It is important to
to use and generate substances that note that green chemistry is a way
posses little or no toxicity to human of dealing with risk reduction and
health and the environment. pollution prevention.
•• Chemical products should be
PVC and Lead
designed to preserve efficacy of
function while reducing toxicity. New lead free solders with lower heat
requirements are being developed.
Beware of Green washing
CHAPTER 7

Green chemistry is not a panacea. We

must be vigilant in making sure that what
is called “Green Chemistry really pushes
towards a more sustainable world and not
Fig. 7.9 Green chemistry simply green washing”.

117
 7.7. Science today – What is global village?
towards a global A term that compares the world to a
village small village, where fast and modern
Global village communication allows news to reach
quickly. The use of electronics for faster
Global village is the term used to mean communication is a global village concept.
that world had shrunk into a village by
means of different media types, most What is the global electronic village?
especially the world wide web, making Global electronic village (GEV) is a term
It is easy to pass across messages (like used to refer to a village without borders;
news) thereby making the world become it refers to connecting people around the
a single village where people can easily world technologically through Information
contact each other quicker. Communication Technologies (ICTS).

Fig. 7.10 Global village

Global Village (GV) is located at a by a team of reputed Indian and

distance of 12 kms from Bangalore on international architects and landscape
the Bangalore - Mysore Expressway designers.Ample residential facilities
and easily accessible by road. Spread are in close proximity to the campus.
over 110 acres of greenery, the project The estimated driving time to GV
will house a cluster of technology from the heart of Bangalore city is
companies in a campus type setting. approximately 20 minutes.
The Buildings nestle among the lush
Kshema Technologies have the
green of manicured lawns, coconut
BIOLOGY

distinction of being the first of GTV’s

palms and an eclectic mix of old trees
companies to move into the campus with
in a serene and dust free environment.
an 80,000 sq ft facility to house 600
The Technology Campus has been
employees.
conceptualized and designed

118
 Conservation of Environment

The term global village was coined by Marshall McLuhan. He emphasized that “this
forces us to become more involved with one another from countries around the world
and be more aware of our global responsibilities”. Similarly, web-connected computers
enable people to link their web sites together. This new reality has implications for
forming new sociological structures within the context of culture.

Evaluation
Part A 7. _____ green house gas which causes
Multiple choice questions climate change and global warming.
1. Which of the following groups contain (hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbondioxide)
only bio degradable items? 8. _____ forms decomposer in the
(Grass, flowers and leather ; Grass, pond ecosystem (plants, bacteria,
wood and plastic ; Fruit peels, cake frog, phytoplanktons)
and plastic ; Cake, wood and grass) 9. ________ chemical is used in
2. Which of the following constitute a seeding clouds (potassium iodide,
food chain? calcium carbonate, sulphurdioxide,
ammonium phosphate)
(Grass, wheat and mango ; Grass,
goat and human ; Goat, cow and 10. Example for fossil fuel is
elephant ; Grass, fish and goat) (copper, iron, magnesium, coal)
3. Which of the following are Part B
environmental friendly practices? 11. Study the food chain below, correct it and
(carrying cloth bags to carry the convert into a pyramid of energy.
purchase items during shopping, Mulberry -> Sparrow -> Caterpillar -> Kite
switching off light and fans when not
in use, use the public transport, all 12. Study the illustration and answer the
the above) question.

4. what is called as ‘black gold’? a. which line (A or B) represent the

flow of energy? Why do you say so?
(hydrocarbons, coal, petroleum,
ether) b. Give an example of a decomposer.

5. odd one out. 13. Study the food chain.

(Plants, grasshopper, frog, tiger, snake) Paddy -> Mouse -> Snake -> Kite
CHAPTER 7

6. Example for product of green If the producer has a STORED UP

chemistry is ENERGY OF 500 k CAL. How much
of it goes to the organism at the third
(plastic, paper, bio plastics, halogen trophic level get from it?
flame retardants)

119
 So what are the measures to be taken
Producers by you to meet out the scarcity of
water.
Producers Herbivores 17.Smoke, smoke everywhere smoke.
Do you agree this situation is good for
health. List out the harmful effects
Soil, Air Carnivores
of coal burning.

Decomposers

14.
a. Name the processes noted as no.
1 and 3
b. Define the process 1
c. Name any one fossil fuel. (**)
Part C
15. a) Classify the following substances –
wood, paper, plastic and grasses.
b) Give detailed account on your
classification.
16. In your area there is scarcity of water
due to this the people are affected.
Atmosphere **
CO2
Sholas and grasslands of
western ghats are the sources of
Animals
Decompo
Green all our South Indian rivers. All the
-sition plants
hillocks in the upper mountains
have this unique ecosystem, which
Fossil we cannot create.
plants

further reference
BIOLOGY

Books: 1. Plant Ecology Sheela.R.S and Chandel .P.S

2. New development in green chemistry V.K. Atlerwalia, M. Kidwai
Website: www.enviroliteracy.org/article.php/600 html

120
 8. Waste water management
Human beings have been abusing Water cycle
the water-bodies around the world by Large quantity of water is present
disposing into them all kinds of wastes. to an area of about 1400 million km3 in
We tend to believe that water can wash the entire globe. This water evaporates
away everything not taking cognizance from moist surfaces, falls as rain or snow,
of the fact that the water bodies are our passes through lake, rivers, entered into
life line as well as that of all other living the ground water table and to the ocean,
organisms. also fixed in glaciers and deposited over
Can you list out the things we tend to mountains. Plants absorb water from the
try and wash away through our rivers and soil, utilized for its metabolic activities
drains? and release it into the atmosphere
mainly through transpiration and all living
Due to such activities of human
organisms utilize water.
being, the ponds, lakes, streams, rivers,
estuaries and oceans are becoming Sources of water
polluted in several parts of the world. So
we should manage the waste water in Water is widely distributed in nature
order to prevent the water pollution and and occurs in number of forms viz.,
its effects on our life. solid, liquid and vapour. Rainfall brings
the available primary source of water
over the earth surface. Ocean water
8.1. Journey of water is the largest among all the water
Water, a precious physical substance, resources. A little quantity of water i.e.,
is essential to all living organisms. All 2.4 percent, water is fresh and most
biological functions and cell metabolism of this water is in glaciers or in ground
require water. Because of this feature, water. Geologic layers containing water
without water, life cannot be expected on is known as aquifers of underground
the earth. water. On some areas of the earth’s

121
 crust, fresh water flows freely which Primary treatment
is called as an artesian well or spring. Primary treatment consists of
Rivers carry huge volume of water for temporarily holding the sewage in a
discharge into the lakes and ponds. quiescent basin where heavy solids can
Wetlands, swamps and marshes play a settle to the bottom while oil, grease
vital role in this journey of water. and lighter solids float over the surface.
8.2. Sewage The settled and floating materials are
removed and remaining liquid may be
Sewage is formed from residential, discharged or subjected to secondary
institutional, commercial and industrial treatment.
establishments and includes household
waste liquid from toilets, baths, showers, Secondary treatment
kitchens, sinks and so forth that is Secondary treatment is used to remove
disposed of via sewers. dissolved and suspended biological
­matter. Secondary treatment is typically
8.3. Treatment
performed by indigenous, water – borne
Sewage can be treated close to where micro organisms in a managed ­habitat.
it is created (in septic tanks, biofilters or Secondary treatment may require a
aerobic treatment systems), or collected ­separation process to remove the micro
and transported via a network of pipes organisms from the treated water prior to
and pump stations to a municipal discharge or tertiary treatment.
treatment plant (see sewage and pipes
Tertiary treatment
and infrastructure). Sewage collection and
treatment is typically subject to local, state Tertiary treatment is defined as either
and central regulations and standards. chemical or treatment of filteration done
Industrial sources of waste water often after primary and secondary treatment.
require specialized treatment process. Treated water is sometimes disinfected
chemically or physically (for example
Conventional sewage treatment may
by lagoons and micro filtration.). Before
involve three stages called primary,
discharging into a stream, river, bay,
secondary and tertiary treatment.
lagoon or wetland, or it can be used for
PRETREATMENT the irrigation of a golf course, green way
or park. If it is sufficiently clean, it can
also be used for groundwater recharge or
SECONDARY PRIMARY agricultural purposes.
Bioremediation in sewage treatment
Bioremediation can be defined
BIOLOGY

as any process that is done by the

use of microorganisms, fungi or their
TERTIARY enzymes to treat the contaminants.
Nitrosomonas europaea can be used
Fig. 8.1 Sewage water treatment

122
 Life processes

Activity 8.1
•• Find out how the sewage in your locality is treated. Are there mechanisms to
ensure that local water bodies are not polluted by untreated sewage.

•• Find out how the local industries in your locality treat their wastes. Are there
mechanisms in place to ensure that the soil and water are not polluted by the
waste?

to treat sewage, freshwater, walls Benefits of house hold waste water

of buildings and on the surface of recycling systems,
monuments especially in polluted areas 1. Less fresh water usage,
where there is high levels of nitrogen 2. Reduce strain in septic tanks,
compounds. 3. Recharge ground water,
8.4. Domestic practices: 4. Encourage plant growth.

Sewage is created by residential house

8.5. Sanitation and
hold waste liquid from toilets, bathroom,
showers, kitchens, and so forth then is diseases :
dispersed of via sewers. Water supply, sanitation and health
are closely interrelated. Poor hygiene,
The seperation of draining of inadequate quantities and quality of
household waste into grey water and drinking water and lack of sanitation
black water is becoming more common facilities cause millions of the world’s
in the developed world, with grey water poorest people to die from preventable
being permited to be used for ­watering diseases each year. Water contaminated
plants or recyling for flushing toilets. by human, chemical or industrial wastes
can cause a variety of communicable
Waste water diseases through ingestion or physical
Waste water is often reffered to as grey contact.
water. Any water that has been used in
Water-borne diseases
the home, with the exception of water
Water -borne diseases are caused
in the toilet can be reffered to as waste by the ingestion of water communicated
water. by human or animal faeces or urine
This water could be reused for a containing pathogenic bacteria or viruses;
include cholera, typhoid, amoebic and
CHAPTER 8

multitude of purposes, including,

bacillary dysentery and other diarrhoeal
1. watering yard and gardens, diseases.
2. Filtering septic systems, Water-washed diseases are caused by
poor personal hygiene and skin or eye
3. Irrigating fields,

123
 Activity 8.2
•• Practice regularly to wash your hands thoroughly before and after using the
toilets.

•• Food and water containers should be cleaned and has to be closed when they
are in use.

•• During flood and other natural calamities, water should be used only after
boiling.

•• People live near hazardous industrial waste accumulating or water pollution

areas should be very careful in using the ground water.

contact with contaminated water; include intermediate hosts for parasites that
scabies, trachoma and flea, lice and tick- cause malaria, Schistosomiasis,
borne diseases. lymphatic ­filariasis and Japanese
encephalitis.
Water-based diseases are caused by
parasites found in intermediate organisms •• Drinking water supplies that contain
living in water; include dracunculiasis, high amounts of certain chemicals
schistosomiasis and other helminthes. (like arsenic and nitrates) can cause
serious diseases.
Water-related diseases are caused
•• Inadequate water, sanitation and
by ­insect vectors which breed in water;
hygiene, account for a large part of
include dengue, filariasis, malaria,
the burden of illness and death in
onchocerciasis, trypanosomiasis and developing countries.
yellow fever.
•• Lack of clean water and sanitation
•• Contaminated water that is is the second most important risk
consumed may result in water- factor in terms of the global burden
borne diseases including viral of diseases, after malnutrition.
hepatitis, typhoid, cholera,
dysentery and other diseases that •• Approximately 4 billion cases of
cause diarrhoea. diarrhoea per year cause 1.5 million
deaths, mostly among children under
•• Without adequate quantities of five.
water for personal hygiene, skin
and eye infections spread easily. •• Intestinal worms infect about 10
percent of the population of the
•• Water- based diseases and water- developing world, and can lead to
BIOLOGY

related vector-borne diseases can malnutrition, anaemia and retarded

­result from water supply projects. growth.
They ­inadvertently provide habitats
for­ ­mosquitoes and snails. They are •• 300 million people suffer from
malaria.

124
 Life processes

8.6. Alternative 2. The toilet facilities should be

arrangement for arranged in separate blocks for
sewage disposal men and women.

Wherever crops are grown, they 3. The men’s toilet block should have
always need nutrients and water. urinals and toilet compartments,
Wastewater is often used in agriculture the women’s block have toilet
as it contains water, minerals, nutrients compartments only.
and its disposal is often expensive. 4. There must be a hand washing
Where effluent is used for irrigation, good basin with clean water.
quality water can be reserved exclusively
5. There must be a clean and reliable
for drinking water. Wastewater can also
water supply for hand washing,
be used as a fertilizer, thus minimizing
personal hygiene and flushing of
the need for chemical fertilizers. This
the toilet facilities.
reduces costs, energy, expenditure and
industrial pollution. Waste water is also 8.8. Energy Management
commonly used in aquaculture or fish What is Energy Management?
farming.
“Energy management” is a term
8.7. Sanitation in public that has a number of meanings, but
places we are mainly concerned with the
one that ­relates to saving energy in
Wherever population density is high business, public-sector / government
such as bus station or school, especially organizations and homes.
when they are eating food from the same
source, there is a greater risk of the spread Energy saving measures
of diseases such as, cholera, hepatitis A,­ Energy management is the process of
typhoid and other diarrhoeal diseases. ­monitoring controlling and conserving ­energy
in a living home or in any organization.
These places vary in the number of
people using them, the amount of time 8.8.1. Energy Audit
that people spend there and the type of An energy audit is an inspection, survey
­activity that occurs in the area, but all and analysis on energy flows for energy
­public places need to have adequate conservation in a building, process or
­sanitation and hygiene facilities. system. It is done to reduce the amount
of energy input into the system without
CHAPTER 8

Basic rules for sanitation in negatively affecting the output(s).

public places
Home energy audit
1. There should be sufficient toilet A home energy audit is a service
facilities. where the energy efficiency of a house is
evaluated by a person using professional

125
 equipment (such as blower doors and Activity 8.3
infra-red cameras), with the aim to
suggest the best ways to improve energy •• Using a thermometer, observe
efficiency in heating and cooling the the room temperature of
your class room and the
house.
temperature under a Neem
An energy audit of a home may involve tree on an hot day.
recording various characteristics of the •• Burn the tungsten lamp and
building envelope including the walls, compressed fluorescent
ceilings, floors, doors, windows and lamps and compare the
skylights. The goal of this exercise is to energy consumption.
quantify the building’s overall thermal
performance. The audit may also
consumption and identify numerous options
assess the efficiency, physical condition for reducing energy consumption.
at programming of mechanical systems
such as the heating, ventilation, air The money your school saves will
be available to fund important school
conditioning equipment and thermostat.
projects, but just as important, energy
A home energy audit may include a savings help the Earth by reducing
written report estimating energy use given resource use and environmental
local climate criteria, thermostat settings, pollution. By improving efficiency in
roof overhang, and solar orientation. This places like our schools, we can get
the same benefits while using less
could show energy use for a given time
energy. For example, substituting
period, say a year, and the impact of any
energy efficient, compact fluorescent
suggested improvements per year. The light bulbs (CFL) for standard
accuracy of energy estimates are greatly incandescent bulbs will save on
improved when the homeowner’s billing average up to 6,000 megawatts of
history is available showing the quantities electricity each year.
of electricity, natural gas, fuel oil, or other There are many ways you can help
energy sources consumed over a one or your school save money on water usage,
two-year period. such as checking for leaks in the system,
reducing water usage (especially hot
A home energy audit is often used to
water), and improving the efficiency of
identify cost effective ways to improve the
water delivery.
comfort and efficiency of buildings. In
Another important way to save energy
addition, homes may qualify for energy
at your school is through recycling. This
efficiency grants from central government.
can be done all over the school. For
BIOLOGY

Energy audit in schools example, you can save by recycling

paper milk cartons from the lunch room
The function of an energy audit is to or printer cartridges in the copy room. By
expose different ways to affect energy recycling paper, milk cartons and other

126
 Life processes

materials, schools are able to reduce

Activity 8.4
the amount of waste they produce. This
can garner significant savings as well as •• Study the structure and working of
benefit the environment. a solar cooker and / or a solar water
heater, particularly with regard to
8.8.2. Renewable sources how it is insulated and maximum
A natural resource is a renewable heat absorption is ensured.
resource, if it is replaced by natural •• Design and build a solar cooker
processes at a rate comparable or faster or water heater using low cost
than its rate of consumption by humans. material available and check what
Solar radiation, Hydrogen, Wind and temperatures are achieved in your
hydroelectricity are in no danger of a lack system.
of long term availability. •• Discuss what would be the
advantages and limitations of using
Solar Energy solar cooker or water heater.
Solar energy is the energy derived
directly from the sun. Along with nuclear
energy, it is the most abundant source of hand production technologies. It has
energy on earth. The fastest growing type of been established that hydrogen can
alternative energy increasing at 50 percent meet all the energy needs of human
a year ,is the photovoltaic cell, which society, including power generation more
converts sunlight directly into electricity. The efficiently and more economically than
sun yearly delivers more than 10000 times petro fuels, and with total compatibility with
the energy that humans currently use. the environment. In addition, hydrogen
is non-toxic reasonably safe to handle,
distribute and use as a fuel. Hydrogen
Module has the highest mass energy content –
Solar incidence its heat of combustion per unit weight is
about 2.5 times that of hydro carbon fuel,
Battery changer
controller 4.5 times that of ethanol and 6.0 times
Battery
that of methanol. Its thermodynamic
energy conversion efficiency of 30-35 %
is greater than that of gasoline (20-25%).
Battery system
Wind Power
DC loads
Wind power is derived from uneven
Fig. 8.2 Solar Energy heating of the Earth’s surface from the sun
CHAPTER 8

Hydrogen and the warm core. Most modern wind

power is generated in the form of electricity
The hydrogen has been found to be by converting the rotation of turbine
a good choice among all the alternative blades into electrical current by means
fuel options . It can be produced in of an electrical generator. In wind mills
virtually unlimited quantities with on (a much older technology) wind energy

127
 More to know
Denmark is called the country of “winds”. More than 25% of their electricity
needs are generated through a vast network of windmills. In terms of total output,
Germany is the leader, while India is ranked 5th in harnessing wind energy for
the production of electricity. It is estimated that nearly 45000MW of electrical
power can be generated if India’s wind potential is fully exploited. The largest
wind energy farm has been established near Kanyakumari in Tamilnadu and it
generates 380MW of electricity.

is used to turn mechanical machinery to Fossil Fuels

do physical work, like crushing grain or Fossil fuels are energy rich, combustible
pumping water. forms of carbon or compounds of carbon
formed by the decomposition of biomass
buried under the earth over million of years.

Fig. 8.3 Windmills Fig. 8.4 Coal mining

8.8.3. Non-renewable sources Fossil Fuel – Coal

A non-renewable resource is a natural
It is a black mineral of plant origin which is
resource which cannot be produced,
chemically, a complex mixture of elemental
grown, generated or used on a scale
carbon, compounds of carbon containing
which can sustain its consumption
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
rate. These resources often exist in a
fixed amount, or are consumed much Petroleum
faster than nature can create them.
BIOLOGY

Petroleum is a dark, viscous, foul

Fossil fuels (such as coal, petroleum
smelling liquid, a mixture of solid, liquid
and natural gas) and nuclear power
and gaseous hydro carbons with traces of
(uranium) are example.
salt, rock particles and water.

128
 Life processes

Natural gas is often informally ­referred to

Activity 8.5 as simply gas, especially when ­compared to
•• Debate the following two issues in other energy sources such as oil or coal.
class.
•• The estimated coal reserves are
Uses
said to be enough to last us for Power Generation: Natural Gas is a­­major
another 200 years. Do you think source of electricity generation through the
we need to worry about coal use of gas turbines and steam ­turbines.
getting depleted in this case? Why Most grid peaking power plants and some
or why not?
off – grid engine – generators use natural
•• It is estimated that the sun will last gas.
for another 5 billion years. Do we
have to worry about solar energy Domestic use: Natural gas is supplied to
getting exhausted? Why or why homes where it is used for such ­purposes
not? as cooking in natural gas – power rangers
and oven, natural gas heater clothes
•• On the basis of the debate,
dryers, heating or cooling and central
decide which energy sources
heating. Home or other building heating
can be considered i) exhaustible
ii) inexhaustible iii) renewable iv) may include boilers, furnaces and water
non-renewable. Give your reasons heaters.
for each choice. Natural gas is a major feedstock for the
production of ammonia, for use in ­fertilizer
Natural Gas production.

The composition of natural gas is chiefly Other: Natural gas is also used in the
methane (> 90%) with traces of ethane manufacture of fabrics, glass, steel, ­plastics,
and propane. It is found associated with paint and other products. With man’s ever
other fossil fuels, in coal beds, as ­methane increasing need for energy , he has been
clathrates and it is created by ­methanogenic using fossil fuels indiscriminately. In the
organisms in marshes, bogs, and land process, harmful materials contributing to
fills. It is an important fuel source, a major air pollution are being produced.
feedstock for fertilizers and a potent green
house gas. 8.8.4. Bio-fuels – Generation and use
Before natural gas can be used as a Biofuels are a wide range of fuels
fuel, it must undergo extensive processing which are in some way derived from
to remove almost all ­materials other than biomass. The term covers solid biomass,
CHAPTER 8

methane. These by-products of that liquid fuels and various biogases. Bio
processing include ethane, propane, fuels are gaining increased public and
butane, pentane and higher molecular scientific attention driven by factors such
weight hydrocarbons, elemental sulphur, as oil price hikes, the need for increased
carbon-di-oxide, water vapour and energy security and concern over green
sometimes helium and nitrogen. house gas emissions from fossil fuels.

129
 The various liquid bio fuels for in order to preserve resources for
transportation are the future and reduce environmental
1. Bio alcohol ­pollution. It can be achieved through
2. Green diesel efficient energy use or by reduced
3. Bio diesel consumption of energy services. Energy
4. Vegetable oil conservation may result in increase of
5. Bio ethers financial capital, environmental value,
6. Bio gas national security, personal security
Bioalcohol (Bioethanol) and human comfort. Individuals and
Bioethanol is an alcohol made by ­organizations that are direct consumers
fermenting the sugar components of of ­energy may want to conserve energy
plant materials and it is made mostly from in order to reduce energy costs and
sugar and starch crops. With advanced ­promote economic security. ­Industrial
technology being developed, cellulosic and commercial users may want to
biomass, such as trees and grasses are increase efficiency and thus maximize
also used as feed stocks for ethanol
profit. Electrical energy conservations
production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel
are the important element of energy
for vehicles in its pure form. Bioethanol is
policy.
widely used in the USA and Brazil.
Biodiesel: Biodiesel is made from Lighting
vegetable oil and animal fats. It is used
1. Turn off the lights when not in use.
as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form.
2. De-dust lighting fixtures to maintain
Biogas: Biogas is produced by the illumination.
process of anaerobic digestion of 3. Focus the light where you need.
organic material by anaerobes. It can 4. Use fluorescent bulbs.
be produced either from bio degradable 5. Use electronic chokes in place of
waste material or by the use of energy
conventional copper chokes.
crops fed into anaerobic digesters to
supplement gas yields. The solid by Fans
product, digestable can be used as
1. Replace conventional regulators with
biofuel or fertilizer.
electronic regulators for ceiling fans.
8.8.5 Energy 2. Install exhaust fans at a higher
conservation & How elevation than ceiling fans.
we can help Electric Iron
BIOLOGY

Energy conservation 1. Select iron boxes with automatic

temperature cut off.
Energy conservation refers to efforts
2. Use appropriate regulator position
made to reduce energy consumption
for ironing.

130
 Life processes

3. Do not put more water on clothes Electronic Devices

while ironing. 1. Do not switch on the power when TV
4. Do not iron wet clothes. and Audio systems are not in use.
Gas Stove i.e., idle operation leads to an energy
loss of 10 watts / device.
1. When cooking on a gas burner, use
2. Battery chargers such as those
moderate flame settings to conserve
for laptops, cell phones and digital
LPG.
cameras, draw power whenever
2. Remember that a blue flame
they are plugged in and are very
means your gas stove is operating
efficiently. inefficient. Pull the plug and save.
3. If there is yellowish flame, this Washing Machine
indicates that the burner needs 1. Always wash only with full loads.
cleaning.
2. Use optimal quantity of water.
4. Use pressure cooker as much as
possible. 3. Use timer facility to save energy.
5. Use lids to cover the pans while 4. Use the correct amount of detergent.
cooking. 5. Use hot water only for very dirty
6. Use solar water heater – a good clothes.
replacement for a electric water 6. Always use cold water in the rinse
heater. cycle.

EVALUATION
PART A 4. ----------- is the chief component of
natural gas.
1. Example for water-borne disease is
(ethane, methane, propane,
(scabies, dracunculiasis, trachoma,
butane)
typhoid)
PART B
2. The settled and floating materials are
removed by this treatment method. 5. The bar graph indicates the presence
of the infectious diseases in two cities
(primary treatment, secondary A and B. Observe it and answer the
treatment, tertiary treatment, questions given below.
CHAPTER 8

peripheral treatment)
1. Dengue fever 2. Rat fever
3. Which is a non-renewable resource? 3. Cholera 4. Chikungunya
(coal, petroleum, natural gas, all a. W
 hat may be the reason for the
the above) disease in the city A?

131
 Prevalence of Disease a. How are these diseases
transmitted?
A B b. Write any three measures to
control the other two diseases.

7. Match the suitable renewable and non-

renewable sources.

Sources A B C
1 2 3 4 Renewable Coal Wind Petroleum
b. Which city needs more careful Non- Natural Solar
waste disposal and cleaning? Hydrogen
Renewable gas energy
c. How can the disease be controlled
8. Odd one out
in city A?
a. bio alcohol, green diesel, bio ethers,
6. The pie diagram represents a survey petroleum
result of infectious diseases of a b. cholera, typhoid, scabies, dysentry
village during 2008 – 2009. Analyse it
and answer the following chart 9. A non renewable resource is a natural
resource if it is replaced by natural
process at a rate comparable or faster
than its rate of consumption by humans.
Dengue fever Read this statement and confirm
whether it is correct or incorrect. If it is
Chikungunya
incorrect give correct statement.

era r 10.Pick out the suitable appliances to

h ol ve conserve the electric energy.
C fe
at Florescent bulbs, copper choke, solar
R water heater, electric water heater,
tungsten bulbs, electronic choke.
Which diseases affect the majority of
the population?

further reference

Books: 1. Land treatment of waste water M.B. Gohil Publisher : New Age
BIOLOGY

International (p) Ltd.

Website: 2. Sewage, en.wikipedia-org/wiki/sewage -treatment.

132
 Chapter 9

SOLUTIONS
 9. Solutions

Result of health drink

Health drink

Anu has got back home from playfield of solution to decide the physiological
after winning a match. She is received activity of human beings.
by her mother cheerfully with a glass of A solution is a homogeneous mixture
health drink. of two (or) more substances.
Anu: Mother! What is this? All solutions exist in homogeneous
form. Homogeneous refers to the state
Mother: This is your health drink – a
in which two (or) more substances, that
solution of fruit juice and sugar
are uniformly present in a given mixture.
for your revitalisation.
If a solution contains two components,
then it is called as a Binary Solution.
Solutions are of great importance
in everyday life. The process of food Salt solution containing common salt
assimilation by man is in the form of in water is a suitable example for binary
solution. Blood and lymph are in the form solution.
CHEMISTRY

Solute Solvent Solution

(salt) + (water) = (salt solution)
Fig. 9.1  A solution is a homogenous mixture of solute and solvent

134
 SOLUTIONS

9.1. SOLUTE AND SOLVENT phases namely, dispersed phase and

dispersion medium. The substance
In a solution, the component present in distributed as particles is called
lesser amount by weight is called solute dispersed phase. The continuous
and the component present in a larger phase in which the colloidal particles
amount by weight is called solvent. are dispersed is called dispersion
Generally a solvent is a dissolving medium.
medium. It surrounds the particles of
(Dispersed phase + Dispersion
solute to form solution.
medium → Colloidal solution)
In short, a solution can be represented,
as follows
(Solute + Solvent → Solution)

9.2. TYPES OF SOLUTIONS

9.2.1. Based on the particle size
Based on the particle size of the
solute, the solutions are divided into
three types.
Fat, vitamin, protein
1. True solutions: It is a homo­geneous
+
mixture that contains small solute
particles that are dissolved throughout
the solvent eg. Sugar in water.

2. Colloidal solutions: It is a
heterogeneous mixture made up of two

Water
→

Sugar Water Sugar

solution
CHAPTER 9

Milk
  Fig. 9.3  A mixture of milk powder and
Fig. 9.2 Mixture of sugar and water water forming colloid
forming true solution

135
 3. Suspensions: It is a hetero­geneous
mixture of small insoluble particles in a
Activity 9.1
solvent. In a suspension, the particles Students may be asked to observe
of solid stay in clusters that are large the scattering of light (Tyndall effect)
enough to be seen (e.g. Chalk powder when sunlight passes through the
in water). window of the class rooms. The dust
particles scatter the light making the
path of the light visible.

+ →

Chalk + Water → Suspension

Fig. 9.4  A mixture of chalk and water forming Fig. 9.5  Tyndall effect in nature
suspension

More to know
More to know Brownian motion:The
Tyndall effect, The phenomenon phenomenon by which the colloidal
by which colloidal particles scatter particles are in continuous random
light is called Tyndall effect. If a motion is called Brownian motion.
beam of light is allowed to pass Brownian motion is named in
through a true solution, some honour of ROBERT BROWN a
of the light will be absorbed and biologist.He observed the motion
some will be transmitted. The of the particles in suspension of
particles in true solution are not pollen grains in water.
large enough to scatter the light.
However if light is passed through
CHEMISTRY

a colloidal solution, the light is

scattered by the larger colloidal
particles and the beam becomes
visible. This effect is called
­TYNDALL EFFECT Fig. 9.6  Brownian motion

136
 SOLUTIONS

Comparing the properties of true solution,colloidal solution and suspension

Property True Solution Colloidal Solution Suspension

Particle size in Å
(1Å = 10-10m)

1Å to 10 Å 10Å to 1000 Å More than 1000 Å

Appearance Transparent Translucent Opaque
Visibility of Not visible even under Visible under ultra Visible to the
particles ultra microscope microscope naked eye

Nature Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous

Diffusion of diffuses rapidly diffuses slowly diffusion does not
particles occur
Scattering effect Does not scatter light It scatters light It does not scatter
light

9.2.2. Based on the type of solvent. 1. Unsaturated solution

 ased on the type of solvent solutions
B 2. Saturated solution
are classified into two types
3. Super saturated solution
1. Aqueous solution: The solution
in which water acts as a solvent, is 1. Unsaturated solution: A solution in
called aqueous solution. For e.g., which the solute is in lesser amount in
sugar solution. comparison with the solvent is called
2. Non-aqueous solution: The solution unsaturated solution. In this, addition
in which any liquid other than water acts of solute is possible till the solution
as a solvent is called non-aqueous reaches the point of saturation.
solution. Solution of sulphur in e.g., 5g or 10g or 20g of NaCl in 100g
carbon disulphide is a suitable water
example for non-aqueous solution.
(Benzene, ether, CS2, are some of the 2. Saturated solution: A solution in
examples for non aqueous solvents.) which no more solute can be dissolved
CHAPTER 9

in a definite amount of solvent at a

9.2.3. Based on the amount of given temperature is called a saturated
solute in the given solution solution e.g.,
 ased on the amount of solute in the
B
given amount of solvent, solutions are i) A saturated solution of CO2 in H2O
classified into the following types.

137
 ii) 36g of NaCl in 100g of water at room
temperature forms saturated solution More to know

3. Super saturated solution: A solution Nitrogen in earth soil is an example

which has more of solute at a given for saturated solution in nature.
temperature than that of saturated (Earth soil cannot store more N2
solution is called super saturated than it can hold)
solution.

Activity 9.2
Test whether a solution is saturated,
unsaturated or super-saturated with Unsaturated
respect to the addition of salt at a
particular temperature to the solution.
Take a beaker containing 100ml of
water, three packets of common salts Saturated
each weighing 20g, 16g, and 1g and a
glass stirrer (see fig 9.7).
Record your observations after the Super
addition of each packet in the given Saturated
order followed by stirring at each
Fig. 9.7  To test Saturation, Unsaturation and
stage.
Super Saturation in a given solution

9.2.4 Based on the physical state of the solute and the solvent the solutions are of 9
types.

Solute Solvent Examples

Solid Solid Alloys
Solid Liquid Sugar solution
Solid Gas Smoke
Liquid Solid Cheese
Liquid Liquid Milk
CHEMISTRY

Liquid Gas Cloud

Gas Solid Cork
Gas Liquid Soda water
Gas Gas Helium-oxygen mixture (for deep sea diving )

138
 SOLUTIONS

9.3. Solubility
More to know
Solubility of a solute in a given solvent
at a particular temperature is defined as Dilute and concentrated solutions:
the number of grams of solute necessary Concentration of a solution is the
to saturate 100g of the solvent at that amount of ­solute dissolved in a
­temperature. For example given amount of solvent. A ­solution
containing less amount of ­solute
Solubility of CuSO4 in H2O is 20.7g is known as dilute solution whereas a
at 20oC solution containing large amount
of ­solute is known as ­concentrated
solution. It may be noted that dilute
Activity 9.3 and concentrated are the relative
Determine the solubility of a solid (say terms and they have only quantitative
KCl) in water at room temperature. meaning.

• Prepare saturated solution of KCl • Take out the evaporating dish and
in about 30 ml of water at room again weigh it.
temperature. Add more of KCl
ensuring that solution is saturated
• The observation and calculation are
given as follows.
and some KCl is left undissolved.
• Filter the solution to remove solid KCl. Observation
• Find temperature of the solution by Weight of the dish = Wg
dipping a thermometer in it. Weight of dish + saturated
• Evaporate the solution to dryness by solution of KCl = W 1g
using a low flame to avoid bumping. Weight of dish + dry KCl = W2g
• Allow the dish and solid to cool to room Calculation
temperature. Place the dish and solid
in a dessicator containing anhydrous Weight of saturated solution = (W1 – W)g
calcium chloride (calcium chloride is Weight of KCl = (W2 – W)g
dehydrating agent, it absorbs moisture).
Weight of water present
in saturated solution
SATURATED
SATURATED SOLUTION
SOLUTION
OF KCI
OF KCI SAND BATH = [(W1 – W) – (W2 – W)]g
= [(W1 – W2)g
CHAPTER 9

Weight of KCl
Solubility of KCl = × 100
Weight of solvent
(W2 – W)
= × 100
Fig. 9.8  Determination of solubility (W1 – W2)

139
 E.g., Common salt dissolves in water.
Tit Bit
100 ml of water can dis- A polar compound is less soluble (or)
solve 36g of NaCl at ­insoluble in a non polar solvent.
25° C to attain saturation.
3. Effect of pressure
Effect of pressure is observed only in the
Solubility of some ionic compounds at 25°c
case of gases. An increase in pressure
­increases the solubility of a gas in a ­liquid.
Solubility For eg. CO2 gas is filled in soft drinks
Substance (g per 100g ­using the effect of pressure.
water)
NaCl 36g
NaBr 95g
NaI 184g
NaNO3 92g

9.4. Factors affecting ­

solubility
1. Temperature
2. Nature of solute (or) solvent
3. Pressure
1. Effect of temperature
In endothermic process, solubility increases
Fig. 9.9 CO2 filled in soft drinks
with increase in temperature.
E.g., Solubility of KNO3 increases with More to know
the increase in temperature.
Increase in pressure increases
In exothermic process, solubility
decreases with increase in temperature. the solubility of gases. At a
given temperature, the mass of
E.g., Solubility of CaO decreases with
increase in temperature. gas dissolved in a fixed volume
of liquid is directly proportional
CHEMISTRY

2. Nature of solute and s

­ olvent
to the pressure of the gas on
Solubility of a solute in a solvent de-
the surface of the liquid. This is
pends on the nature of both solute and
solvent. A polar compound dissolves in a called Henry’s Law.
polar ­solvent.

140
 SOLUTIONS

PROBLEM 1 PROBLEM 3
Take 10g of common salt and dissolve 50g of saturated solution of NaCl at
it in 40g of water. Find the concentration 30 C is evaporated to dryness when
o

of solution in terms of weight percent. 13.2g of dry NaCl was obtained. Find the
solubility of NaCl at 30oC in water.
Weight percent Mass of water in solution = 50-13.2 = 36.8g
Weight of the solute
= x 100 Solubility of NaCl =
Weight of solute + Weight of solvent
Mass of NaCl 13.2
X 100 = X 100 = 36g
= 10 x 100 = 20% Mass of water 36.8
10 + 40
Solubility of NaCl = 36g (appx.)

PROBLEM 4
PROBLEM 2 An empty evaporating dish weighs
2g of potassium sulphate was 20.0g On the addition of saturated
dissolved in 12.5 ml of water. On solution of NaNO3, the dish weighs 66.0g.
When evaporated to dryness, the dish with
cooling, the first crystals appeared
crystals weighs 41.5g. Find the solubility
at 60°C. What is the solubility of
of NaNO3 at 20oC.
potassium sulphate in water at 60°C?
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
Weight of saturated solution of NaNO3
12.5 ml of water weighs 12.5g. = (66.0 – 20.0) g = 46.0g
In 12.5g of water, amount of potassium Weight of crystals of NaNO3 = (41.5-20.0) g
sulphate dissolved, is 2g = 21.5g
In 1g of water, amount of potassium Weight of water in saturated solution
sulphate dissolved, is 2/12.5 g = (46.0-21.5) g = 24.5g
Hence in 100g of water, amount Solubility of NaNO3 =
of potassium sulphate dissolved, is Weight of NaNO3 Crystals
(2 x 100)/12.5=16g. X 100
Weight of water
The solubility of potassium sulphate in 21.5
= X 100 = 87.7g
water at 60ºC is 16g. 24.5
CHAPTER 9

Solubility of NaNO3 at 20oC is = 87.7g in

100g H2O

141
 Evaluation
Part - A referred to be in a state of _________.
(saturation, unsaturation)
1. A true solution is a homogenous
mixture of solute and solvent. Chalk 9. In an endothermic process, solubility
powder in water is a heterogenous increases with _________ in
mixture. Is it a true solution? temperature. (increase, decrease)
2. Solution that contains water as the
solvent is called aqueous solution.
Part - B
If carbon disulphide is a solvent in
10. From the table given below , furnish
a given solution, then the solution is
your points of inferences.
called ______.
3. Solubility of common salt in 100g water Substance Solubility at 25oC
is 36g. If 20g of salt is dissolved in it
how much more is required to attain NaCl 36g
saturation.
NaBr 95g
4. If two liquids are mutually soluble, they
are called _______ liquids. (miscible, NaI 184g
immiscible)
11. Distinguish between the saturated and
5. When sunlight passes through unsaturated solution using the data
window of the classrooms its path is given below at a temperature of 25oC
visible. This is due to _______of light.
A. 16g NaCl in 100g water
(reflection, scattering)
B. 36g NaCl in 100g water
6. The particles in various forms are
visible only under ultramicroscope. A 12. You have prepared a saturated
solution containing such particles is solution of sugar. Is it possible to
called __________. (True solution/ dissolve some more grams of sugar
colloidal solution) to this solution? Justify your stand.
7. The mixture of gases used by deep 13. Find the concentration of solution in
sea divers is _______(Helium-oxygen, terms of weight percent if 20 gram of
oxygen-nitrogen)
common salt is dissolved in 50 gram
8. Earth soil cannot store more nitrogen of water.
than it can hold. Hence earth soil is
CHEMISTRY

Further Reference :
Books: 1. Physical Chemistry: Puri & Sharma - Vishal Publication
2. Advanced Chemistry: Bahl & Arun Bahl - S.Chand publishers
Website: www.chemistry explained.com www.sparknotes.com

142
 10. Atoms
molecules
Atoms and molecules

Rani shows a piece of chalk to Vani &

asks her to break it into minute particles. The
breaking spree, goes on and on endlessly and
finally they come to conclude that the minute
particle is a group of invisible atoms. They get
set to probe further.

Exploring the atom

The word atom is derived from the
Greek word “Atomos” which means
indivisible. John Dalton modeled atoms
as hard ­indivisible spheres.
His theory remained undisputed for
about a century without any changes.
However towards the end of 19th and
CHAPTER10

in the beginning of 20th centuries, the

introduction of matter wave concept by
de Broglie, the principle of uncertainty
by Heisenberg etc., paved the way for
­m odern atomic theory or modified
atomic theory. Fig. 10.1 Inner View of an atom

143
143
 10.1.modern atomic theory ff Atoms of one element can be
changed into atoms of other element
The findings of modern atomic theory by transmutation.
are given as follows.
ff Atom is considered to be a divisible ff The mass of an atom can be
particle. converted into energy. This is in
accordance with Einstein’s equation
ff Atoms of the same element may not
E = mc2
be similar in all respects.
eg: Isotopes (Cl35 ,Cl37 )
17 17
10.2.  Avogadro’s Hypothesis
ff Atoms of different elements may be
similar in some respects Amedeo Avogadro put forward
eg. Isobars (Ar 18, Ca 20 )
40 40 hypothesis and is based on the relation
between number of molecules and volume
ff Atom is the smallest particle which of gases.
takes part in chemical reactions. Avogadro’s Law: Equal volumes of
ff The ratio of atoms in a molecule may all gases under the same conditions of
be fixed and integral but may not be temperature and ­pressure contain the
simple equal number of molecules.
e.g., C12H22O11 is not a simple ratio Importance of Avogadro’s law: This
(Sucrose) law plays an important role in
(a) deducing atomicity of gases and
ALBERT EINSTEIN
(b) establishing the relation between
vapour density and molecular mass.

10.2.1. Atomicity
The number of atoms present in one
molecule of an element is called the
atomicity of an element.
Depending upon the number of atoms
in one molecule of an element, molecules
are classified into monoatomic, diatomic,
triatomic, and poly atomic molecules.
When a nuclear reaction occurs the
mass of the product is found to be For any homo atomic molecule atomicity
less than the starting mass. The can be deduced using the formula
difference in mass is converted into Molecular Mass
energy in accordance with the equa - Atomicity = ————————
CHEMISTRY

Atomic mass
tion E = mc,2 where E = energy
liberated, m = disappeared mass and Avogadro’s law enables us to change
c = speed of light. This famous equa- over directly from a statement about volume
tion of Einstein, made revolution in of gases to a statement about molecules
nuclear science. of gases and vice-versa.

144
 Atoms and Molecules

More to know More to know

Isotopes ⇒ These are the atoms

of same element with same atomic
number (Z) but different mass
number (A). example (Cl35
17
,Cl37
17
)
Isobars ⇒ These are the atoms of
the different element with same mass
number but different atomic number.
example (Ar 18 40
, Ca 40
20
)
Isotones ⇒ These are the
atoms of different elements
with same number of neutrons
Avogadro an Italian Scientist
example : (C13,N147)
6 (1766 – 1856) He was the one to
propose that volume of a gas at a
given temperature and pressure
is proportional to the number of
No. of
Atomicity atoms per Eg particles.
molecule
Helium (He)
Monoatomic 1 Neon (Ne)
Metals
Test your
understanding skill
Diatomic 2 Hydrogen H2
Chlorine Cl2 1. Find the atomicity of chlorine if
Triatomic 3 Ozone (O3) its atomic mass is 35.5 and its
molecular mass is 71
Polyatomic >3 phosphorous P4
Sulphur S8 2. Find the atomicity of ozone if
its atomic mass is 16 and its
molecular mass is 48
e.g.,
N2 + O2 → 2 NO
It is found that two molecules of nitric
Nitrogen Oxygen Nitric oxide
oxide contains 2 atoms of nitrogen and
(1 Vol) (1 Vol) (2 Vols)
CHAPTER10

2 atoms of oxygen.
After applying Avogadro’s law, the
equation becomes These two atoms of nitrogen and the two
atoms of oxygen should have come from
N2 + O2 → 2 NO 1 molecule of nitrogen and 1 molecule of
1 Molecule 1 Molecule 2 Molecules oxygen, respectively.

145
 Hence, nitrogen and oxygen are called Multiplying both sides by 2, we get
diatomic molecules and are written as Mass of 1 molecule of gas or vapour
N2 and O2. 2 x V.D= —————————————
Mass of 1 atom of hydrogen
This proves that, atomicity of nitrogen 2 x V.D = relative molecular mass of a gas
is 2 and the atomicity of oxygen is 2 or ­vapour

Thus Avogadro’s hypothesis is used in 2 x Vapour density = Relative molecular

mass
the deduction of atomicity of elementary
gases.
How to arrive at the value of GRAM
10.2.2. To establish the relationship MOLAR VOLUME (GMV)
between vapour density and GRAM MOLAR MASS
relative molecular mass of a GMV = —————————————
gas DENSITY OF GAS AT STP
To find the value of
i. Relative Molecular Mass: It is defined
as the ratio of the mass of 1 molecule GMM of O2
GMV OF OXYGEN = ———————
of the gas or vapour to the mass of
DENSITY OF O2
1 atom of hydrogen.
= 32/1.429
Relative molecular mass of a gas =
= 22.4 lit
Mass of 1molecule of the gas or vapour
—————————————————— Therefore GMV = 22.4 litre at STP
Mass of 1 atom of hydrogen
More to know
ii. Vapour Density (V.D): It is defined
as the ratio of the mass of a certain Gay-Lussac’s law of combining
More
volumes to know
of gases
volume of the gas or vapour to the
Whenever gases react, they do so
mass of the same volume of hydrogen
in volumes which bear a simple ratio
at the same temperature and pressure.
to one another, and to the volumes
of the gaseous products, provided,
Mass of 1 volume of gas or vapour all the volumes are measured
V.D = —————————————
Mass of 1 volume of hydrogen under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure.
Applying Avogadro’s Law,
CHEMISTRY

Mass of 1 molecule of gas or vapour

V.D = ——————————————
Mass of 1 molecule of hydrogen
10.2.3. Applications of Avogadro’s
Since hydrogen is diatomic, law
Mass of 1 molecule of gas or vapour 1. It is used to determine the atomicity of
V.D =—————————————--
2 x Mass of 1 atom of hydrogen gases.

146
 Atoms and Molecules

2. It is helpful in determining the molecular

formula of gaseous compound.
POINT TO EXPLORE
3. It establishes the relationship between
number in one molecule of a) Nitrogen
the vapour density and molecular mass
b) Water c) Ammonia d) Sulphuric
of a gas. acid.
4. It gives the value of molar volume of
gases at STP. Molar Volume of a gas atoms. It retains the characteristics of an
at STP=22.4 lit (or) 22400 cm3. element.
5. It explains Gay Lussac’s law effectively. A molecule can exist freely and it is a
10.3. ATOMS AND MOLECULES combined form of bonded units whereas
Atoms and molecules are the an atom is a singular smallest form of non
building blocks of matter. bonded unit.

10.3.3. Differences between atom

10.3.1. Atom: It is the ultimate and molecule:
particle of an element which may or may
not have independent existence. The Atom Molecule
atoms of certain elements such as
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, etc. do An atom is the A molecule is the
not have independent existence smallest smallest
whereas atoms of helium,neon,argon,etc. particle particle of an
d o ha ve independe nt ex is t e nc e. of element or
All elements are composed of an element. a compound.
atoms.
An atom is a A molecule is a
10.3.2. Molecule: A molecule is the
non bonded bonded entity
simplest structural unit of an element (or)
entity
a compound which contains one (or) more
An atom may A molecule can
or may not exist freely
exist freely

Molecules are of two types, namely

homo atomic molecules and hetero atomic
CHAPTER10

molecules.
1. Homo atomic molecules
These are the molecules which are
Fig 10.2 Molecule of water made up of atoms of the same element.

147
 Most of the elementary gases consist of Relative atomic mass of an element is
homo atomic molecules. For example the ratio of mass of one atom of element
hydrogen gas consists of two atoms to the 1/12th part of mass of one atom of
of hydrogen (H 2).Similarly oxygen gas carbon.
consists of two atoms of oxygen (O2). In Relative atomic mass is a pure ratio
accordance with the number of atoms and has no unit. If the atomic mass of an
present in these molecules they are element is expressed in grams, it is known
classified as monoatomic, diatomic, as gram atomic mass.
triatomic or poly atomic molecules showing e.g.,
that they contain one, two, three, or more Gram atomic mass of hydrogen = 1g
than three atoms respectively.
Gram atomic mass of carbon = 12g
The molecules are made up of atoms
Gram atomic mass of nitrogen = 14g
of different elements. They are also classified
as diatomic, triatomic, or polyatomic Gram atomic mass of oxygen = 16g
molecules depending upon the number of Gram atomic mass of sodium = 23g
atoms present. H2O, NH3, CH4, etc., are the Atomic mass is expressed in atomic
examples for hetero atomic molecules. mass unit (amu). One atomic mass unit
10.4. Relative atomic mass is defined as 1/12 part of the mass of
th

one atom of carbon.

(RAM)
10.5. Relative molecular
10.4.1. Definition (based on
mass(RMM)
hydrogen scale)
10.5.1. Definition (based
The relative atomic mass of an element
on hydrogen scale)
Mass of 1 atom of an element Mass of 1 molecule of an element / compound
RAM = ————————————— RMM = ——————————————
Mass of 1 atom of hydrogen
Mass of 1 atom of hydrogen
is the ratio of mass of one atom of the The relative molecular mass of an
element to the mass of one atom of e ­ lement or a compound is the ratio of
hydrogen taken as one unit. mass of one molecule of the element or
a compound to the mass of one atom of
10.4.2. Definition (based
hydrogen.
on carbon scale)
10.5.2. Definition (based
CHEMISTRY

Mass of 1 atom of an element

on carbon scale)
RAM =__
—————————————
1 Mass of 1 molecule of an element / compound
12
th part of the mass of one atom of carbon RMM = 1 th part of the mass of one atom of carbon
__
12

148
 Atoms and Molecules

The relative molecular mass of an Shown here in Fig.10.3 are one

element or a compound is the ratio of mole quantities of each of the following
mass of one molecule of the element or a materials: (clockwise from top left) 180g
compound to the mass of 1/12 th part of of acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin), 18.0g of
mass of one atom of carbon. water, 342g of sucrose (table sugar), 201g
Relative molecular mass is a pure ratio
and has no unit. If the molecular mass of
a given substance is expressed in gram, it
is known as gram molecular mass of that
substance.
Molecular mass is the sum of atomic
masses.

Gram molecular mass calcula-

tions to test your numerical skill

1. Find the gram molecular mass of

water (H2O)
calculation
2(H) = 2 x 1 = 2
1(O) = 1 x 16 = 16 Fig. 10.3 Mole in various forms
——
18
——
of mercury, 55.9g of iron, 58.5g of sodium
∴ Gram molecular mass of H2O = 18g chloride (table salt), and 254g of iodine.
10.6.1. Definition of mole
2.Find the gram molecular mass of carbon
Mole is defined as the amount of
dioxide (CO2)
substance that contains as many specified
1(C) = 1 x 12 = 12 elementary particles as the number of
2(O) = 2 x 16 = 32 atoms in 12g of carbon-12 isotope.
——
44 One mole is also defined as the amount
Gram molecular mass of CO2 = 44 g of substance which contains Avogadro
number (6.023 x 1023) of particles.
10.6. Mole Concept
CHAPTER10

While performing a reaction, to know the

number of atoms (or) molecules involved, Avogadro number: Number of atoms or
the concept of mole was introduced. The molecules or ions present in one mole of
quantity of a substance is expressed in a substance is called Avogadro number.
terms of mole. Its value is 6.023 x 1023.

149
 Therefore, one mole of any substance FOLLOW UP: Find the number of moles
contains Avogadro number of particles. The for remaining problems given above.
particles may be atoms, molecules, ions etc.,
b. Calculate the mass of 0.5 mole of iron
For eg. one mole of oxygen atoms
represents 6.023 x 1023 atoms of oxygen Solution: mass = atomic mass x number
and 5 moles of oxygen atoms contain of moles
5 x 6 . 0 2 3 x 1 0 23 a t o m s o f o x y g e n . = 55.9 x 0.5 = 27.95 g
To find the number of moles, the FOLLOW UP: Find the mass of 2.5 mole
following formulae are useful of oxygen atoms
Mass = molecular mass x number of
Number of moles = moles
2. Calculation of number of particles when
Number of moles = the mass of the substance is given:
Number of particles =
Number of moles =
Avogadro number x given mass
—————————————
Number of moles = gram molecular mass
a. Calculate the number of molecules in
11g of CO2
WATCH OUT !
Solution: gram molecular mass of
It may be noted that while using the CO2 = 44g
term mole it is essential to specify 6.023 x 1023 x 11
the kind of particles involved. Number. of molecules = ———————
44
= 1.51 x 1023 molecules
10.6.2. P roblems (based on mole
concept) FOLLOW UP: Calculate the number of
molecules in 360g of glucose.
1. When the mass of the substance is
given:
given mass 3. Calculation of mass when number of
Number of moles = particles of a substance is given:
atomic mass
a. Calculate the number of moles in Mass of a substance
i) 81g of aluminium ii) 4.6g sodium gram molecular mass x number of particles
CHEMISTRY

iii) 5.1g of Ammonia iv) 90g of water = —————————————————

v) 2g of NaOH 6.023 x 1023
given mass 81 a. Calculate the mass of 18.069 x 10 23
Number of moles = =
atomic mass 27 molecules of SO2
= 3 moles of aluminium Sol: Gram molecular mass SO2 = 64g

150
 Atoms and Molecules

Mass of SO2 3.0115 x 1023

= —————— = 0.5 moles
64 x 18.069 x 1023 6.023 x 1023
= ——————————— = 192 g
6.023 x 1023 b. Calculate number of moles in 12.046x 1022
atoms of copper
b. Calculate the mass of glucose in
2 x 1 0 2 4 m o l e c u l e s Number of moles of atoms
Gram molecular mass of glucose = 180g Number of atoms
= ———————
Mass of glucose Avogadro Number
180 x 2 x 10 24
12.046 x 1022
= —————— = 597.7g = ——————— = 0.2 moles
6.023 x 1023 6.023x 1023
FOLLOW UP: Calculate the mass of FOLLOW UP: Calculate the number of
12.046 x 1023 molecules in CaO. moles in 24.092 x 1022 molecules of water.

MORE TO KNOW
4. Calculation of number of moles when
you are given number of molecules: Molar volume: Volume occupied by
one mole of any gas at STP is called
Number of molecules molar volume. Its value is 22.4 litres
Number of moles = --————————
Avogadro Number 22.4 litres of any gas contains
6.023 x 1023 molecules.

1. 162.4 g of FeCl3
1

2. 159.6g of CuSO4

8
2 3. 27g of Al

4. 56g of Fe

7
5. 58.5 g of NaCl
3
6. 32g of S
CHAPTER10

7. 12g of C
6
4
8. 200.6g of Hg
5

Fig. 10.4 More illustrations for mole in various forms

151
 Evaluation
Part A
1. From the given examples, form the pair of isotopes and the pair of isobars
18
Ar40, 17
Cl35, 20
Ca40, 17
Cl37
2. Molecular mass of nitrogen is 28. Its atomic mass is 14. Find the atomicity of
nitrogen.
3. Gram molecular mass of oxygen is 32g. Density of oxygen is 1.429g/cc. Find the
gram molecular volume of oxygen.
4. ‘Cl’ represents chlorine atom, ‘Cl2’ represents chlorine molecule.
List out any two differences between atoms and molecules.
5. Calculate the gram molecular mass of water from the values of gram atomic mass
of hydrogen and of oxygen.
Gram atomic mass of hydrogen = 1g
Gram atomic mass of oxygen = 16g
6. One mole of any substance contains 6.023 x 1023 particles.
If 3.0115 x 1023 particles are present in CO2. Find the number of moles.

Part B
1. Modern atomic theory takes up the wave concept, principle of uncertainty and
other latest discoveries to give a clear cut picture about an atom. State the
findings of modern atomic theory.
2. You are given the values of mass of one volume of oxygen gas and the mass of
one volume of hydrogen. By applying Avagadro’s law how will you establish the
relation between vapour density and molecular mass of a gas?
3. Calculate the number of moles in
a. 12.046 x 1023 atoms of copper
b. 27.95g of iron
c. 1.51 x 1023 molecules of CO2

FURTHER Reference :

Books:  1. Physical Chemistry : Puri and sharma - Vishal

publications
CHEMISTRY

2. Inorganic Chemistry : P.L. Soni - S.Chand publication

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 Chapter 11

chemical
reactions
 11. Chemical Reactions

All living beings born in this beautiful The lustrous white colour of the silver
world have their own life styles. Have you anklet slowly changes into slightly black
observed and analyzed your daily life from colour. That is, silver anklet has got
the view point of a chemist? Chemical
reactions happen around us all the time and
even in our body.
Any change can be classified as
physical change and chemical change.
Physical changes can be easily reversed
but, it is not easy to reverse a chemical
change. What is the reason? In chemical
changes, new substances are formed
and it is difficult to regenerate the original Fig. 11.1 Silver Anklet
substances. Chemical changes are more
tarnished. Can you guess the reason
permanent than physical changes. All
behind it?
chemical changes are accompanied by
chemical reactions. It is due to the formation of silver ­sulphide
How do we come to know that a (Ag2S), as a result of the reaction between
chemical reaction has taken place? Let silver and hydrogen sulphide in the air.
us perform some activities to find out the
Activity 11.2
answer to this question.
•• Take lead nitrate solution in a
Activity 11.1 beaker

•• Look at the new silver anklet of •• Take potassium iodide solution

your mother or sister in a test tube.(Both solutions are
CHEMISTRY

colourless)
•• Note the colour of the anklet
•• Add potassium iodide solution
•• Observe the colour of an old anklet slowly to the lead nitrate solution
•• What change do you observe? •• What do you observe?

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 chemical reactions

You observe a deep yellow ­precipitate, Do you observe any brisk

don’t you? effervescence? It is due to the evolution
of carbon dioxide gas.

Lead iodide.

brisk
effervescence

Fig. 11.2 Yellow precipitate of lead iodide.

Fig. 11.3 Reaction of calcium
It is lead iodide (PbI2). carbonate with dil.HCl

Activity 11.3 These are some of the common

•• Take 5g of calcium oxide (quick observations in a chemical reaction. From
lime) in a beaker the activities that we have discussed, it
•• Add water to it slowly is clear that chemical reactions will bring
•• Touch the beaker about a permanent change resulting in
•• What do you feel? the formation of new product(s).
The substances taking part in the
reaction are known as reactants and
Do you feel hot? Let us see what
those formed as a result of the reaction
happens.
are called products.
Calcium oxide reacts with water to
produce slaked lime (calcium hydroxide). More to know
This reaction is exothermic and will
be accompanied by hissing sound A solution of slaked lime produced
and bubbles leading to the release of in the Activity 11.3 is used for white
considerable amount of heat. washing. Calcium hydroxide ­reacts
slowly with carbon dioxide in air to
Activity 11.4 form a thin layer of calcium ­carbonate
•• Take a pinch of calcium carbonate on the walls. Calcium ­carbonate is
CHAPTER 11

powder in a test tube formed after two to three days of

white washing and gives a shiny
•• Add dilute hydrochloric acid ­finish to the walls. It is interesting to
•• Note the changes in the test tube note that the chemical formula for
carefully marble is also CaCO3.

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 11.1.TYPES OF CHEMICAL In the above activity, magnesium
REACTIONS combines with oxygen to form a single
product, magnesium oxide. Such a
Since there are numerous chemical reaction in which a single product
­reactions, the study of these reactions formed from two or more reactants is
can be made easier by classifying them. known as combination reaction.
All the chemical reactions are classified
into six broad categories depending on 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
the way the product formed. Repeat “Activity 11.3”. This reaction
Let us see the different types of is also an example for COMBINATION
­classifications of chemical reactions. REACTION. Attempt to write the equation
yourself.
1. COMBINATION REACTION

A B A B
A combines with B to form a new Let us discuss some more examples of
product AB. It is the simple representa- combination reactions.
tion of combination reaction. •• Combustion of coal
Activity 11.5 C + O 2 → CO2
•• Combustion of hydrogen
•• Take a clean piece of magnesium
ribbon 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
•• Hold the ribbon with a pair of tongs
•• Burn it in air using a burner 2 DECOMPOSITION REACTION
(keeping Mg ribbon as far as
possible from your eyes) A B A B
•• Collect the ash
AB splits into A and B. It is the
representation of decomposition reaction.

Activity 11.6
Mg ribbon
•• Take about 2 g of copper carbonate
powder in a dry test tube
•• Note the colour of copper carbonate
CHEMISTRY

•• Heat the test tube over the flame

•• Observe the change after heating

Fig. 11.4 Burning of Mg ribbon

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 chemical reactions

2. Decomposition of ammonium
dichromate
∆ Cr O ↑ + N ↑ + 4H O↑
(NH4)2Cr2O7 → 2 3 2 2

More to know
At very high temperature,ammonium
dichromate decomposes immediately
to green vapours which gets released
along with the steam. It seems as if
Fig. 11.5 Heating the test tube a volcano erupts and is termed as
containing copper carbonate
chemical volcano.

Change of colour from green to black is

observed. This is due to the decomposition 3. DISPLACEMENT REACTION
of copper carbonate to copper (II) oxide.
CuCO3 → ∆ CuO + CO ↑
2
A B C A C B

Activity 11.7 In the reaction between A and BC, A

displaces B from BC to form AC. This
•• Take lead nitrate in a test tube shows that A is more reactive than B.
•• Heat it over the flame Activity 11.8
•• Observe the changes
•• Take 20 ml of copper sulphate
solution in a beaker
Liberation of a reddish brown gas (NO2)
•• Drop an iron nail into the beaker
is observed. This is because of the
decomposition of lead nitrate into lead •• Leave it for few days
oxide, ­nitrogen dioxide and oxygen. •• Observe the colour of the copper
∆ 2PbO + 4NO ↑ + O ↑
2Pb(NO3)2 → sulphate solution and the iron nail
2 2

From the above two activities (11.6

and 11.7), It can be noted that a single
compound breaks down to produce
two or more substances. Such type
of reaction is called decomposition
CHAPTER 11

reaction. Copper Copper Ferrous

sulphate sulphate
Some other examples for decomposition solution
reaction:
1. Decomposition of lime stone Fig. 11.6 Iron displaces copper from copper
CaCO 3 ∆
→ CaO + CO 2 ↑ sulphate ­solution

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 Blue colour of the copper sulphate
Activity 11.9
solution changes into green colour and the
iron nail acquires a brownish look. It is a •• Take 5ml of sodium sulphate
noticeable change. Is it not? This change solution in a test tube
confirms that iron is more reactive than •• In another test tube, take 5ml of
copper. The following chemical reaction barium chloride
takes place in this activity. •• Mix both the solutions
Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu •• What do you observe?
In this reaction, iron displaces copper
from CuSO 4 solution.
Repeat “Activity 11.8” but use zinc
rod instead of an iron nail. What colour
changes do you observe on the rod and in
the solution? Write the chemical equation.

Other example:
Pb + CuCl2 → PbCl2 + Cu
Lead can displace copper from its
barium sulphate
salt solutions. Can copper displace zinc
or lead from their salt solutions? No,
because copper is less reactive than zinc Fig. 11.7 Formation of barium sulphate
and lead.
You will observe formation of a white
The reaction in which, a more
substance, which is insoluble in water.
reactive element displaces a less
The insoluble substance formed is known
reactive element from its compound is
as precipitate. Any reaction that produces
called displacement reaction.
a precipitate is called a precipitation
4. DOUBLE DECOMPOSITION reaction. The formed white precipitate
REACTION (DOUBLE of barium sulphate, is due to the reaction
DISPLACEMENT REACTION) of SO42– and Ba2+ ions. The other product
formed is sodium chloride.
A B C D A D C B Na2SO4 + BaCl2 → BaSO4↓ + 2NaCl
CHEMISTRY

In the reaction between AB and CD, Repeat "Activity 11.2" for double de-
both the reactants decompose to form composition reaction. Attempt to write the
AD and CB through the rearrangement equation by yourself.
of ions.

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 chemical reactions

Double decomposition reaction is Oxidation:

any reaction in which exchange of ions A chemical reaction which involves
between two reactants occur, leading to addition of oxygen or removal of
the formation of two different ­products. hydrogen or loss of electron(s) is
called as oxidation.
Other example :
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO (addition of oxygen)
CuSO4 + H2S → CuS↓ + H2SO4
H2S + Br2 → 2HBr + S (removal of hydrogen)
5. OXIDATION AND REDUCTION Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e- (loss of electron)
Reduction:
We are all aware of the fact that
A chemical reaction which involves
oxygen is the most essential element
addition of hydrogen or removal of
for ­sustaining life. One can live without
oxygen or gain of electron(s) is called
food or even ­water for a number of days,
as reduction.
but not ­without oxygen. In our daily life
we come across phenomena like fading 2Na + H2 → 2NaH (addition of hydrogen)
of the ­colours of the clothes, burning of CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O (removal of oxygen)
combustible ­substances like cooking gas, Fe3+ + e- → Fe2+ (gain of electron)
wood and coal, and also rusting of iron Redox reaction:
articles. All such processes fall in the
A chemical reaction in which
category of a specific type of chemical
­oxidation and reduction take place
reaction called oxidation – reduction
­simultaneously is called redox ­reaction.
reaction (redox ­reaction). A large number
Zn + CuSO4 → Cu + ZnSO4
of industrial processes like electroplating,
extraction of ­metals like aluminium, are Attempt to write any other redox reaction
based upon the ­redox ­reaction.

Reduction

CHAPTER 11

Copper (II) oxide Copper

Oxidation

Fig. 11.8 Redox reaction

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159
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 During the conversion of copper(II) dissolved in water to wash clothes, heat
­ xide to copper, the copper(II) oxide is
o is given out. When glucose is kept on
losing oxygen and is being reduced. The our tongue, a chilling effect is felt. During
hydrogen is gaining oxygen and is being these processes, heat is either given out
oxidised. In other words, one reactant or absorbed from the surroundings. In
gets oxidised while the other gets ­reduced the same way, in most of the chemical
­during the reaction. Such reactions are reactions, energy is either taken up or
called oxidation – reduction reactions or given out.
redox reactions. a. Exothermic reactions
Oxidation is Reduction is The chemical reactions which
Gain of oxygen Loss of oxygen proceed with the evolution of
Loss of hydrogen Gain of hydrogen heat ­energy are called exothermic
Loss of electron(s) Gain of electron(s) ­reactions.
Oxidation and reduction always takes N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 + Heat
place together, so the reaction is called All combustion reactions are
redox reaction. exothermic. Heat energy is liberated as
the reaction proceeds.
Don’t forget
b. Endothermic reactions
Loss of electron is oxidation.
The chemical reactions which
Gain of electron is reduction. proceed with the absorption of
The term LEO, GER will help you to heat energy are called endothermic
remember. reactions.
2NH3 + Heat → N2 + 3H2
More to know 11.2 RATE OF THE CHEMICAL
Oxidation also has damaging effects REACTION
on food and eatables. When food Rate of the chemical reaction is defined
containing fat and oil is left as such as change in concentration of any one
for a long time, it becomes stale. The of the reactants or products per unit time.
stale food develops bad taste and Consider the reaction
smell. This is very common in curd
or cheese particularly in summer. A→B
Oils and fats are slowly oxidised to Rate of the reaction is given by
certain bad smelling compounds. d[A] d[B]
Rate = - ------- = + -------
CHEMISTRY

6. EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC dt dt

REACTIONS [A] - concentration of reactant A
[B] - concentration of product B
During chemical reactions one of the
most common change is a change - ve sign indicates decrease in con
in ­temperature. When detergent is centration of A with time.

160
 chemical reactions

+ ve sign indicates increase in con- Granulated zinc reacts with both 1M

centration of B with time. hydrochloric acid and 2M hydrochloric
acid, the rate of evolution of hydrogen
11.2.1 FACTORS INFLUENCING gas is more from the test tube B than
THE RATE OF the CHEMICAL from the test tube A. This is because, 2M
REACTION hydrochloric acid is more concentrated
than 1M hydrochloric acid. That is, greater
1. NATURE OF THE REACTANTS the concentration of the reactant,
greater will be the rate of the reaction.
Activity 11.10
3. SURFACE AREA OF THE
••Take magnesium ribbon in two test REACTANTS
tubes A and B
Activity 11.12
•• Add hydrochloric acid to test tube A
•• Take powdered calcium carbonate
•• Add acetic acid to test tube B in beaker A
•• Observe the changes in two test •• Take marble chips (calcium
tubes carbon­ate) in beaker B
•• Add hydrochloric acid in both
beakers A and B
Magnesium ribbon reacts with both
hydrochloric acid and acetic acid but •• Observe the changes
reaction is faster in hydrochloric acid
than in acetic acid. Do you know why? Powdered calcium carbonate reacts more
Hydrochloric acid is more reactive quickly with hydrochloric acid than marble
than acetic acid. It shows that nature chips. What is the reason?.
of the reactant influences the rate Powdered calcium carbonate offers
of the reaction. large surface area for the reaction to
2. CONCENTRATION OF THE occur at a faster rate. This shows that
REACTANTS greater the surface area, greater is the
rate of the reaction.
4. TEMPERATURE
Activity 11.11
•• Take 3g of granulated zinc in the
Activity 11.13
test tube A and B •• Take 3g of marble chips in a beaker
•• Add 5 ml of 1 M hydrochloric acid •• Add 5 ml of 1M hydrochloric acid
CHAPTER 11

in test tube A
•• Observe the changes
•• Add 5 ml of 2 M hydrochloric acid
in test tube B •• Heat the beaker
•• Observe the changes •• Observe the changes

161
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 Calcium carbonate present in marble
chips react slowly with hydrochloric More to know
acid at room temperature and evolves
carbon dioxide at slower rate, whereas on A substance which alters the rate of
the reaction without undergoing any
heating, the evolution of carbon dioxide is
change in mass and composition is
made faster.This shows that increase in known as catalyst.
temperature increases the rate of the
reaction.

5. CATALYST Acids, bases and salts

Activity 11.14
•• Take potassium chlorate in a test Nivi : Hai Vini, you look tired.
tube Take this fresh lime juice.
•• Heat the test tube Vini : No, it has sour taste.
•• Observe what happens Nivi : Do you know why is it sour?
•• Add manganese dioxide as a Vini : Sorry, I have no idea at all.
catalyst
Nivi : It is due to the presence
•• Observe the changes of acid. Ok let’s get set to
learn about this.

When potassium chlorate is heated,

oxygen is evolved very slowly whereas Acids, bases and salts are used in
after the addition of manganese dioxide everyday life. Let it be a fruit juice or a
detergent or a medicine. They play a key
to the reactant, oxygen is liberated at a
role in our day-to-day activities. Our body
faster rate. This shows that manganese metabolism is carried out by means of
dioxide acts as a catalyst and hydrochloric acid secreted in our stomach.
influences the rate of the reaction.
11.3. ACIDS
Group Activity Acid is a substance which furnishes
H+ ions or H3O+ ions when dissolved in
• From dawn to dusk observe any
10 chemical changes taking place water. Acids have one or more replacable
around you and classify them hydrogen atoms. The word acid is derived
CHEMISTRY

from the Latin name ‘acidus’ which means

• Prepare volcano using ammonium sour taste. Substances with ‘sour taste’
dichromate (vigorous)
are acids. Lemon juice, vinegar and grape
• Prepare volcano using baking juice have sour taste, so they are acidic.
soda (silent) They change blue litmus to red. They are

162
 chemical reactions

Source Acid present

Apple Malic acid

Lemon Citric acid

Grape Tartaric acid

Tomato Oxalic acid
Vinegar (food Acetic acid
preservative)
blue litmus paper Curd Lactic acid

Fig. 11.9 Acid solution turns blue

litmus paper red
colourless with phenolphthalein and pink
with methyl orange. Many organic acids
are naturally present in food items.
11.3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF
ACIDS
1. Based on their sources : Acids
are classified into two types namely What is the acid present in it?
organic acids and inorganic acids.
two hydrogen ions per molecule of the
Organic acids:- Acids present in
acid in solution e.g., H2SO4, H2CO3.
plants and animals (living beings)
are organic acids eg. HCOOH, Tribasic acid:- It is an acid which gives
CH3COOH (Weak acids). three hydrogen ions per molecule of
Inorganic acids:- Acids from rocks the acid in solution. e.g.,H3PO4,
and minerals are inorganic acids or
mineral acids eg. HCl, HNO3, H2SO4
More to know
(Strong acids). For acids, we use the term basicity
CHAPTER 11

2. Based on their basicity which means the number of replaceable

Monobasic acid: - It is an acid which hydrogen atoms present in one molecule
gives one hydrogen ion per molecule of an acid. For example acetic acid has
of the acid in solution eg. HCl, HNO3. four hydrogen atoms but only one can
Dibasic acid:- It is an acid which gives be replaced. Hence it is monobasic.

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 3. Based on ionisation Activity 11.15
Acids are classified into two types •• Take 5 g of zinc granules in a
based on ionisation. test tube
•• Add 10 ml of dilute hydrochloric
Strong acids:- These are acids which acid through thistle funnel
ionise completely in water eg.HCl •• During the course of addition,
what do you observe?
Weak acids:-These are acids
which ionise partially in water eg.
CH3COOH
Hydrogen gas
4. Based on concentration:- Depending
on the percentage or amount of acid
dil HCl
dissolved in water acids are classified
Soap
into concentrated acid and dilute acid. Zinc granules solution

Concentrated acid:- It is an acid

Fig. 11.10 Reaction of Zn granules with dilute HCl
having a relatively high percentage
Note that zinc reacts with dilute
of acid in its aqueous solution. hydrochloric acid to form zinc chloride
Dilute acid:- It is an acid having a and hydrogen gas.
relatively low percentage of acid in Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2↑
aqueous solution. When a burning candle is brought near
the bubble containing hydrogen gas, the
flame goes off with a ‘pop’ing sound. This
More to know
confirms that metal displaces hydrogen
Care must be taken while mixing any from the dilute acid. (Hydrogen gas burns
concentrated mineral acid with water. with a ‘pop’ing sound)
The acid must always be added Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen
slowly to water with constant stirring. Another example
If water is added to a concentrated Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2↑
acid the large amount of heat is
generated which may cause burns. More to know
The mixture splashes out of the ••All metals do not liberate hydrogen
container. gas on reaction with acids. eg., Ag,Cu.
••Lime stone, chalk and marble are
CHEMISTRY

11.3.2 CHEMICAL ­PROPERTIES OF different physical forms of calcium

ACIDS carbonate. They react with acids
giving corresponding salt, carbon
1 REACTION OF METALS WITH ACID ­dioxide and water.

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 chemical reactions

2. REACTION OF METAL CARBONATE From the above activity the reaction

AND METAL BICARBONATE WITH can be summarized as
ACIDS Salt
Metal carbonate +
Activity 11.16 or + Acid Water
Metal bicarbonate +
•• Take two test tubes, label them as Carbon
I and II dioxide
•• Take small amount of washing soda Other examples
(Na2CO3) in test tube I and small MgCO3 + 2 HCl → MgCl2 + H2O + CO2↑
amount of baking soda (NaHCO3)
Mg(HCO3) 2 + 2 HCl → MgCl2 + 2H2O + 2CO2↑
in test tube II
•• Add dilute hydrochloric acid to both
the test tubes More to know
•• What do you observe? Since metal carbonates and metal
•• Pass the gas produced in each case, ­bicarbonates are basic they react
through lime water [Ca(OH)2] solution with acids to give salt and water with
and record your observations the liberation of carbon dioxide.

3. REACTION OF METALLIC
OXIDES WITH ACIDS

lime water
Activity 11.17
•• Take about 2g copper (II) oxide
in a watch glass and add dilute
hydrochloric acid slowly
dilute HCl •• Note the colour of the salt
washing soda •• What has happened to the copper
(II) oxide?

Fig. 11.11 Testing of carbon dioxide

Test tube I
Na2CO3 + 2 HCl → 2 NaCl + H2O + CO2↑

Test tube II
NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2↑
CHAPTER 11

dilute HCl
When carbon dioxide is passed
CuO CuCl2
through lime water, it turns milky.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O Fig. 11.12 Reaction of copper(II) oxide with

(milky) dilute hydrochloric acid

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 The colour changes from black to green. 11.4. Bases
This is due to the formation of copper Base is a substance which releases
(II) chloride in the reaction. Since metal ­hydroxide ions when dissolved in water.
oxides are basic, they react with acid to It is a substance which is bitter in taste
form salt and water. and soapy to touch (e.g. Washing soda,
CuO + 2HCl → CuCl2 + H2O caustic soda and caustic potash). They
From the above activity we conclude that change red litmus to blue. They are pink
with phenolphthalein and yellow with
Metallic oxide + Acid → Salt + Water
methyl ­orange.
Another example
CaO + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O
4 . ACTION OF ACIDS WITH WATER.
An acid produces hydrogen ions in water.
-
HCl + H2O → H3O+ + Cl
Hydrogen ions cannot exist alone,
but they exist in the form of hydronium
(H3O+) ions with water. When water is
absent, the separation of hydrogen ions
from an acid does not occur. Red litmus paper

11.3.3. USES OF ACIDS

1. Sulphuric acid (King of chemicals)
is used in car battery and in the
preparation of many other compounds.
2. Nitric acid is used in the production of
ammonium nitrate which is used as
fertilizer in agriculture.
3. Hydrochloric acid is used as cleansing
agent in toilet.
4. Tartaric acid is a constituent of baking Fig. 11.13 Bases turns red litmus paper blue
powder. 11.4.1. Classification of bases
5. Salt of benzoic acid (sodium benzoate)
is used in food preservation. 1. Based on ionisation
6. Carbonic acid is used in aerated Strong bases:- These are bases
drinks. which ionise completely in aqueous
solution eg.NaOH, KOH.
More to know
Weak bases:- These are bases
CHEMISTRY

The atmosphere of Venus is made which ionise partially in aqueous

up of thick white and yellowish solution eg. NH4OH, Ca(OH)2.
clouds of sulphuric acid. Do you 2. Based on their acidity
think life can exist on this planet? Monoacidic base:- It is a base
which ionises in water to give

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 chemical reactions

one hydroxide ion per molecule 11.4.2. Chemical Properties of

eg.NaOH, KOH. Bases
Diacidic base:- It is a base which
1. REACTION OF BASE WITH
ionises in water to give two
hydroxide ions per molecule eg. METALS
Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2. Zinc reacts with sodium hydroxide
 riacidic base:- It is a base which
T to form sodium zincate with the
liberation of hydrogen gas.
ionises in water to give three
hydroxide ions per molecule eg. Zn + 2 NaOH → Na2 ZnO2 + H2↑
Al(OH)3, Fe(OH)3. Metal + Base → Salt + Hydrogen
More to know Another example

The term acidity is used for 2 Al + 2 NaOH + 2 H2O → 2 NaAlO2 + 3 H2↑

base which means the number
replaceable hydroxyl groups present More to know
in one molecule of a base.
All metals do not react with sodium
hydroxide eg. Cu, Ag, Cr
3. Based on the concentration:
Depending on the percentage
or amount of base dissolved in
2. REACTION OF NON METALLIC
water, bases are classified as
OXIDES WITH BASES
concentrated alkali and dilute alkali.
Sodium hydroxide reacts with carbon
Concentrated alkali:- It is an alkali
dioxide gives sodium carbonate and water.
having a relatively high percentage
of alkali in its aqueous solution. 2NaOH + CO2 → Na2CO3 + H2O
The above reaction confirms that
Dilute alkali:- It is an alkali having a
relatively low percentage of alkali in Non metallic oxide + Base → Salt + Water
its aqueous solution. Another example
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
More to know
3. ACTION OF BASES WITH WATER
Bases which dissolve in water
are called alkalies. All alkalies are -
Bases generate hydroxide (OH ) ions
CHAPTER 11

bases, but not all bases are alka-

when dissolved in water.
lis. NaOH and KOH are alkalies
-
whereas Al(OH)3 and Zn(OH)2 are NaOH → Na+ + OH
bases.

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 4. REACTION OF ACIDS WITH BASES

Activity 11.18
•• Indira takes 20 ml of 0.1N sodium
hydroxide solution in a conical
flask and adds few drops of
phenolphthalein.
•• What colour does she observe? NaOH solution
+
•• She is adding 20 ml of 0.1N NaOH solution
NaOH Solution
+
Phenolphthalein
+
Phenolphthalein HCl Solution
hydrochloric acid solution to Fig. 11.14 Reaction of sodium hydroxide with
the above conical flask drop by hydrochloric acid
drop. 11.4 USES OF BASES
•• Does she observe any colour
1. Sodium hydroxide is used in the
change in the reaction mixture?
manufacture of soap.
2. Calcium hydroxide is used in white
In the above activity, Indira observed that
the effect of a base is nullified by an acid. washing the buildings.
3. Magnesium hydroxide is used as a
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
medicine for stomach troubles.
The above reaction between an acid and
4. Ammonium hydroxide is used to
a base is known as neutralisation­­reaction.
remove grease stains from clothes.
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
11.5 IDENTIFICATION OF ACIDS AND BASES
ACTIVITY 11.19
• Collect lemon juice, washing soda solution, soap solution and soft drinks.
• Take 2 ml of each solution in a test tube and test with a litmus paper or
indicator.
• What change in colour do you observe with red litmus, blue litmus,
phenolphthalein and methyl orange?
• Tabulate your observations.
Red Blue Methyl
Sample solution Phenolphthalein
litmus litmus orange
CHEMISTRY

Lemon Juice
Washing soda Solution
Soap solution
Soft drinks

168
 chemical reactions

Same activity can be repeated for dilute Solution

hydrochloric acid, dilute sulphuric acid,
pH = – log10 [H+]
sodium hydroxide solution and potassium
hydroxide solution with the help of your pH = – log10 (0.001)
-
teacher. pH = – log10 (10 3)
COLOUR COLOUR = – (–3) log10 10 [ log 10 = 1]
INDICATOR
IN ACID IN BASE
pH = 3
Litmus Red Blue
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink 2. The hydrogen ion concentration of a
Methyl orange Red Yellow solution is 1.0 x 10-9 M. What is the pH
of the solution? Predict whether the given
solution is acidic, basic or neutral.
11.6 pH SCALE
pH stands for the power of hydrogen Solution
ion concentration in a solution. pH v­alues pH = – log10 [H+]
­decide whether a solution is acidic or
­basic or neutral. pH scale was introduced pH = – log10 (1.0 x 10-9 )
by S.P.L. Sorenson. It is mathematically pH = – (log101.0 + log1010-9 ) [ log10 1 = 0]
expressed as = – (0–9 log10 10)
pH = -log10 [H ]
+
pH = – (0 – 9) = 9
For neutral solution [H+] = 10–7M; pH = 7 pH = 9 ie pH >7
+ –7
For acidic solution [H ] > 10 M; pH < 7 Therefore the given solution is basic.
For basic solution [H+] < 10–7M; pH > 7 3. The hydroxyl ion concentration of a
- solution is 0.001M. What is the pH of the
When OH ions are taken into account solution?
the pH expression is replaced by pOH
Solution
pOH = -log10 [OH-]
pOH = –log10[OH–]
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 pOH = –log10 (10–3)
pOH
pOH = 3 pH + pOH = 14
pH = 14 – pOH pH = 14 – pOH
pH pH = 14 – 3 = 11

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 4. The hydroxyl ion concentration of a

-
CHAPTER 11

Acidic nature increases Basic nature increases solution is 1.0 x 10 9 M. What is the pH of
Neutral
Problems the solution?

1. The hydrogen ion concentration of a Solution

solution is 0.001M. What is the pH of the pOH = -log10[OH–]
solution? pOH = –log10 (1.0 x 10-9)

76
169
 pOH = 9
pH = 14 – pOH
pH = 14 – 9 = 5
11. 6.1 pH paper
A more common method of measuring
pH in a school laboratory is by using pH
­paper. pH paper contains a mixture of
indicators, which gives different colours
across the entire pH range. pH value of
the various solutions are given in the table.

Approximate
Solution
pH
Lemon juice 2.2 – 2.4
Tomato juice 4.1
Coffee 4.4 - 5.5
Human saliva 6.5 - 7.5
House hold
12.0
ammonia Fig. 11.15 pH paper

Activity 11.20
•• Take lemon juice, orange juice, 1M NaOH, 1M HCl, pure water and vinegar
•• Dip pH paper into these solutions
•• Observe the changes

Colour of Nature of
Sl. No. Sample Approximate pH
pH paper substance
1. Lemon juice
2. Orange juice
3. 1M NaOH
CHEMISTRY

4. 1M HCl
5. Pure H2O
6. Vinegar

170
 chemical reactions

11.6.2Importance of ph in 3. pH in rain water

everyday life pH of rain water is approximately
7 showing high level of its purity and
1. pH in human body
neutrality. If rain water is polluted by SO2
(i) Using pH factor the healthiness of and NO , acid rain occurs, bringing the pH
2
our body is predicted. At pH level
value less than 7.
6.9, the body becomes prone to
viral infections like colds, cough 11.7 SALT
and flu. Cancer cells thrive inside
When you say salt, you may think of
the body at a pH of 5.5.
white stuff put on chips. But that is just one
(ii) The pH of a normal, healthy human salt called common salt. There are many
skin is 4.5 to 6. Proper skin pH is other salts used in other fields. Salts are
essential for a healthy complexion. the products of the reaction between acids
and bases (see reaction of acids and
(iii) pH of stomach fluid is approximately
bases), which produce positive ions and
2.0. This fluid is essential for the
negative ions when dissolved in water.
digestion of food.
11.7.1 Classification of salts
(iv) Human blood pH range is 7.35 to
7.45. Any increase or decrease in 1. Normal salts
this value, leads to diseases. The A normal salt is obtained by complete
ideal pH for blood is 7.4. neutralization of an acid by a base
(v) pH of normal saliva ranges NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
between 6.5 to 7.5.
2. Acid salts
(vi) White enamel coating in our teeth
Acid salts are derived by the partial
is calcium phosphate, hardest
replacement of hydrogen ions of an acid
substance in our body. It does
by a metal. When a calculated amount of
not dissolve in water. If pH of
a base is added to a polybasic acid, acid
mouth falls below 5.5, the enamel
salt is obtained, as follows.
gets corroded. Toothpastes are
generally basic, and is used for NaOH + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + H2O
cleaning the teeth, can neutralize 3. Basic salts
the excess acid and prevent tooth
decay. Basic salts are formed by the partial
replacement of hydroxide ions of a diacidic
2. pH in soil or triacidic base by an acid radical.
CHAPTER 11

In agriculture, the pH of soil is very A basic salt may further reacts with an
important. Citrus fruits require slightly acid to give a normal salt.
alkaline soil, while rice requires acidic soil Pb(OH)2 + HCl → Pb(OH)Cl + H2O
and sugar cane requires neutral soil. Diacidic base Basic salt

157
171
 4. Double salts used to make cake and bread soft
Double salts are formed by the and spongy .
combination of saturated solution of two 2. It is an ingredient in antacid. Being
simple salts in equimolar ratio followed by alkaline, it neutralises excess of
crystallization. acid in the stomach.
e.g. potash alum
Bleaching powder (CaOCl2)
11.7.2 USES OF SALTS 1. It is used for disinfecting drinking
Common salt (NaCl) water to make it free from
microorganisms.
It is used in our daily food and as
preservative. 2. It is used for bleaching cotton and
linen in the textile industry
Washing soda (Na2CO3) Plaster of paris(CaSO4. 1/2H2O)
1. It is used in softening hard water. It is used for plastering fractured bones
2. It is used as a cleaning agent for and in making casts for statues
domestic purposes.
Group Activity
Baking soda (NaHCO3) Prepare the following salt in the
1. It is used in making baking powder, laboratory
which is the mixture of baking soda 1. Sodium chloride
and tartaric acid. Baking powder is 2. Potash alum

EVALUATION
PART A

1. Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2 ↑ 3. A student tested the pH of pure water

using a pH paper. It showed green
The above reaction is an example of colour. If a pH paper is used after
adding lemon juice into water, what
a)Combinationreaction color will he observe? (Green / Red /
b) Double displacement reaction Yellow)
c) Displacement reaction
d) Decomposition reaction. 4. Chemical volcano is an example of
CHEMISTRY

(combination reaction / decomposition

2. A reddish brown coloured element ‘X’ reaction)
on heating in air becomes black
coloured compound ‘Y’. X and Y 5. When crystals of lead nitrate on heating
are______ and ________(Cu, CuO / strongly produces a ____ gas and the
Pb, PbO). colour of the gas is _________.

172
 chemical reactions

6.When aqueous solution of silver nitrate Substance pH value

and sodium chloride are mixed _______ Blood 7.4
precipitate is immediately formed
Baking soda 8.2
(white / yellow / red).
Vinegar 2.5
7.  Zinc can displace aluminium metal Household
ammonia 12
from aquous solution of aluminium
sulphate (zinc is more reactive than
aluminium / aluminium is more reactive analyse the data in the table and
than zinc ). answer the following questions

8. To protect tooth decay, we are advised a) Which substance is acidic in nature?
to brush our teeth regularly. The nature
of the tooth paste commonly used is b)Which substances are basic in nature?
______ in nature. 13.Why does the colour of copper sulphate
9. Vinegar is present in acetic acid. Curd change when an iron nail is kept in it?
contains _____ acid (Lactic acid / Justify your answer.
Tartaric acid).
14.The hydroxyl ion concentration of a
–
10.pH = - log10 [H ]. The pH of a solution
+
solution is 1.0 x 10 8M. What is the pH
containing hydrogen ion concentration of the solution?
of 0.001M solution is _____( 3 / 11 / 14)
15. Equal lengths of magnesium ribbons
PART B are taken in test tubes A and B.
Hydrochloric acid is added to test
11.What type of chemical reaction takes
tube A, while acetic acid is added to
place when i) limestone is heated ii) a
test tube B. Amount and concentration
magnesium ribbon is burnt in air?
taken for both the acids are same. In
12.The pH values of certain familiar which test tube reaction occurs more
substances are given below. vigourously and why?

further reference
Books:
1.Text book of Inorganic Chemistry–P.L. Soni - S.Chand & sons publishers
2. Principles of Physical Chemistry –B.R. Puri, L.R. Sharma Vishal publishers
Websites:
CHAPTER 11

www. ask.com
www.chem4kids.com

157
173
 Chapter 12

Periodic
classification OF
ELEMENTS
 PErIODIC CLASSIFICATION

12. Periodic classification of elements

Have you ever visited a library? There 12.1. Modern Periodic Law
are thousands of books in a large library.
If you ask for a book in general it is very A large number of scientists made
difficult to trace. Whereas if you ask for a attempts to eleminate the drawbacks
particular book, the library staff can locate of Mendeleev’s periodic table. In 1912,
it very easily. How is it possible? In library Moseley, an English physicist measured the
the books are classified into various frequencies of X-rays emitted by a metal,
categories and sub categories. They when the metal was bombarded with high
are ­arranged on shelves accordingly. speed electrons. He plotted square roots of
Therefore locating books become very the frequencies against atomic numbers.
easy. The plot obtained was a straight line. He
found that the square root of the frequency
As on date one hundred and eighteen of the prominent X-rays emitted by a metal
­elements are known. It is difficult to identify was proportional to the atomic number and
each and every element individually and not to the atomic weight of the atom of that
to know its property and uses. Therefore metal.
they have been classified on the basis
of their similarities in properties. One of More to know
Henry Gwyn-
Atomic number is number of
Jeffreys Moseley,
protons in the nucleus or number
of electrons revolving around the
an English physicist
nucleus in an atom.
(1887–1915), used
X-rays to determine
the atomic numbers Moseley suggested that atomic
of the elements. number (Z) should be the basis of the
classification of the element. Thus, he
the important instincts of mankind is to be gave modern periodic law as follows:
systematic. Scientists felt the necessity to Modern periodic law states that “the
group elements of similar characteristics physical and chemical properities of
together so that if the properties of one of elements are the periodic function of
them are known, those of the others could their atomic numbers.”
be guessed and related.
CHAPTER 12

Thus, according to the modern

When a large number of elements were
periodic law, if elements are arranged
discovered, several attempts were being
in the increasing order of their atomic
made to arrange them on the basis of their
numbers, the elements with similar
properties, nature, character, valency,
properties are repeated after certain
etc., (Real credit for preparing the periodic
regular intervals.
­table goes to Mendeleev).

175
175
 12.2. MODERN PERIODIC TABLE More to know
Based on the modern periodic law, a
The modern periodic table has also
number of forms of periodic table have been divided into four blocks known
been proposed from time to time but as s,p,d and f blocks.
general plan of the table remained the
same as proposed by Mendeleev. The
table which is most commonly used 12.2.3. Study of periods
and which is based upon the electronic The horizontal rows are called
configuration of elements is called the periods. There are seven horizontal rows
long form of the periodic table. This is
in the periodic table.
called the modern periodic table.
• First period (Atomic number 1 and 2):
12.2.1. Description of modern or This is the shortest period. It contains
long form of the periodic only two elements (hydrogen and
table helium).
Long form of the periodic table is a chart • Second period (Atomic number 3 to 10):
of elements in which the elements have This is a short period. It contains eight
been arranged in the increasing order of elements (lithium to neon).
their atomic numbers. This table consists • Third period (Atomic number 11 to 18):
of horizontal rows called periods and This is also a short period. It contains
vertical columns called groups. eight elements (sodium to argon).
12.2.2. Different portions of long form of periodic table

Long form of
periodic table

Left portion Middle portion Right portion

Group 1 and Groups 3 to 12
Group 2 Groups 13 to 18
(Normal
(Normal
elements)
elements)
CHEMISTRY

Transition elements Inner transition elements

Lanthanides Actinides
(kept separately below the main body of periodic table)

176
 Periodic classification

• Fourth period (Atomic number 19 to 36): • Group 16 elements are called

This is a long period. It contains chalcogen family (except polonium).
eighteen elements (potassium to
• Group 17 elements are called halogen
krypton). This includes 8 normal
family.
elements and 10 transition elements.
• Group 18 elements are called noble
• Fifth period (Atomic number 37 to 54):
gases or inert gases.
This is also a long period. It contains
18 elements (rubidium to xenon). This • The lanthanides and actinides which
includes 8 normal elements and 10 form part of the group 3 are called
transition elements. inner transition elements.
• Sixth period (Atomic number 55 to 86):
12.3. CHARACTERISTICS OF MOD-
This is the longest period. It contains
32 elements (ceasium to radon).
ERN PERIODIC TABLE
This includes 8 normal elements, 12.3.1. Characteristics of Periods
10 transition elements and 14 inner • In a period, the electrons are filled
transition elements (lanthanides). in the same valence shell of all
elements.
• Seventh period (Atomic number 87 to 118):
As like the sixth period, this period • As the electronic configuration
also can accomodate 32 elements. changes along the period, the
Till now only 26 elements have been chemical properties of the elements
authenticated by IUPAC. also change.
12.2.4. Study of groups • Atomic size of the elements in a
• Vertical columns in the periodic table period decreases from left to the right.
starting from top to bottom are called
• In a period, the metallic character of
groups. There are 18 groups in the
the element decreases while their
periodic table.
non-metallic character increases.
• First group elements are called alkali
12.3.2. Characteristics of Groups
metals.
• The elements present in 2 and 18
• Second group elements are called groups differ in atomic number by
alkaline earth metals. 8,8,18,18,32.
• Groups three to twelve are called • The elements present in 13 – 17
CHAPTER 12

transition elements . groups differ in atomic number by

8,18,18,32.
• Group 1, 2 and 13 - 18 are called normal
elements or main group elements or • The elements present in 4 - 12
representative elements . groups differ in atomic number by
18,32,32.

177
177
 CHEMISTRY

178
 Periodic classification

• The elements present in a group (in Mendeleev‘s table) is also

have the same number of electrons justified in this table. All transition
in the valence shell of their atoms. elements have been brought
• The elements present in a group in the middle as the properties
have the same valency. of transition elements are
intermediate between left portion
• The elements present in a group and right portion elements of the
have identical chemical properties.
periodic table.
• The physical properties of the
elements in group such as melting • The table completely separates
point, boiling point, density vary metals from non-metals. The non-
gradually. metals are present in upper right
corners of the periodic table.
• Atomic radii of the elements present
• The positions of certain elements
in a group increases downwards. which were earlier misfit (inter­
12.3.3. Advantages of the Modern changed) in the Mendeleev’s
Periodic Table periodic table are now justified
• The table is based on a more because it is based on atomic
fundamental property ie., atomic number of the elements.
number.
• Justification has been offered for
• It correlates the position of placing lanthanides and actinides
the element with its electronic at the bottom of the periodic
configuration more clearly. table.
• The completion of each period is 12.3.4. Defects in the Modern
more logical. In a period as the Periodic Table
atomic number increases, the
energy shells are gradually filled • Position of hydrogen is not fixed
up until an inert gas configuration till now.
is reached.
• Position of lanthanides and
• It is easy to remember and
actinides has not been given inside
reproduce.
the main body of periodic table.
• Each group is an independent
group and the idea of sub-groups • It does not reflect the exact
has been discarded. distribution of electrons of some
of transition and inner transition
CHAPTER 12

• One position for all isotopes of elements.

an element is justified, since the
isotopes have the same atomic
number.

• The position of eighth group

1511
179
 More to know
The last element authenticated by IUPAC is Cn112 [Copernicium].
However, the number of elements discovered so far is 118.

12.4. Metallurgy

I ( Al ) am a light silvery
white metal to build
aircraft .So, I am great.

I ( Fe ) am a lustrous steel
metal to make machineries
and bridges.So, I am great.

I ( Cu ) am a reddish brown
metal to make coins.
So, I am great.

Individually you
are great in your
aspect.You will
become the
GREATEST IF
CHEMISTRY

YOU ARE
ALLOYED
TOGETHER.
Unity is strength.

180
 Periodic classification

INTRODUCTION
Metallurgy is as old as our civilization.
Copper was the first metal to be used for
making utensils, weapons and for other
works. Metals play a significant role in our
life. They constitute the mineral wealth of a
country which is the measure of prosperity.
Metals like titanium, chromium,
manganese, zirconium etc. find their
applications in the manufacture of defence
equipments. These are called strategic
metals. The metal uranium plays, a
vital role in nuclear reactions releasing
enormous energy called nuclear energy. Vietnameses Craft Work in silver
Copper, silver and gold are called coinage
metals as they are used in making coins,
jewellery etc.

MORE TO KNOW

Purity of gold is expressed in carat.

24 carat gold = pure gold.
For making ornaments 22 carat gold
is used which contains 22 parts of Aluminium foil
gold by weight and 2 parts of copper
by weight. The percentage of purity is
22
─
24
x 100=91.6% (916 Make gold)
From one gram of gold, nearly 2km
of wire can be drawn. Its an amazing
fact indeed!
Bangles

MORE TO KNOW

THE VITALITY OF METALS FOR THE TOTALITY OF LIFE

CHAPTER 12

Metals in minute amounts are essential for various biological

purposes. Fe – a constituent of blood pigment (haemoglobin).
Ca - a constituent of bone and teeth. Co - a constituent of vitamin B-12
Mg - constituent of chlorophyll.

181
 METALS AROUND US

12.4. Terminologies in ­ xtracted on a large scale is said to be a

e
metallurgy ore.

12.4.1. Minerals: A mineral may be a For example, clay (Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O)

single compound or complex mixture of and bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O) are the two
various compounds of metals which are ­minerals of aluminium. But aluminium can
found in earth. be profitably extracted only from bauxite.
Hence bauxite is an ore of aluminium
12.4.2. Ores: The mineral from which a and clay is its mineral.
metal can be readily and economically
CHEMISTRY

Gold Silver Aluminium

182
 Periodic classification

12.4.3. Differences between miner- Flux: It is a compound added to the ore

als and ores to remove its impurities by fusion.eg.CaO

••  inerals contain a low percentage Slag: It is the fusible product formed

M
of metal while ores contain a large when flux reacts with gangue during the
percentage of metal. extraction of metals.
••  etals cannot be extracted
M Flux + Gangue → Slag
easily from mineral. On the other Smelting: Smelting is the process of
hand,ores can be used for the reducing the roasted oxide to metals in
extraction of metals. the molten condition.
•• All minerals cannot be called as
12.5. Occurrence of metals
ores,but all ores are minerals.
Nearly 80 metallic elements are
Mining: The process of extracting the
obtained from mineral deposits on or
ores from the earth crust is called mining.
beneath the surface of the earth.Metals
Metallurgy: Various steps involved in the which have low chemical reactivity are
extraction of metals from their ores as well found in free state, or in native state.
as refining of crude metal are collectively Gold, silver and platinum are examples
known as metallurgy. of metals that are partly found in a free
Gangue or Matrix: The rocky impurity, state. Most of the other metals are found
associated with the ore is called gangue in a combined state in the form of their
or matrix. oxide ores, carbonate ores , halide ores,
sulphide ores, sulphate ores and so on.

Oxide Ores Carbonate Ores Halide Ores Sulphide Ores

Bauxite Marble (CaCO3) Cryolite (Na3AlF6) Galena (PbS)
(Al2O3.2H2O)
Cuprite (Cu2O) Magnesite (MgCO3) Fluorspar (CaF2) Iron pyrite (FeS2)
Haematite (Fe2O3) Siderite (FeCO3) Rock salt (NaCl) Zinc blende (ZnS)

Flow Chart (Extraction of Metal from its ore)

ORE
Gravity separation, Froth floatation, Magnetic
separation, Leaching
Concentrated ore
Metals of high Metals of moderate Metals of low
CHAPTER 12

reactivity reactivity reactivity

Electrolytic reduction Calcination Roasting
refining Roasting
Reduction Refining

Pure Metal Pure Metal Pure Metal

1587
183
 12.6. METALLURGY OF 1. Conversion of Bauxite into
ALUMINIUM, COPPER AND Alumina by Baeyer’s Process
IRON The conversion of Bauxite into Alumina
involves the following steps:
12.6.1. Metallurgy of aluminium
i.Bauxite ore is finely grounded and
heated under pressure with concentrated
caustic soda solution at 150°C to obtain
sodium meta aluminate.
150°C
Al2O3.2H2O + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 + 3H2O
Bauxite S
 odium Meta
aluminate

ii.On diluting sodium meta aluminate with

Symbol : Al water, aluminium hydroxide precipitate is
Colour : S
 ilvery white obtained.
Atomic number : 13 NaAlO2 + 2H2O → NaOH + Al(OH)3
Electronic iii.The precipitate is filtered, washed, dried
configuration:2, 8, 3 and ignited at 1000°C to get alumina.
Valency : 3 2Al(OH)3 1000°C
→ Al2O3 + 3H2O
Atomic mass : 27
2.Electrolytic reduction of Alumina
Position in the periodic table: period=3, by Hall’s process
group=13 (III A)
Aluminium is produced by the electro-
Aluminium is the most abundant metal lytic reduction of fused alumina (Al2O3) in
in the earth’s crust. Since it is a reactive the electrolytic cell.
metal it occurs in the combined state. Cathode : Iron tank lined with graphite
The important ores of aluminium are as
Anode : A bunch of graphite rods
follows:
suspended in molten electrolyte
Electrolyte : Pure alumina + molten
Name of the ore Formula cryolite + fluorspar (fluorspar lowers the
Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O fusion temperature of electrolyte)

Cryolite Na3AlF6 Temperature : 900-950°C

Corundum Al2O3 Voltage used : 5-6V
CHEMISTRY

The chief ore of aluminium is The overall equation for aluminium extraction is
bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O). 2Al2O3 → 4Al + 3O2
Extraction of aluminium from bauxite
involves two stages:1 Aluminium deposits at cathode and
oxygen gas is liberated at anode

184
 Periodic classification

Graphitelined iron
tank
Graphite rods Graphite rods

Electrolyte

Refined
aluminium

Fig 12.6.3 Electrolytic refining of aluminium

Properties of Aluminium very brightly forming its oxide and nitride.

Physical properties: 4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3 (Aluminium Oxide)
2Al + N2 → 2AlN (Aluminium Nitride)
i. It is a silvery white metal.
ii. It has low density and it is light 2. Reaction with water: Water has no
iii. It is malleable and ductile. reaction on aluminium due to the layer of
iv. It is a good conductor of heat and oxide on it.When steam is passed over
electricity. red hot aluminium, hydrogen is produced.
2Al + 3H2O → Al2O3 + 3H2↑
Steam Aluminium
Oxide
3. Reaction with alkalis: It reacts with
strong caustic alkalis forming aluminates.
2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O → 2NaAlO2 + 3H2↑
Sodium meta
aluminate

4. Reaction with acids: With dilute and

Fig. 12.6.4 Electric conductivity of metal con. HCl it liberates H2 gas.
v. Melting point: 660°C 2Al + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2↑
CHAPTER 12

Aluminium
vi.It can be well polished to produce Chloride
­attractive shiny appearance.
Aluminium liberates hydrogen on
Chemical properties: reaction with dilute sulphuric acid.Sulphur
1. Reaction with air: It is not affected by dry dioxide is liberated with hot concentrated
air.On heating at 800°C,aluminium burns sulphuric acid.

1587
185
 2Al + 3H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2↑ INDUSTRIAL VISIT
Dilute Make an industrial visit to
2Al + 6H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + 6H2O +3SO2↑ the place where Thermite
hot & conc. Aluminium welding is actually
Sulphuric acid Sulphate
done and record your
MORE TO KNOW observations on joining
the gap between the
MORE TO KNOW broken pieces of rails.
Fig 12.6.6
Dilute or concentrated nitric acid
does not attack aluminium. But it 12.6.2 Metallurgy of Copper
renders aluminium passive due to
the ­formation of an oxide film on its
surface.

5. Reducing action : Aluminium is a

powerful reducing agent. When a mixture of
aluminium powder and iron oxide is ignited,
the latter is reduced to metal. This process is
known as aluminothermic process. Symbol : Cu
Atomic mass : 63.55
Fe2O3 + 2Al → 2Fe + Al2O3 Atomic number : 29
Electronic
Uses of Aluminium configuration : 2, 8, 18, 1
USES -FORM REASON Valency : 1 and 2
1.Household Aluminium It is light, cheap, cor-
utensils metal rosion resistant, and Occurrence: It was named as ­cuprum
good conductor of
heat. by the Romans because they used to get
it from the island of Cyprus. Copper is
2.Electrical ­ Aluminium It is a good conductor
cable wires of electricity. found in the native state as well as in the
industry­ combined state.
3.Aeroplanes Duralumin Its alloys are light,
and other (Al,Cu,Mg,Mn) have high tensile
Ores of copper Formula
industrial parts Magnalium strength and are
(Al,Mg) corrosion resistant. i. Copper pyrite CuFeS2

ii. Cuprite or ruby copper Cu2O

Al powder and Its powder is a strong
4.Thermite Fe2O3 reducing agent and iii.Copper glance Cu2S
welding reduces Fe2O3 to iron.

The chief ore of copper is copper

pyrite. It yields nearly 76% of the world
CHEMISTRY

production of copper.
Extraction from copper pyrites:
Extraction of copper from copper pyrites
involves the following steps.
AirCraft - An alloy of aluminium

186
 Periodic classification

1.Crushing and concentration: The solution pure copper gets deposited at the
ore is crushed and then concentrated by cathode, impurities settled near the anode
froth-floatation process. in the form of sludge called anode mud.
2.Roasting: The concentrated ore is Properties
roasted in excess of air. During roasting,
Physical properties: Copper is a reddish
i.moisture and volatile impurities are brown metal, with high lustre, high density
removed. and high melting point (13560C).
ii.copper pyrite is partly converted into Chemical properties:
sulphides of copper and iron.
i.Action of air and moisture: Copper
2CuFeS2 + O2 → Cu2S + 2FeS + SO2
gets covered with a green layer of basic
3.Smelting: The roasted ore is mixed with copper carbonate in the presence of CO2
powdered coke and sand and is heated in and moisture.
a blast furnace to obtain matte and slag. 2Cu + O2 + CO2 + H2O → CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
(Matte = Cu2S + FeS) The slag is removed ii. Action of Heat: On heating at different
as a waste. temperatures in the presence of oxygen it
4.Bessemerisation: The molten matte is forms two types of oxides CuO, Cu2O.
below 1370K
transferred to Bessemer converter in order 2Cu + O2 → 2CuO (copper II oxide –black)
to obtain blister copper. Ferrous sulphide above 1370K
4Cu + O2 → 2Cu2O (copper I oxide-red)
from matte is oxidised to ferrous oxide
which is removed as slag using silica. iii. Action of Acids: a) with dil.HCl and
2Cu2S + 3O2 → 2Cu2O + 2SO2 dil.H2SO4
2Cu2O + Cu2S → 6Cu + SO2
Dilute acids such as HCl and H2SO4
FeO+SiO2 → FeSiO3 (Iron silicate, slag) have no action on these metals in the ab-
5. : Blister copper contains 98% sence of air. Copper dissolves in these
pure copper and 2% impurities and are acids in the presence of air.
2Cu + 4HCl + O2 (air) → 2CuCl2 + 2H2O
2Cu + 2H2SO4 + O2 (air) → 2CuSO4 + 2H2O
This method is used to get metal of high
b) with dil.HNO3 Copper reacts with dil.
copper, we use HNO3 with the ­liberation of Nitric Oxide
Cathode: A thin plate of pure copper gas.
metal. 3Cu + 8HNO (dil) → 3Cu(NO ) + 2NO↑ + 4H O
3 3 2 2
CHAPTER 12

Anode: A block of impure copper metal. c) with con.HNO3 and con.H2SO4

Copper reacts with con. HNO3 and con.
Electrolyte: Copper sulphate solution H2SO4 with the liberation of nitrogen
added with sulphuric acid. When electric ­dioxide and sulphur dioxide respectively.
current is passed through the electrolytic Cu + 4HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2↑ + 2H2O
(conc.)

157
187
 Cu + 2H2SO4 → CuSO4 + SO2↑ + 2H2O Occurrence:
(conc.)
Iron is the second most abundant
metal after aluminium. It occurs in nature
iv. Action of chlorine: Chlorine reacts
as ­oxides, sulphides and carbonates. The
with copper, resulting in the formation of
ores of iron are given in the following table:
copper (II) chloride.
Cu + Cl2 → CuCl2 Ores of iron Formula

v. Action of alkalis: Copper is not at- I. Haematite Fe2O3

tacked by alkalis. ii.Magnetite Fe3O4
Uses iii.Iron pyrites FeS2

• It is extensively used for making

electric cables and other electric Extraction of Iron from haematite
appliances. ore (Fe2O3)
• It is used for making utensils,
1.Concentration by gravity separation
containers, calorimeters, coins.
• It is used in electroplating. The powdered ore is washed with
• It is alloyed with gold and silver for stream of water. As a result, the lighter
sand particles and other impurities are
making coins and jewels.
washed away and heavier ore particles
settle down.
PROJECT
Students may be asked to submit 2.Roasting and calcination
a project report on the important The concentrated ore is strongly heated
­applications of copper in everyday in a limited supply of air in a reverberatory
life along with the samples. furnace. As a result, moisture is driven
out and sulphur, arsenic, phosphorus
12.6.3 METALLURGY OF IRON impurities are oxidised off.
3.Smelting (in Blast furnace)
The charge consisting of roasted ore,
coke and limestone in the ratio 8 : 4 : 1 is
smelted in a blast furnace by introducing
it through the cup and cone arrangement
at the top. There are three important
Symbol : Fe regions in the furnance.
CHEMISTRY

Colour : Greyish white

Atomic mass : 55.9 i.The lower region(combustion zone)-
Atomic number: 26 temperature is at 1500° C.
Valency : 2&3 In this region, coke burns with oxygen
Electronic
to form CO2 when the charge comes in
configuration : 2, 8, 14, 2
contact with the hot blast of air.

188
 Periodic classification

1500°C
The iron thus formed is called pig
C + O2 → CO2 + heat iron. It is remelted and cast into different
moulds. This iron is called cast iron.
It is an exothermic reaction since heat
is liberated.
MORE TO KNOW
ii.The middle region (fusion zone)-The
temperature prevails at 10000C.In this CALCINATION AND ROASTING
region CO2 is reduced to CO. CALCINATION: It is a process in
1000°C which ore is heated in the absence
CO2 + C → 2CO of air. As a result of calcination the
Limestone decomposes to calcium carbonate ore is converted into its
oxide and CO2. oxide.
▲ ROASTING: It is a process in which ore
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
is heated in the presence of excess of
These two reactions are endothermic air. As a result of roasting the sulphide
due to the absorption of heat. Calcium ore is converted into its oxide.
oxide combines with silica to form calcium
silicate slag.
CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3
MORE TO KNOW
iii.The upper region (reduction zone)- Depending upon the carbon content
temperature prevails at 4000C. In this iron is classified into 3 types.
region carbon monoxide reduces ferric
oxide to form a fairly pure spongy iron. Pig iron with carbon content of 2- 4.5%
400°C Wrought iron with carbon content
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 3Fe + 3CO2 <0.25%
The molten iron is collected at the bot- Steel with carbon content of 0.25-2%.
tom of the furnace after removing the slag.
bell & hopper

Physical properties
• It is a heavy metal of specific gravity
Iron ore,
Hot gases 7.9
Pipe for
coke • It is a lustrous metal and greyish white
and lime
hot air in colour.
CHAPTER 12

blast
• It has high tensility, malleability and
ductility.
Slag outlet
• It is a good conductor of heat and
electricity.
Iron outlet • It can be magnetised.
Fig. 12.8.3 Blast furnace

157
189
 Chemical properties buildings, machinery, transmission and
1.Reaction with air or oxygen: Only on T.V towers and in making alloys.
heating in air, iron forms magnetic oxide. iii.Wrought iron is used in making
3Fe + 2O2 → Fe3O4 (black) springs, anchors and electromagnets.

2.Reaction with moist air: When iron is 12.7 ALLOYS

exposed to moist air, it forms a layer of An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of
brown hydrated ferric oxide on its surface. two or more metals fused together.
This compound is known as rust and the Alloys are solid solutions. Alloys can be
phenomenon of forming this rust is known considered as solid solutions in which the
as rusting. metal with high concentration is solvent
4Fe + 3O2 + 3H2O → 2Fe2O3.3H2O(Rust) and the metal with low concentration is
(Moisture) solute. For example, brass is an alloy of
3.Reaction with steam: When steam is zinc(solute) in copper(solvent).
passed over red hot iron,magnetic oxide 12.7.1 Methods of making alloys:
of iron is formed.
1.By fusing the metals together.
3Fe + 4H2O(steam) → Fe3O4 + 4H2↑ 2.By compressing finely divided metals
4.Reaction with chlorine: Iron combines one over the other.
with chlorine to form ferric chloride. Amalgam:An amalgam is an alloy of
2Fe + 3Cl2 → 2FeCl3(ferric chloride) mercury with metals such as sodium,
gold, silver, etc.,
5.Reaction with acids: With dilute HCl
and dilute H2SO4 it evolves H2 gas. MORE TO KNOW
Fe + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2↑ DENTAL AMALGAMS
Fe + H2SO4 → FeSO4 + H2↑ It is an alloy of mercury with silver
and tin metals. It is used in dental
With conc. H2SO4 it forms ferric sulphate filling.
2Fe + 6H2SO4 → Fe2(SO4)3 + 3SO2 + 6H2O
With dilute HNO3 in cold condition it gives
ferrous nitrate
4Fe + 10HNO3 → 4Fe(NO3)2 + NH4NO3 + 3H2O
When iron is dipped in conc. HNO3 it
becomes chemically inert or passive
due to the formation of a layer of iron ox-
ide (Fe3O4) on its surface.
CHEMISTRY

Uses of iron
i.Pig iron is used in making stoves,
radiators, railings, man hole covers and
drain pipes.
Dental amalgam
ii. Steel is used in the construction of

190
 Periodic classification

12.7.2 Copper Alloys

Name of the alloy Reason for alloying Uses

i.Brass(Cu,Zn) Lusturous,easily Electrical fittings, medals, hard

ii.Bronze(Cu,Sn,Zn) cast,malleable, ductile,harder ware, decorative items.
than Cu.
Hard,brittle,takes up polish. Statues, coins, bells, gongs.

12.7.3 Aluminium Alloys

Name of the alloy Reason for alloying Uses
i.Duralumin(Al,Mg,Mn,Cu) Light,strong,resistant to corrosion, Aircraft,tools,pressure
stronger than aluminium. cookers
ii.Magnalium(Al,Mg) Light,hard,tough,corrosion resistant. Aircraft,scientific instrument

12.7.4 Iron Alloys

Name of the alloy Reason for alloying Uses
i.Stainless steel (Fe,C,Ni,Cr) Lusturous,corrosion resistant,high Utensils,cutlery,automobile
tensile strength. parts.
ii.Nickel steel (Fe,C,Ni) Hard, corrosion resistant,elastic. Cables,aircraft parts,propeller.

12.8 CORROSION MORE TO KNOW

mechanism of corrosion
Corrosion is defined as the slow and
Corrosion is a simple electro
steady destruction of a metal by the
chemical reaction.
environment. It results in the deterioration
When the surface of iron is in contact
of the metal to form metal compounds
with moisture and other gases in the
by means of chemical reactions with the
atmosphere an electrochemical
environment.
reaction occurs.In this, impure iron
Water surface acts as the cathode and pure
droplet iron acts as anode. H2CO3 formed
from moisture and CO2 from air acts
as electrolyte.
O2 Rust The electrochemical reactions are
→ Fe2+ → as follows:
_
Fe → Fe2+ + 2e _
_
O2 + 2H2O + 4e → 4OH
CHAPTER 12

The Fe2+ ions are oxidised to Fe3+ ions.

The Fe3+ ions combine with OH- ions
to form Fe(OH)3.This becomes rust
IRON
(Fe2O3.xH2O) which is hydrated fer-
Rusting of iron ric oxide.

191
 Activity 9.1

The conditions for rusting

Take three test tubes provided with rubber corks and label them as A, B and C.
Place few iron nails of same size in these tubes. Pour some water in test tube A,
some boiled water along with turpentine oil in test tube B and anhydrous CaCl2
in test tube C.Keep them under observation for few days. Notice the changes.
The nails in A are rusted while the nails in B and C are unaffected.
The rusting of nails in A is due to air and water. In B, the oily layer above water
does not allow air to come in contact with nails. In C, the substance anhydrous
CaCl2 has absorbed moisture completely. This activity shows that rusting of iron
requires air and water.

12.8.1 Methods of preventing • Example: stainless steel.

• By the process of galvanization: This is a
corrosion process of coating zinc on iron sheets by using
Corrosion of metals is prevented by electric current. In this zinc forms a protective
layer of zinc carbonate on the surface of iron.
not allowing them to come in contact with This prevents corrosion.
moisture,CO2 and O2.This is achieved by • Electroplating: It is a method of coating one
the following methods: metal with another by passing electric current.
Example: silver plating, nickel plating. This
CHEMISTRY

• By coating with paints: Paint coated metal

method not only lends protection but also
surfaces keep out air and moisture.
enhances the metallic appearance.
• By coating with oil and grease: Application
• Sacrificial protection: Magnesium is more
of oil and grease on the surface of iron tools
reactive than iron. When it is coated on the
prevents them from moisture and air.
articles made of steel it sacrifices itself to
• By alloying with other metals: Alloyed metal
protect the steel.
is more resistant to corrosion.

192
 Periodic CLASSIFICATION

PART A
EVALUATION
__________.
1. In the modern periodic table (froth floation / gravity separation)
periods and groups are given. 8. Coating the surface of iron with other
Periods and groups indicate–––––– metal prevents it from rusting. If it is
a) Rows and Columns b) Columns coated with thin layer of zinc it is called
and rows _________ (galvanization / painting /
2. Third period contains 8 elements, out cathodic protection)
of these elements how many elements 9. Any metal mixed with mercury is
are non-metals?. called amalgam. The amalgam
3. An element which is an essential used for dental filling Is _________.
constituent of all organic compounds (Ag – Sn amalgam / Cu – Sn amalgam)
belongs to _________ group. 10. Assertion In thermite welding,
(14th group / 15th group) aluminium powder and Fe2O3 are
4. Ore is used for the extraction of used. Reason Aluminium powder is
metals profitably. Bauxite is used to a strong reducing agent. Does the
extract aluminium, it can be termed as reason satisfy the assertion?
________. (ore / mineral) PART C
5. Gold does not occur in the combined 11. Can rusting of iron nail occur in distilled
form. It does not react with air (or) water. Justify your answer.
water. It is in ______. (native state / 12. Why cannot aluminium metal
combined state) be obtained by the reduction of
PART B aluminium oxide with coke?
13. Iron reacts with con. HCl and con.
6. Assertion: Greenish layer appears on
H2SO4. But it does not react with con.
copper vessels if left uncleaned.
HNO3. Suggest your answer with
Reason: It is due to the formation of proper reason.
layer of basic copper carbonate
14. To design the body of the aircraft
Give your correct option. aluminium alloys are used. Give your
a) assertion and reason are correct and reason.
relevant to each other 15. X is a silvery white metal. X reacts with
b) assertion is true but reason is not oxygen to form Y. The same compound
relevant to the assertion is obtained from the metal on reaction
7. A process employed for the with steam with the liberation of
concentration of sulphide ore is hydrogen gas. Identify X and Y.
CHAPTER 12

Further reference:
Books:  Text Book of Inorganic chemistry – P.L. Soni S.Chand Publishers
Website: www.tutorvista.com. www.sciencebyjones.com

157
193
 Chapter 13

CARBON AND ITS

COMPOUNDS
 CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

13. Carbon and its compounds

Symbol : C
Atomic Number : 6
Atomic Mass : 12
Valency : 4

The electronic configration of carbon Introduction

is K=2, L=4. It has four electrons in the
Without carbon, no living thing could
valence shell and belongs to group IV A
survive. Human beings are made of
(group 14) of the periodic table.
carbon compounds. Carbon is a non
metal. In nature, it occurs in its pure form
as diamond and graphite. When fuels
burn, the carbon in them reacts with
oxygen to form carbon dioxide.
Carbon compounds hold the key to
plant and animal life on earth. Hence,
K carbon chemistry is called Living
L Chemistry. Carbon circulates through
Fig. 13. 1 Electronic air, plants, animals and soil by means of
configuration of carbon complex reactions. This is called carbon
cycle.
13.1. COMPOUNDS OF
CARBON
In the beginning of 19th century scientists
classified the compounds of carbon into two
types, based on their source of occurence:
i) Inorganic compounds (obtained from
non living matter)
CHAPTER 13

ii) Organic compounds (obtained from

living matter, such as plant and
animal sources) however the basis
Fig. 13.2 Compounds of carbon in different of classification was subjected to
arrangement
alteration after wohler synthesis.

195
 

LIVING CHEMISTRY
All living organisms are made of carbon atoms. This means that, carbon atoms
form the building blocks for living organisms. These carbon atoms, in combination with
other atoms decide life on earth. Hence carbon chemistry is also called as living
chemistry.

Fig. 13.3 Fig. 13.4

FRIEDRICH WOHLER
A creater of revolution in ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

More to know

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY:
The word organic signifies life. The term organic chemistry
was used by the Swedish chemist Berzelius. This refers
to the chemistry of living things. However, the German
chemist Wohler succeeded in creating an organic
CHAPTER 13
CHEMISTRY

compound (urea) from an inorganic compound (ammonium

cyanate) in his ­laboratory. This has dealt a severe blow to
the vital force theory (a theory of life process). FRIEDRICH WOHLER
A German Chemist

196
 CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 

13.2. MODERN DEFINITION OF 13.3. BONDING IN CARBON

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY AND ITS COMPOUNDS
Organic chemistry is defined as the The atomic number of carbon is 6 and
branch of chemistry that deals with or- its ground state electronic configuration
ganic ­compounds which are made up of is 1s2 2s2 2p2. Since it has four electrons
the ­hydrocarbons and their derivatives. It in its outermost shell, its valency is four.­­
gives a thorough insight into the nature of To achieve noble gas configuration,
bonding, synthesis, characteristics and ­carbon atom has to lose or gain four
their usefulness in various fields. ­electrons to form C4+ and C4- ions.
1. It could gain four electrons forming C4-
More to know anion, but it would be difficult for the
nucleus with six protons to hold on to
ten electrons i.e.four extra electrons.
2. It could lose four electrons to form C4+
cations, but it would require a large
amount of energy to remove four
electrons leaving behind the carbon
cations with six protons in its nucleus
holding on to just two electrons.
A polished diamond Carbon overcomes this problem by
sharing its valence electrons with other
atoms of carbon or with atoms of other
elements. This characteristic of carbon
atom by virtue of which it forms four
­covalent bonds is generally referred as
tetra valency of carbon.
A molecule of methane (CH4) is formed
when four electrons of carbon are shared
with four hydrogen atoms.
The most precious ­diamond is a
crystalline allotrope of ­carbon. KO-
H
HINOOR DIAMOND is a 105 carat
diamond (21.68g) It was seized by
the EAST INDIA ­COMPANY and be-
came the part of British Crown Jew- C
CHAPTER 13

els. May it be an ordinary coal or the H

most ­precious Kohinoor diamond,it H H
is an allotropic modification of Fig. 13.3 Structure of methane
­carbon indeed!
Represents shared pair of electrons

197
 13.4 ALLOPROPY
Allotropy is defined as the property by dome designed by the US architect
which an element can exist in more than Buck Minster Fuller, it is named as
one form that are physically different but Buck Minster Fullerene.
chemically similar.
Allotropes of carbon
•• Carbon exists in three allotropic forms.
They are crystalline form (diamond
and graphite), amorphous form
(coke,charcoal) and fullerene.
•• In diamond each Fig. 13.6 Fullerene Fig. 13.7 Foot ball
carbon atom is 13.5 Physical nature of carbon and
bonded to four
other carbon its compounds
atoms forming •• Carbon has the ability to form
a rigid three covalent bonds with other atoms of
dimensional carbon giving rise to large number
structure,
Fig. 13.4 of molecules through self linking
accounting for
Structure of diamond property. This property is called
it’s hardness
and rigidity. catenation. Since the valency of
carbon is four, it is capable of bonding
•• In graphite each carbon atom is with four other atoms of carbon.
bonded to three other carbon atoms •• Carbon combines with oxygen,
in the same plane giving hexagonal
hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, chlorine
layers held together by weak vander
and many other elements to form
Waals forces accounting for softness.
various stable compounds.
•• Graphite is a good conductor of •• The stability of carbon compounds is
electricity unlike other non-metals due to the small size of carbon which
since it has free electrons in it. enables the nucleus to hold on to the
•• Fullerenes form another type of shared pair of electrons strongly.
vander Waals force
•• Carbon compounds show
isomerism, the phenomenon by
which two or more compounds to have
same molecular formula but different
structural formula with difference in
properties. i.e the formula C2H6O
represents two different compounds
CHEMISTRY

Fig. 13.5 Structure of graphite

namely ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) and
dimethyl ether (CH3OCH3).
carbon allotropes. The first one was
identified to contain 60 carbon atoms •• Carbon compounds have low melting
in the shape of a football. (C-60). and boiling points because of their
Since this looks like the geodesic ­­­covalent nature.

198
 CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 

•• The reactions shown by carbon 13.7 HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

compounds involve breaking of old
bonds in the reacting molecules and A homologous series is a group or a
the formation of new bonds in the
class of organic compounds having similar
product molecules.
structure and similar chemical properties
•• Carbon compounds are easily
combustible. in which the successive compounds differ
by a CH2 group.
13.6 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
•• Carbon and its compounds burn in
13.7.1 Characteristics of
­oxygen to give carbon dioxide along homologous series
with heat and light.
•• Each member of the series differs from
e.g.,
the preceeding or succeeding member
C + O2 → CO2 + heat + light
by a common difference of CH2
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O + heat + light and by a molecular mass of 14 amu
C2H5OH + 2O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O + heat + light (amu = atomic mass unit).
•• Carbon compounds can be easily •• All members of homologous series
­oxidized using suitable oxidizing agent contain same elements and the same
­Alkaline potassium permanganate) to functional groups.
form carboxylic acids. •• All members of homologous series
•• Unsaturated carbon compounds­ have same general molecular formula.
undergo addition reactions with e.g Alkane = CnH2n + 2
hydrogen in the presence of palladium
or nickel ­catalyst. Alkene = CnH2n

e.g., Alkyne = CnH2n - 2

Addition of hydrogen
•• The members in homologous series
CH2 = CH 2 ————————→CH3 - CH3
show a regular gradation in their
Ethene Ni-catalyst Ethane physical properties with respect to
•• Carbon compounds ­undergo increase in molecular mass.
­substitution reactions in the presence
of either sunlight or any other •• The chemical properties of the
reagents. E.g methane undergoes members of the homologous series
substitution reaction to form different
CHAPTER 13

are similar.
types of products.
•• Carbon compounds such­ as ­alcohols •• All members of homologous series
react with sodium to liberate can be prepared by using same
hydrogen gas. general method.
e.g: 2CH3CH2OH + 2Na→2CH3CH2ONa + H2

157
199
 13.8 Importance of Formula Common IUPAC
homologous series name name
1. It helps to predict the properties of the
members of the series that are yet to CH4 Methane Methane
be prepared. CH3CH3 Ethane Ethane
2. K
 nowledge of homologous series gives CH3CH2CH3 Propane Propane
a systematic study of the members.
CH3CH2CH2CH3 n-Butane Butane
3. T
 he nature of any member of the fam-
ily can be ascertained if the properties 13.9.2 Unsaturated hydrocarbons
of the first member are known.
These are hydrocarbons which contain
13.9 HYDROCARBONS carbon to carbon double bonds

The simplest organic compounds or carbon to carbon triple bonds -CΞC-

containing only carbon and hydrogen in their molecules.These are further
are called Hydrocarbons. These are classified into two types: alkenes and
alkynes.
regarded as the parent organic com-
i)Alkenes: General formula: CnH2nSuffix: ene
pounds and all other compounds are
considered to be derived from them by The hydrocarbons containing atleast one
the replacement of one or more hydrogen carbon to carbon double bond are called
alkenes.They have the general formula
atoms by other atoms or groups of atoms.
CnH2n .These were previously called
Hydro carbons are classified into two olefins (Greek : olefiant – oil forming)
types: saturated and unsaturated hydro- because the lower gaseous members of
carbons. the family form oily products when treated
with chlorine.
13.9.1 Saturated hydrocarbons – In IUPAC system, the name of alkene
­Alkanes is derived by replacing suffix ane of the
correspding alkane by ene.For example,
General formula = CnH2n+2Suffix : ane
CH3 – CH3 H2C = CH2
These are the organic compounds
ethane ethene
which contain carbon – carbon single
bond.These were earlier named as
CHEMISTRY

paraffins(Latin : meaning little affinity)

due to their least chemical reactivity.
According to IUPAC system, these are Fig. 13.8 Bromine Test
named as alkanes (ane is suffix with (Left) No change in colour - saturated,
root word). (Right) Decolouration occurs - unsaturated

200
 CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 

In higher alkenes, the position of the double bond, can be indicated by assigning
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, ……to the carbon atoms present in the molecule.
Alkene Common name IUPAC name
CH2 = CH2 Ethylene Ethene
CH3CH = CH2 Propylene Propene
CH3CH2–CH=CH2 α-Butylene But–1–ene
CH3CH = CHCH3 β-Butylene But–2–ene

ii) Alkynes: General formula: CnH2n-2 Suffix : yne

The hydrocarbons containing carbon to carbon triple bond are called alkynes.
Alkynes are named in the same way as alkenes i.e., by replacing suffix ane of alkane
by yne. In higher members, the position of triple bond is indicated by giving numbers
1, 2, 3, 4, ….to the carbon atom in the molecule.

Alkyne Common name IUPAC name

HC Ξ CH Acetylene Ethyne
H3C – C ΞCH Methyl acetylene Propyne
H3C – C ΞC – CH3 Dimethyl acetylene But–2-yne
H3C - CH2 –C Ξ CH Ethyl acetylene But–1–yne

13.10. FUNCTIONAL GROUP

Functional group may be defined as an atom or group of atoms or reactive
part which is responsible for the characteristic properties of the compounds.
The chemical properties of organic compounds are determined by the functional
groups while their physical properties are determined by the remaining part of the
molecule.
Example: -OH => Alcohol C=O => Ketone
CHO => Aldehyde COOH => Carboxylic acid
13.10.1. Classification of organic compounds based on functional group
1. Alcohols
CHAPTER 13

Alcohols are carbon compounds containing –OH group attached to alkyl

group. The general formula of alcohol is R-OH where ‘R’ is an alkyl group
and –OH is the functional group. The IUPAC name of alcohol is derived by
replacing –e, in the word alkane, by the suffix –ol. Hence we get the name
alkanol.

201
 Molecular formula Common name IUPAC name
CH3OH Methyl alcohol Methanol

CH3-CH2-OH Ethyl alcohol Ethanol

CH3- CH2-CH2-OH n-Propyl alcohol 1-Propanol

CH3-CH-CH3 Isopropyl alcohol 2-Propanol

OH or secondary propyl alcohol

CH3- CH2-CH2-CH2-OH n-Butyl alcohol 1-Butanol

CH3-CH-CH2-OH Isobutyl alcohol 2-Methyl-1-propanol

CH3

2. Aldehydes
Aldehydes are carbon compounds containing -CHO group attached to alkyl
group or hydrogen atom. The general formula of aldehydes is R – CHO where
‘R’ is an alkyl group or hydrogen atom and – CHO is the functional group.
The IUPAC name of aldehyde is derived by replacing –e, in the word alkane,
by the suffix –al. Hence we get the name “alkanal”.

Molecular formula Common name IUPAC name

HCHO Formaldehyde Methanal

CH3- CHO Acetaldehyde Ethanal

CH3- CH2- CHO Propionaldehyde Propanal

CH3- CH2-CH2- CHO Butyraldehyde Butanal

3. Ketones
Ketones are carbon compounds containing carbonyl – CO – group attached
CHEMISTRY

to two alkyl groups. The general formula of ketone is R-CO-R’ where R and
R’ are alkyl groups and – CO – is the functional group. The IUPAC name
of ketone is derived by replacing –e, in the word alkane, by the suffix -one.
Hence we get the name “alkanone”.

202
 CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 

Molecular formula Common name IUPAC name

CH3COCH3 Dimethyl ketone (Acetone) Propanone

CH3COCH2CH3 Ethyl methyl ketone Butanone

CH3CH2COCH2CH3 Diethyl ketone 3-Pentanone

4. Carboxylic Acids
Carboxylic acids are carbon compounds containing –COOH group attached
to a hydrogen atom or alkyl group. The general formula of acid is R-COOH
where ‘R’ is a hydrogen atom or alkyl group and –COOH is the functional
group. The IUPAC name of acid is derived by replacing – e, in the word alkane, by
the suffix –oic acid. Hence we get the name “alkanoic acid”.

Molecular formula Common name IUPAC name

HCOOH Formic acid Methanoic acid

CH3-COOH Acetic acid Ethanoic acid

CH3- CH2-COOH Propionic acid Propanoic acid

CH3- CH2-CH2-COOH n-Butyric acid Butanoic acid

SOME IMPORTANT ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Almost all the compounds are useful to us in a number of ways. Most of the fuels,
medicines, paints, explosives, synthetic polymers, perfumes and detergents are
basically organic compounds. In fact, organic chemistry has made our life colourful
and also comfortable. Two commercially important compounds, ethanol and ethanoic
CHAPTER 13

acid are briefly discussed here.

13.11 Ethanol (C2H5OH)

Ethanol or ethyl alcohol or simply alcohol is one of the most important members
of the family of alcohols.

157
203
 (1) Manufacture of ethanol from molasses
Molasses is a dark coloured syrupy liquid left after the crystallization of sugar from
the concentrated sugar cane juice. Molasses still contain about 30% of sucrose which
can not be separated by crystallization. It is converted into ethanol by the following
steps:

(i) Dilution
 olasses is first diluted with water to bring down the concentration of sugar to
M
about 8 to 10 percent.

(ii) Addition of ammonium salts

Molasses usually contains enough nitrogenous matter to act as food for yeast
during fermentation. If the nitrogen content of the molasses is poor, it may be
fortified by the addition of ammonium sulphate or ammonium phosphate.
(iii) Addition of yeast

The solution from step (ii) is collected in large ‘fermentation tanks’ and yeast is
added to it. The mixture is kept at about 303K for a few days.During this period,
the enzymes invertase and zymase present in yeast, bring about the conversion
of sucrose into ethanol.
invertase
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

Sucrose Glucose Fructose

zymase
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 ↑

Glucose or Fructose Ethanol

The fermented liquid is technically called wash.

(iv) Distillation of wash

The fermented liquid containing 15 to 18 percent alcohol and the rest of the water,
is now subjected to fractional distillation. The main fraction drawn, is an aqueous
solution of ethanol which contains 95.5% of ethanol and 4.5% of water. This is called
rectified spirit. This mixture is then heated under reflux over quicklime for about 5 to
6 hours and then allowed to stand for 12 hours. On distillation of this mixture, pure
CHEMISTRY

alcohol (100%) is obtained. This is called absolute alcohol.

204
 CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 

More to know
FERMENTATION :
The slow chemical change taking place in an organic compound by the
action of enzymes leading to the formation of smaller molecules is called
fermentation.

2. Physical properties
(i) Ethanol is a clear liquid with burning taste.

(ii) Its boiling point is 351K which is higher than corresponding alkane.

(iii) It is completely miscible with water in all proportions.

3. Chemical properties
(i) Dehydration
(a) Intra molecular dehydration : Ethanol, when heated with excess conc. H2SO4 at
443 K undergoes intra molecular dehydration (i.e. removal of water within a
molecule of ethanol).

Conc.H2SO4
CH3CH2OH CH2=CH2+H2O
443K
Ethanol Ethene

(b) Inter molecular dehydration : When excess of alcohol is heated with conc. H2SO4
at 413K two molecules condense by losing a molecule of water to form ether
(i.e. removal of water from two molecules of ethanol).

Conc.H2SO4
C2H5- OH + HO- C2H5 C2H5-O-C2H5+H2O
413K
Diethyl ether

(ii) Reaction with sodium : Ethanol reacts with sodium metal to form sodium

ethoxide and hydrogen gas.

2C2H5OH + 2Na 2C2H5ONa + H2 ↑

CHAPTER 13

sodium ethoxide
(iii) Oxidation : Ethanol is oxidized to ethanoic acid with alkaline KMnO4 or acidified
K2Cr2O7 Oxidation
CH3CH2OH CH3COOH +H2O
Ethanoic acid

1205
 During this reaction, orange colour of K2Cr2O7 changes to green. Therefore, this
reaction can be used for the identification of alcohols.

(iv) Esterificaiton : Ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in the presence of conc.H2SO4
(catalyst) to form ethyl ethanoate and water. The compound formed by the reaction

of an alcohol with carboxylic acid is known as ester (fruity smelling compound) and

the reaction is called esterification.

conc.H2SO4
C2H5OH + CH3COOH CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
Ethanol Ethanoic acid Ethyl ethanoate

(v) Dehydrogenation : When the vapour of ethanol is passed over reduced copper

catalyst at 573 K, it is dehydrogenated to acetaldehyde.

Cu
CH3CH2OH 573 K
CH3CHO+H2
Ethanol Acetadehyde

4. Uses

Ethanol is used
1. As an anti-freeze in automobile radiators.
2. As a preservative for biological specimen.
3. As an antiseptic to sterilize wounds in hospitals.
4. As a solvent for drugs, oils, fats, perfumes, dyes, etc.
5. In the preparation of methylated spirit (mixture of 95% of ethanol and 5% of methanol),
rectified spirit (mixture of 95.5% of ethanol and 4.5% of water), power alcohol
(mixture of petrol and ethanol) and denatured sprit (ethanol mixed with pyridine).
6. In cough and digestive syrups.

Evil effects of consuming alcohol

• If ethanol is consumed, it tends to slow down metabolism of our body
and depresses the central nervous system.

• It causes mental depression and emotional disorder.

CHEMISTRY

• It affects our health by causing ulcer, high blood pressure, cancer,

brain and liver damage.

• Nearly 40% accidents are due to drunken drive.

206
 CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 

• Unlike ethanol, intake of methanol in very small quantities can cause death.

• Methanol is oxidized to methanal (formaldehyde) in the liver and methanal

reacts rapidly with the components of cells.

• Methanal causes the protoplasm to get coagulated, in the same way an egg
is coagulated by cooking. Methanol also affects the optic nerve, causing
blindness.

13.12. ETHANOIC ACID (CH3COOH)

Ethanoic acid is most commonly known as acetic acid and belongs to a group
of acids called carboxylic acids. Acetic acid is present in many fruits and sour taste of
fruits is because of this acid.

1. Preparation of Ethanoic acid

Ethanol on oxidation in the presence of alkaline potassium permanganate or acidi-

fied potassium dichromate gives ethanoic acid.

Oxidation
CH3CH2OH CH3COOH +H2O
Ethanol Ethanoic acid

2. Physical properties
(i) Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid and has a sour taste.

(ii) It is miscible with water in all proportions.

(iii) Boiling point (391 K) is higher than corresponding alcohols, aldehydes and
ketones.

(iv) On cooling, pure ethanoic acid is frozen to form ice like flakes. They look like
glaciers, so it is called glacial acetic acid.

3. Chemical properties
CHAPTER 13

(i) Ethanoic acid is a weak acid but it turns blue litmus to red.
(ii) Reaction with metal
Ethanoic acid reacts with metals like Na, K, Zn, etc to form metal ethanoate and hydrogen gas.

7
1207
 2CH3COOH + Zn (CH3COO)2 Zn + H2 ↑

2CH3COOH + 2Na 2CH3COONa + H2 ↑

(iii) Reaction with carbonates and bicarbonates.
Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and bicarbonates and produces brisk
effervescence due to the evolution of carbon dioxide.

2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 2CH3COONa + CO2 ↑ + H2O

CH3COOH + NaHCO3 CH3COONa + CO2 ↑ + H2O

(iv) Reaction with base

Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate and water.

CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O

(v) Decarboxylation (Removal of CO2)

When sodium salt of ethanoic acid is heated with soda lime (Solid mixure of 3 parts

of NaOH and 1 part of CaO) methane gas is formed.

NaOH / CaO
CH3COONa CH4 ↑ + Na2CO3
4. USES
Ethanoic acid is used

1. For making vinegar which is used as a preservative in food and fruit juices.
2. As a laboratory reagent.
3. For coagulating rubber from latex.
4. In the preparation of dyes, perfumes and medicine.

EVALUATION
PART A
1. Assertion: Chemical bonds in organic compounds are covalent in nature.
CHEMISTRY

Reason: Covalent bond is formed by the sharing of electrons in the bonding atoms.
Does the reason satisfy the given assertion?
2. Assertion: Diamond is the hardest crystalline form of carbon
Reason: Carbon atoms in diamond are tetrahedral in nature.
Verify the suitability of reason to the given Assertion mentioned above.

208
 CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 

3.  Assertion: Due to catenation a large number of carbon compounds are formed.

Reason: Carbon compounds show the property of allotropy.
Is the reason holding good for the given Assertion.

4. Buckminster Fullerene is the allotropic form of (Nitrogen / Carbon / Sulphur)

5. Eventhough it is a non metal, graphite conducts electricity. It is due to the

presence of …………………(free electrons / bonded electrons)

6. Formula of methane is CH4 and its succeeding member ethane is expressed

as C2H6. The common difference of succession between them is (CH2 / C2 H2)
7. IUPAC name of first member of alkyne is …………… (ethene / ethyne)

8. Out of ketonic and aldehydic group which is the terminal functional group?

9. Acetic acid is heated with a solid ‘X’ kept in a test tube. A colourless and
odourless gas (Y) is evolved. The gas turns lime water milky when passed
through it. Identify X and Y.

10. Assertion: Denaturation of ethyl alcohol makes it unfit for drinking purposes.
Reason: Denaturation of ethyl alcohol is carried out by methyl alcohol.
Check whether the reason is correct for assertion.

PART B
11. Write down the possible isomers and give their IUPAC names using the
formula C4H10.
12. Diamond is the hardest allotrope of Carbon. Give reason for its hardness.

13. An organic compound (A) is widely used as a preservatives in pickles and has a
molecular formula C2H4O2. This compound reacts with ethanol to form a sweet
smelling compound (B).

(i) Identify the compound A and B.

(ii) Name the process and write corresponding chemical equation.

14. An organic compound (A) of molecular formula C2H6O on oxidation with alkaline
KMnO4 solution gives an acid (B) with the same number of carbon atoms.
Compound A is used as an antiseptic to sterilize wounds in hospitals. Identify A
13
CHAPTER13

and B. Write the chemical equation involved in the formation of B from A.

CHAPTER

157
9209
1
 PART C
15. Fill in the blanks using suitable formula in the given table

No. Alkane Alkene Alkyne

1. C2 H6 ethane ……….ethene C2 H2 ethyne

2. …….Propane C3 H6 Propene ……propyne

3. C4 H10 Butane ……….Butene …….Butyne

16. Homologous series predict the properties of the members of hydrocarbon.

Justify this statement through its characteristics.

17. Write the common name and IUPAC name of the following.

a) CH3CH2CHO b) CH3COCH3

C) CH3 – CH - CH3 d) CH3 COOH

OH

e) HCHO

further reference

Books: 1.Oraganic chemistry - B.S. Bahl & Arun Bahl S.Chand Publishers
2.Organic chemistry - R.T. Morrision & R.N. Boyd - Practice Hall
Publishers.
Website: www.tutorvista.com, www.topperlearning.com
CHEMISTRY

210
 Chapter 14

Measuring
Instruments
 14. Measuring Instruments
Physics is the most basic science, which Grooves are cut on the inner surface
deals with the study of nature and natural of the cylinder through which a screw
phenomena. It is a quantitative science. passes through.
Therefore physicists measure things.
On the cylinder parallel to the axis of the
The ultimate test of any physical quantity
is its agreement with observations and screw a scale is graduated in millimeter
measurement of physical phenomena. called Pitch Scale.
One of the major contributions of physics One end of the screw is attached to a
to other sciences and society are the many sleeve.
measuring instruments and techniques
that physics has developed. One such The head of the sleeve is divided into
instrument is screw gauge. 100 divisions called as the Head Scale.
The other end of the screw has a plane
surface (s1).
14.1 SCREW GAUGE
A stud (s2) is attached to the other
Screw Gauge is an instrument to end of the frame, just opposite to the tip
measure the dimensions of very small of the screw.
objects upto 0.001 cm.
The screw head is provided with a
The Screw Gauge consists of ‘U’ ratchat arrangement (safety device) to
shaped metal frame Fig. 14.1. prevent the user from exerting undue
A hollow cylinder is attached to one pressure.
end of the frame.
Milled Head (H)
S2 S1 Hallow Cylindrical tube Safety device (D)
(Ratchat)

U-Shaped Frame pitch scale

PHYSICS

Head Scale

Index line

Fig 14.1

212
 Measuring Instruments

Principle of the Screw Gauge . If the zero of the head scale coincides
with the pitch scale axis, there is no zero
Screw Gauge works under the principle
error.Fig. 14.2
of the screw. When a screw is rotated in
a nut, the distance moved by the tip of Positive Zero Error
the screw is directly proportional to the
number of rotations.

Pitch of the screw

Pitch of the screw is the distance
between two screw threads. It is also
equal to the distance travelled by the tip
Fig. 14.3
of the screw for one complete rotation of
the head. If the zero of the head scale lies
below the pitch scale axis, the zero error
Distance travelled on the pitch scale is positive. If the nth division of the head
Pitch = scale coincides with pitch scale axis the
No.of rotations
zero error is positive.Fig.14.3

Least Count of a Screw Gauge Z.E = + (n x L.C) ,

The distance moved by the tip of the Then the Zero Correction
screw for a rotation of one division on the Z.C = – (n x L.C)
head scale is called the least count of the
Negative Zero Error
Screw Gauge.

Pitch
L.C =
No.of divisions on the head scale

Zero Error of a Screw Gauge

The plane surface of the screw and
the opposite plane stud on the frame are Fig 14.4
brought into contact.
If the Zero of the head scale lies above
No Zero Error
the pitch scale axis, the zero error is
negative. If the nth division coincides with
CHAPTER 14

the pitch scale axis, the zero error is

negative.Fig. 14.4
Z.E = – (100 – n) x L.C,
Then the Zero Correction
Z.C = + (100 – n) x L.C
Fig. 14.2

213
213
 To measure the diameter of a 14.2 Measuring long distances
thin wire using Screw Gauge For measuring long distances such
as distance of the moon or a planet
•• Determine the Pitch, the Least from the earth, special methods are
count and the Zero Error of the adopted. Radio echo method, laser pulse
Screw Gauge. method and parallax method are used to
•• Place the wire between two studs. determine very long distances. In order
to measure such very long distances the
•• Rotate the head until the wire is units astronomical distance and light year
held firmly but not tightly, with are used.
the help of ratchat. Astronomical distance
•• Note the reading on the Astronomical distance is the mean
pitch scale crossed by distance of the centre of the sun from the
the head scale (PSR) and centre of the earth.
the head scale reading coincides
with the head scale axis (H.S.C). 1 Astronomical unit (AU)
= 1.496 x 1011 m
•• The diameter of the wire is given
by P.S.R + (H.S.C x L.C) ± Z.C Light year

•• Repeat the experiment for Light year is the distance travelled by

different portions of the wire. light in one year in vacuum.

•• Tabulate the readings. Distance traveled by light in one year

in vacuum = Velocity of light x I year (in
• • The average of the last column seconds)
reading gives the diameter of = 3 x 108 x 365.25 x 24 x 60 x 60
the wire.
= 9.467 x 1015 m
S.No P.S.R H.S.C H.S.C x Total Reading
Therefore , 1 light year = 9.467 x 1015 m
mm L.C mm P.S.R +
(H.S.C x L.C)
±Z.C mm EVALUATION
1 PART A
2 1. Screw gauge is an instrument to
measure the dimensions of very small
3
PHYSICS

objects upto
(0.1 cm., 0.01 cm., 0.1 mm., 0.01 mm)
Nowadays we have digital Screw
Gauge to take the reading at once. 2. In a screw gauge zero of the head scale

214
 Measuring Instruments

lies below the pitch scale axis, the zero 2. Match the items in group A with the
error is items in group B
(positive, negative, nil) Group A Group – B
Small dimensions Kilo meter
3. Screw gauge is used to measure the
diameter of Large dimensions Screw gauge

Long distances Scale

( crow bar, thin wire, cricket ball )
Small distances Light year
4. One light year is equal to Altimeter
( 365.25 x 24 x 60 x 60 x 3 x 108 m ,
1 x 24 x 60 x 60 x 3 x 08 m ,
3. ­Fill in the blanks: Special methods
360 x 24 x 60 x 60 x 3 x 108 m )
adopted to determine very large
5. One astronomical unit is the distace distances are and
between the centre of the earth and (Laser pulse method,
Light year method, Radio echo method)

(centre of the Moon, centre of the Sun, 4. Least count of a screw gauge is an
important concept related to screw
centre of the Mars)
gauge. What do you mean by the term
PART B least count of a screw gauge.

1. Correct the mistakes if any, in the 5. Label the following parts of the screw
following statements. gauge in the given screw gauge
diagram.
Astronomical distance is the mean
1. Head scale 2. Pitch scale
distance of the surface of the sun from
the surface of the earth. 3. Axis 4. Ratchat

Light year is the distance travelled by

light in one year in vacuum at a speed of
3x108 m. per minute

Further Reference :
CHAPTER 14

Books: 1. Complete physics for IGCSE - Oxford publications.

2. Practical physics – Jerry. D. Wilson – Saunders college publishing
Webste: www.complore.com
www.physlink.com

157
215
 Chapter 15

LAWS OF MOTION AND

GRAVITATION
 Laws of motion and gravitation

15. Laws of motion and

gravitation

In our everyday life, we observe that Y X

some effort is required to put a stationary

object into motion or to stop a moving
object. Normally we have to push or pull or
hit an object to change its state of motion.
The concept of force is based on this Fig. 15.1
push, pull or hit. No one has seen, tasted,
or felt force. However, we always see or Similarly, if we pull the string Y, the block
feel the effect of a force. It can only be moves to the left. But, if the block is pulled
explained by describing what happens from both the sides with equal forces the
when a force is applied to an object. Push, block will not move and remains stationary.
pull or hit may bring objects into motion, Forces acting on an object which do not
because we make a force to act on them. change the state of rest or of uniform
Therefore, force is one which changes motion of it are called balanced forces.
or tends to change the state of rest or Now let us consider a situation in which
of uniform motion of a body. Force is a two opposite forces of different magnitudes
vector quantity. Its SI unit is newton. act on the block. The block moves in the
direction of the greater force. The resultant
15.1. Balanced and
of two forces acts on an object and brings
­imbalanced forces it in motion. These opposite forces are
Fig.15.1 shows a wooden block on a called imbalanced forces.
CHAPTER 15

horizontal table. Two strings X and Y are The following illustration clearly ­explains
tied to the two opposite faces of the block the concept of balanced and ­imbalanced
as shown. forces. Some children are trying to push a
If we apply a force by pulling the string box on a rough floor.
‘X’, the block begins to move to the right.

217
 (c)]. There is an imbalanced force. So, the
box starts moving.
15.2  First law of motion
Galileo observed the motion of objects on
an inclined plane. He deduced that objects
move with a constant speed when no force
(a) acts on them.
Name : Galileo
Born : 15 February 1564
Birth place : Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Italy
Died : 8 January 1642
Best known for : Astronomy, physics
and mathematics

Newton studied Galileo’s ideas on

force and motion and presented three
fundamental laws that govern the motion
of objects. These three laws are known as
(b) Newton’s Laws of Motion. The first law of
motion is stated as:
An object remains in the state of
rest or of uniform motion in a straight
line unless compelled to change that
state by an applied unbalanced force.
In other words, all objects resist a change
in their state of motion. The tendency of
(c) undisturbed objects to stay at rest or to
Fig. 15.2 keep moving with the same velocity is
If one boy pushes the box with a smaller called inertia. This is why, the first law of
force, the box does not move because of motion is also known as the law of inertia.
friction acting in a direction opposite to the Certain experiences that we come
push [Fig. 15.2(a)] This friction force arises across while travelling in a motor car
between two surfaces in contact. In this can be explained on the basis of the law
case, between the bottom of the box and the of inertia. We tend to remain at rest with
floor rough surface. It balances the pushing respect to the seat until the driver applies
force and therefore the box does not move. a braking force to stop the motor car. With
In [Fig.15.2(b)] two children push the box the application of brakes, the car slows
harder but the box still does not move. This down but our body tends to continue in the
PHYSICS

is because the frictional force still balances same state of motion because of inertia.
the pushing force. If the children push the A sudden application of brakes may thus
box harder still, the pushing force becomes cause injury to us by collision with panels
bigger than the frictional force [Fig.15.2. in front.

218
 Laws of motion and gravitation

An opposite experience is encountered offered by an object to change its state of

when we are standing in a bus which motion. If it is at rest, it tends to remain at
begins to move suddenly. Now we tend to rest. If it is moving it tends to keep moving.
fall backwards. This is because a sudden This property of an object is called inertia.
start of the bus brings motion to the bus Therefore the inability of a body to
as well as to our feet in contact with the change its state of rest or of uniform
floor of the bus. But the rest of our body motion by itself is called inertia.
opposes this motion because of its inertia.
Inertia of body depends mainly upon
When a motor car makes a sharp turn its mass. If we kick a foot ball, it flies away.
at a high speed, we tend to get thrown to But if we kick a stone of the same size with
one side. This can again be explained on equal force, it hardly moves. We may, in fact
the basis of the law of inertia. We tend to get an injury in our foot. A force, that is just
continue in our straight line motion. When enough to cause a small carriage to pick
an unbalanced force is applied by the up a large velocity, will produce a negligible
engine to change the direction of motion of change in the motion of a train. We say
the motor car, we move to one side of the that train has more inertia than the carriage
seat due to the inertia of our body. Clearly, more massive objects offer larger
Inertia of a body can be illustrated inertia. The inertia of an object is measured by
through the following activities. its mass.
15.4  Momentum
Activity 15.1
Let us recount some observations from
Make a pile of similar carrom coins on our everyday life. During the game of
a table as shown in Fig.15.3. table tennis, if a ball hits a player, it does
not hurt him. On the other hand, when
fast moving cricket ball hits a spectator,
it may hurt him. A truck at rest does not
Fig. 15.3. require any attention when parked along
a roadside. But a moving truck, even at a
Attempt a sharp horizontal hit at the
very low speed, may kill a person standing
bottom of the pile using another carom
in its path. A small mass such as a bullet
coin or the striker. If the hit is strong
enough, the bottom coin moves out may kill a person when fired from a gun.
quickly. Once the lowest coin is These observations suggest that the
removed, the inertia of the other coins impact produced by an object depends
makes them ‘fall’ vertically on the on its mass and velocity. In other words,
table. there appears to exist some quantity of
CHAPTER 15

importance that combines the object’s

mass and velocity. One such property
15.3.  Inertia and mass called momentum was introduced by
All the examples and activities given Newton. The momentum ‘p’ of an object
so far, illustrate that there is a resistance is defined as the product of its mass
‘m’ and velocity ‘v’. That is,p=mv

219
219
 Momentum has both direction and Change of momentum
magnitude. It is a vector quantity. Its Rate of change = —————————
direction is same as that of the velocity. of momentum time
The SI unit of momentum is kg ms-1. m (v-u)
= ———————— (2)
15.5  Second law of motion t
Let us consider a situation in which a car According to Newton II law of motion, this
with a dead battery is to be pushed along is nothing but applied force.
a straight road to give it a speed of 1 m s-1
which is sufficient to start its engine. If m(v-u)
one or two persons give a sudden push Therefore the applied force, F = ————
(unbalanced force) to it, it hardly starts. t
But a continuous push over it ­sometime v-u
results in a gradual acceleration of the But the acceleration, a = ————
car to the required speed. It means that t
the change of momentum of the car is not (which is the rate of change of velocity).
only determined by the magnitude of the
force, but also by the time during which The applied force, F α ma
the force is exerted. It may then also F = Kma (3)
be concluded that the force necessary
to change the momentum of the object ‘K’ is known as the constant of
depends on the time rate at which the proportionality. The SI unit of mass and
momentum is changed. acceleration are kg and m s-2 respectively.
The second law of motion states that The unit of force is so chosen that the value
the rate of change of momentum of an of the constant ‘K’ becomes one.
object is proportional to the applied Therefore, F = ma (4)
unbalanced force in the direction of 1 unit of force = (1 kg) x (1 m s-2)
force. Suppose an object of mass ‘m’ is
The unit of force is kg m s-2 or newton
moving along a straight line with an initial
velocity ‘u’. It is uniformly accelerated to which has the symbol ‘N’.
velocity ‘v’ in time ‘t’ by the application One unit of force(1N) is defined as
of constant force, ‘F’ throughout the the amount of force that produces an
time, ‘t’. acceleration of 1 m s-2 in an object of 1
Initial momentum of the object = mu kg mass.
Final momentum of the object = mv The second law of motion gives us a
method to measure the force acting on
PHYSICS

The change in = mv - mu = m(v - u) (1)

momentum an object as a product of its mass and
­acceleration.

220
 Laws of motion and gravitation

Example:15.1 The fixed end B of the balance is

A constant force acts on an object of attached with a rigid support like a wall.
mass 10 kg for a duration of 4 s. It increases When a force is applied through the free
the objects velocity from 2 ms-1 to 8 m s-1 end of the spring balance A, it is observed
Find the magnitude of the applied force. that both the spring balances show the
same readings on their scales. It means
Solution: that the force exerted by spring balance
Given, mass of the object m = 10 kg A on balance B is equal but opposite in
direction to the force exerted by the balance
Initial velocity u = 2 m s-1 B on balance A. The force which balance
Final velocity v = 8 m s-1 A exerts on balance B is called action and
the force of balance B on balance A is
m(v - u)
We know, force F =  called the reaction.
t
Newton’s third law of motion states that
10 (8-2) 10 × 6 for every action there is an equal and
F =  =  = 15 N opposite reaction. It must be remembered
4 4
that the action and reaction always act on
Example:15.2 two different objects.
Which would require a greater force for When a gun is fired it exerts forward force
accelerating a 2 kg of mass at 4 m s-2 or a on the bullet. The bullet exerts an equal and
3 kg mass at 2 m s-2? opposite reaction force on the gun. This
results in the recoil of the gun. Fig. 15.5
Solution
Recoil force
We know, force F = ma
on the gun
Given, m1 = 2 kg a1 = 4 m s-2
m2 = 3 kg a2 = 2 m s-2
Thus, F1 = m1 a1 = 2 kg × 4 m s-2 = 8 N Accelerating force
on the bullet Fig. 15.5
and F2 = m2 a2 = 3 kg × 2 m s-2 = 6 N
⇒ F1 > F2 Since the gun has a much greater mass
Thus, accelerating a 2 kg mass at 4m s-2 than the bullet, the acceleration of the gun is
would require a greater force. much less than the acceleration of the bullet.

15.6  Third law of motion 15.7 Conservation of

momen-tum and proof
CHAPTER 15

Let us consider two spring balances

connected together as shown in Fig. 15.4 The law of conservation of momentum
B A states that, in the absence of external
unbalanced force the total momentum of
a system of objects remains unchanged
Fig. 15.4 or conserved by collision.

157
221
 Consider two objects (two balls) A and The force acting
B of masses ‘m1’ and ‘m2’ are traveling in on B (action) F1 = m
 ass of B X
the same direction along a straight line at acceleration on B.
different velocities ‘u1’ and ‘u2’ respectively m2 (v2-u2)
Fig.15.6(a) .There are no other­ ­external F1 = ————— (1)
unbalanced forces acting on them . Let t
u1 > u2 and the two balls collide with each
The force acting
other as shown in Fig. 15.6(b). During
collision which last for time ‘t’ , the ball A on A (reaction) F2 = mass of A X
exerts a force F1 on ball B , and the ball acceleration on A.
B exerts a force F2 on ball A. Let v1 and v2 m1 (v1-u1)
be the velocities of two balls A and B after F2 = ————— (2)
collision respectively in the same direction t
as before collision, Fig 15.6(c).
According to Newton’s third law of motion
F1 = – F2
From equation (1) and (2)
m2 (v2-u2) – m1 (v1-u1)
————— = —————
t t

Before collision m2 (v2 – u2) = –m1 (v1-u1)

m2v2 – m2u2 = –m1v1 + m1u1
m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2
Therefore,
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
The total momentum before collision
is equal to the total momentum ­after
collision. The total momentum of two
During collision
objects remain unchanged due to collision
in the absence of external force. This law
holds good for any number of ­objects.

(C) Activity 15.2

After collision
PHYSICS

Take a big rubber balloon and inflate

Fig. 15.6 it fully.Tie its neck using a thread.
According to Newton second law of motion

222
 Laws of motion and gravitation

right-positive, by convention)
Activity 15.2
Recoil velocity of the pistol, = v
Also using adhesive tape,
fix a straw on the surface of this Total momentum of the pistol and bullet
balloon. before fire,
•• Pass a thread through the straw = (0.015 × 0 + 2 × 0) kg m s-1
and hold one end of the thread in = 0 kg m s-1
your hand or fix it on the wall.
Total momentum of the pistol and bullet
•• Ask your friend to hold the other
after fire,
end of the thread or fix it on
a wall at some distance. This = (0.015 × 100 + 2 × v)
arrangement is shown in Fig.15.7 = (1.5 + 2v) kg m s-1
•• Now remove the thread tied on According to the law of conservation of
the neck of the balloon. Let the momentum,
air escape from the mouth of the
balloon. Total momentum after fire = total
•• Observe the direction in which momentum before fire
the straw moves. 1.5 + 2v = 0
STRAW
2v = -1.5
v = -0.75 m s-1
Negative sign indicates that the direction
Air BALOON
in which the pistol would recoil is opposite
to that of the bullet, that is, right to left.
Fig. 15.7
15.8 Moment of force and
couple
Example:15.3
A bullet of mass 15g is horizontally fired
Moment of a force
with a velocity 100 m s-1 from a pistol of A force can rotate a nut when applied
mass 2 kg what is the recoil velocity of the by a wrench or it can open a door while the
pistol? door rotates on its hinges. In addition to the
tendency to move a body in the direction
Solution:
of the application of a force, a force also
The mass of bullet, m1 = 15 g = 0.015 kg tends to rotate the body about any axis
Mass of the pistol, m2 = 2 kg which does not intersect the line of action
CHAPTER 15

of the force and also not parallel to it. This

Initial velocity of the bullet, u1 = 0
tendency of rotation is called turning effect
Initial velocity of the pistol, u2 = 0 of a force or moment of the force about the
Final velocity of the bullet, v1 = + 100 m s-1 given axis. The magnitude of the moment
of force F about a point is defined as the
(The direction of bullet is taken from left to product of the magnitude of force and

223
 the perpendicular distance of the point As a matter of convention, an
from the line of action of the force. anticlockwise moment is taken as positive
and a clockwise moment as negative.
Let us consider a force F acting at the
point P on the body as shown in Fig. 15.8 Couple
There are many examples in practice
T = Fd where two forces, acting together, exert a
moment or turning effect on some object.
As a very simple case, suppose two
strings are tied to a wheel at the points X
P Force and Y, and two equal and opposite forces,
F ‘F’ are exerted tangentially to the wheels
(Fig. 15.10). If the wheel is pivoted at its
centre O it begins to rotate about O in an
Distance d anticlockwise direction.
Fig. 15.8 F

Then, the moment of the force F about O

90
X Y
the point O = Magnitude of the force 90

X perpendicular distance between the

direction of the force and the point about
which moment is to be determined = F x d. F
Fig. 1 5.10
If the force acting on a body rotates
the body in anticlockwise direction with Two equal and opposite forces whose
respect to O then the moment is called lines of action do not coincide are said to
anticlockwise moment. On the other hand, constitute a couple in mechanics.
if the force rotates the body in clockwise 15.9. Gravitation
direction then the moment is said to be
clockwise moment. The unit of moment of
the force is N m.
F1
O
We always observe that an object dropped
from a height falls towards the earth. It is
O said that Newton was sitting under the tree,
F2
PHYSICS

an apple fell on him. The fall of the apple

Fig. 15.9. made Newton start thinking. It is seen that
a falling apple is attracted towards the

224
 Laws of motion and gravitation

earth. Does the apple attract the earth? If It is noted that the stone describes a
so we do not see earth moving towards an circular path with a velocity of constant
apple. Why? magnitude.

According to Newton’s Third Law of 15.9.1. Newton law of gravitation

Motion, the apple does attract the earth. Every object in the universe attracts every
But according to Second Law of motion, other object with a force which is directly
for a given force, acceleration is inversely proportional to the product of their masses
proportional to the mass of the object. and inversely proportional to the square
The mass of an apple is negligibly small of the distance between them. The force
compared to that of the earth. So we do acts along the line joining the centers of
not see the earth moving towards the two objects.
apple. We know that all planets go around m1 m2
the sun. Extend the above argument for
all planets in our solar system. There exist d
a force between sun and the planets.
Newton concluded that all objects in Fig. 15.12
the universe attract each other. This
Let two objects A and B of masses m1,
force of attraction between objects is
m2 respectively lie at a distance ‘d’ from
called the gravitational force.
each other as shown in Fig.15.12. Let the
Activity 15.3 force of attraction between two objects is
‘F’. According to above law,
Take a piece of thread. Tie a small
F ∝ m1m2 (1)
stone at one end.
1
Hold the other end of the thread and F∝ —2 (2)
d
whirl it round as shown in Fig. 15.11.
Combining (1) and (2)
Note the motion of the stone.
m1m2
Release the thread. F∝ ——— (3)
d2
Again note the direction of motion of
Gm1m2
the stone. or F = ——— (4)
d2
Where G is the constant of proportionality
and is called the Universal gravitation
constant. From eqn (4)
CHAPTER 15

F.d2
G = ———
m1m2
Substituting the S.I units in this equation
the unit of G is found to be N m2kg-2
Fig 15.11. The value of G is 6.673×10-11 N m2kg-2

157
225
 15.9.2 Mass 4. Remains the Varies from
Mass is the amount of matter present in a same. place to
body (or) is a measure of how much matter place.
an object has.
5. It is measured It is measured
15.9.3 Weight using physical using spring
Weight is the force which a given mass balance. balance.
feels due to the gravity at its place (or) is
a measure of how strongly gravity pulls on
that matter. 15.9.4 Acceleration due to gravity
If you were to travel to the moon, your Galileo was the first to make a
weight would change because the pull of systematic study of the motion of a
the gravity is weaker there than on the body under the gravity of the Earth. He
earth, but your mass would stay the same dropped various objects from leaning
because you are still made up of the same tower of Pisa and made analysis of their
amount of matter. motion under gravity. He came to the
conclusion that “in the absence of air,
Example 15.4
all bodies will fall at the same rate”.
Mass of an object is 5 kg. What is its weight It is the air resistance that slows down
on the earth? a piece of paper or a parachute falling
Solution: under gravity. If a heavy stone and a
parachute are dropped where there
Mass, m = 5 kg
is no air, both will fall together at the
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m s-2
same rate.
Weight, w = m × g
Experiments showed that the
w = 5 kg × 9.8 m s = 49 N
-2
velocity of a freely falling body under
Thus the weight of the object is, 49 N gravity increases at a constant rate.
(i.e.) with a constant acceleration. The
Difference between mass and weight acceleration produced in a body on
account of the force of gravity is
Mass Weight
called acceleration due to gravity. It
1. Fundamental Derived quantity. is denoted by g. At a given place, the
quantity. value of g is the same for all bodies
2. It is the It is the irrespective of their masses. It differs
amount of gravitational pull from place to place on the surface of
matter con- acting on the the Earth. It also varies with altitude
tained in a body. and depth.
body.
PHYSICS

The value of g at sea-level and at a

3. Its unit is It is measured in
latitude of 45° is taken as the standard
kilogram. newton.
free -fall acceleration (i.e.) g=9.8 m s-2

226
 Laws of motion and gravitation

Acceleration due to gravity at the 15.9.5. Mass of earth

surface of the earth
From the expression g = GM/R2, the mass
Consider a body of mass ‘m’ on the surface of the Earth can be calculated as follows:
of the earth as shown in Fig. 15.13.
gR2
m M = ———
G
mg M = 9.8 × (6.38 × 106)2/6.67 × 10-11
M = 5.98 × 1024 kg.
R
Science today
Earth Chandrayaan

Fig.15.13
Its distance from the centre of the Earth
is R (radius of the Earth).
The gravitational force experienced by the
GMm where M is the
body is F = ——— Mylswamy Annadurai born on
R2
2 July 1958 is a household name
nd
mass of the earth. From Newton’s
in this part of the country .People
second law of motion,
fondly associate his name with
Force, F = mg chandrayaan to the extent it has
Equating the above two forces, almost become his middle name.
He obtained his M.E Degree in
GMm Electronics in 1982. In the same
F = ——— = mg
year he joined in ISRO.
R2
Annadurai is a leading
Therefore, GM
g = ——— technologist in the field of
R2 satellite system. Currently
Annadurai serves as the Project
This equation shows that ‘g’ is
Director of Chandrayaan-1 and
independent of the mass of the body ‘m’
Chandrayaan-2. He has made
but, it varies with the distance from the
significant contribution to the cost
CHAPTER 15

centre of the Earth. If the Earth is assumed

effective design of Chandrayaan.
to be a sphere of radius R, the value of ‘g’
Through his inspiring speeches
on the surface of the Earth is given by
he has become a motivating force
GM
among the Indian students.
g = ——
R2

15722
227
 of the landing site of US space craft
Apollo-15, Apollo-11.
•• It has provided high-resolution spectral
data on the mineralogy of the moon.
•• Lunar Laser Ranging Instrument
(LLRI) covered both the Lunar Poles
and additional lunar region of interest.
•• The X-ray signatures of aluminum,
magnesium and silicon were picked
up by the CXIS X-ray camera
•• The Bulgarian payload called Radiation
Dose Monitor (RADOM) was activated
Chandrayaan-1 is a moon-traveler or on the day of launch itself and worked
moon vehicle. It was Indian’s first till the mission end.
unmanned lunar probe. It was launched •• More than 40000 images have been
by Indian Space Research Organization transmitted by Chandrayaan Camera
in October 2008 from Srihari Kota in in 75 days.
Andrapradesh and operated until August •• The Terrain Mapping Camera acquired
2009. The mission included a lunar orbiter images of peaks and Craters. The
and an impactor. It carried five ISRO moon consists of mostly of Craters.
payloads and six payloads from other
•• Chandrayaan beamed back its first
space agencies including NASA, images of the Earth in its entirety.
European Space Agencies(ESA), and the
Bulgarian Aerospace Agency which were •• Chandrayaan-1 has discovered large
carried free of cost. caves on the lunar surface that can
act as human shelter on the moon.
Chandrayaan operated for 312 days and
achieved 95% of its planned objectives. Cryogenic techniques
The following are its achievements, The word cryogenics terms from Greek
•• The discovery of wide spread presence and means “the production of freezing
of water molecules in lunar soil. cold”.
•• Chandrayaan’s Moon Mineralogy In physics cryogenics is the study of
Mapper has confirmed that moon was the production of very low temperature
once completely molten. (below 123k); and the behaviour of
•• European Space Agency payload- materials at those temperature. A
Chandrayaan-1 imaging X-ray person who studies elements under
spectrometer (CXIS)-detected more extremely cold temperature is called a
PHYSICS

than two dozen weak solar flares cryogencist. Cryogenics use the Kelvin
during the mission. scale of temperature. Liquefied gases
•• The terrain mapping camera on board such as liquid nitrogen, liquid helium is
Chandrayaan-1 has recorded images used in many cryogenic applications.

228
 Laws of motion and gravitation

Liquid nitrogen is the most commonly It is difficult to transmit power by over

used element in cryogenics and is legally head cables in cities. So underground
purchasable around the world. Liquid cables are used. But underground cables
helium is also commonly used and allows get heated and the resistance of the wire
for the lowest attainable temperature to be increases leading to wastage of power.
reached. These liquids are held in special This can be solved by cryogenics. Liquefied
containers called Dewar flasks which are gases are sprayed on the cables to keep
generally about six feet tall and three feet them cool and reduce their resistance.
in diameter. (iv) Food Freezing:
The field of cryogenics advanced Cryogenic gases are used in
during world war-2. Scientist found that transportation of large masses of frozen
metals frozen to low temperature showed food, when very large quantity of food must
more resistance to wear. This is known be transported to regions like war field,
as cryogenic hardening. The commercial earthquake hit regions etc., they must be
cryogenic processing industry was stored for.
founded in 1966 by Ed Busch; and merged
several small companies later to form (v) Vaccines:
oldest commercial cryogenic company in The freezing of biotechnology products
the world. They originally experimented like vaccines require nitrogen freezing
with the possibility of increasing the life of systems.
metal tools.
Space station:
Cryogens like liquid nitrogen are further
A space station is an artificial structure
used for specially chilling and freezing
designed for humans to live and work in
applications.
outer space for a period of time.
(i) Rocket
Current and recent-history space
The important use of cryogenics is stations are designed for medium-term
cryogenic fuels. Cryogenic fuels mainly living in orbit, for periods of weeks, months
liquid hydrogen has been used as rocket or even years. The only space stations are
fuel. Almaz and Salyut series, Sky lab and Mir.
(ii) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
MRI is used to scan inner organs of
human body by penetrating very intense
magnetic field. The magnetic field is
generated by super conducting coils with
CHAPTER 15

the help of liquid helium. It can reduce the

temperature of the coil to around 4k. At
this low temperature very high resolution
images can be obtained. Space stations are used to study the
(iii) Power transmission in big cities: effects of long-space flight on the human

157
229
229
 body. It provides platforms for greater and additional modules, generally with
number and length of scientific studies a specific role, were later added to that.
than available on other space vehicles. (on Mir they were usually launched
Space stations have been used for both independently, whereas on the ISS most
military and civilian purposes. The last are brought by the Space Shuttle). This
military-used space station was Salyut 5, method allows for greater flexibility in
which was used by the Almaz program of operation. It removes the need for a single
the Soviet Union in 1976 and 1977. immensely powerful launch vehicle. These
Broadly speaking the space stations so stations are also designed from the outset
for launched has been of two types. Salyut to have their supplies provided by logistical
and Skylab have been “monolithic.” They support, which allows for a longer lifetime
were constructed and launched in one at the cost of requiring regular support
piece, and then manned by a crew later. launches.
As such, they generally contained all their These stations have various issues
supplies and experimental equipment that limit their long-term habitability, such
when launched, and were considered as very low recycling rates, relatively high
“expended”, and then abandoned, when radiation levels and a lack of gravity. Some
these were used up. of these problems cause discomfort and
Starting with Salyut 6 and Salyut 7, a long-term health effects.
change was seen. These were built with Future space habitats may attempt to
two docking ports. They allowed a second address these issues, and are intended
crew to visit, bringing a new space craft for long-term occupation. Some designs
with them. might even accommodate large number of
This allowed for a crew to man the station people, essentially “cities in space” where
continually, sky lab was also equipped with people would make their homes. No such
two docking ports, but the extra port was design has yet been constructed, even for
never utilized. The presence of the second a small station; the current (2010) launch
port on the new station allowed progress costs are not economically or politically
supply vehicle to be docked to the station, viable.
meaning that fresh supplies could be The People’s Republic of China is
brought to aid long-duration missions. expected to launch its space station
The second group, Mir and the named Tiangong 1, in the first half of 2011.
International Space Station (ISS), have This would make China the third country to
been modular; a core unit was launched, launch a space station.

evaluation
PART A electro static force)
PHYSICS

1. The acceleration in a body is due to 2. The physical quantity which is equal

___________. to rate of change of momentum is
(balanced force, un-balanced force, (displacement, acceleration, force,
impulse)

230
 Laws of motion and gravitation

3. The momentum of a massive object at of 1 gram mass.

rest is _______. b. Action and reaction is always acting
(very large, very small, zero, infinity) on the same body.
4. The weight of 50 kg person at the 5. The important use of cryogenics is
surface of earth is ________. cryogenic fuels. What do you mean by
(50 N, 35 N, 380 N, 490 N) cryogenic fuels?

5. The freezing of biotechnology products 6. As a matter of convention, an

like vaccines require ________ freezing anticlockwise moment is taken as
systems. ________ and a clockwise moment is
taken as ________.
(Helium, Nitrogen, Ammonia, Chlorine)
PART – C
PART – B
1. a) Newton’s first law of motion gives a
1. From the following statements write qualitative definition of force. Justify.
down that which is not applicabel to
mass of an object 10 m/s 5 m/s F1 F2
12m/s
a. It is a fundamental quantity 10 Kg 20 Kg 10 Kg 20 Kg 10 Kg 20 Kg
4m/s

b. It is measured using physical

balance. c. It is measured using b) The figure represents two bodies
spring balance. of masses 10 kg and 20 kg and
2. Fill in the blanks. moving with an initial velocity of
10 ms-1 and 5 ms-1 respectively.
a) Force = mass x acceleration, then They are colliding with each other.
momentum = ____?______ After collision they are moving
b) Liquid hydrogen is for rocket, then–––– with velocities 12 ms-1 and 4 ms-1
–––– for MRI. respectively. The time of collision
be .2 s. Then calculate F1 and F2.
3. The name of some organisations which
are associated with Chandrayan-I 2. a) Space stations are used to study
mission are given below. but some of the effects of long-space flight on
them are not. List out the wrong ones. the human body. justify.
(ISRO, BARC, NASA, ESA, WHO, b) F=G m1 m2 / d2 is the mathematical
ONGC) form of Newton’s law of gravitation,
G - gravitational constant, m1
4. Correct the mistakes, if any, in the m2, are the masses of two bodies
following statements. separated by a distance d, then
a. One newton is the force that produces give the statement of Newton’s law
an acceleration of 1 ms-2 in an object of gravitation.
CHAPTER 15

Further Reference

Books : 1. Advanced physics by : M. Nelkon and P. Parker, C.B.S publications

2. College Physics by : R.L.Weber, K.V. Manning, Tata McGraw Hill
Websites: www.brittannica.com | www.zonaland education.com | www.wiki.animers.com

157
231
 Chapter 16

ELECTRICITY AND
ENERGY
 Electricity and energy

16 ELECTRICITY AND ENERGY

torch we know that a battery provide flow

Name : Michael Faraday
of charges or an electric current through a
Born : 22 September 1791
torch bulb to glow. We have also seen that
Birth place : Newington, England
it gives light only when it is switched on.
Died : 25 August 1867
What does a switch do? A switch makes a
Best known as : Inventor of the first dynamo
conducting link between the cell and the
Electricity has an important place in mod- bulb. A continuous and closed path of
ern society. It is a controllable and con- an electric current is called an electric
venient form of energy for variety of uses circuit. Now if the circuit is broken any-
in homes, schools, hospitals, industries where the current stops flowing and the
and so on. What constitutes electricity? bulb does not glow.
How does it flow in an electric circuit? How do we express electric current?
What are the factors that regulate elec- Electric current is expressed by the
tricity through an electric circuit?. In this amount of charge flowing through a
chapter we shall attempt to answer such particular area of cross section of a
questions. conductor in unit time. In other words
it is the rate of flow of electric charges.
In circuit using metallic wires, electrons
16.1. Electric current constitute flow of charges. The direction
and circuit of electric current is taken as opposite to
9 16

We are familiar with air current and water the direction of the flow of electrons.
current. We know that flowing water con- If a net charge Q, flows across any
CHAPTER

stitute water current in rivers. Similarly if cross-section of a conductor in time t, then

CHAPTER

the electric charge flows through a con- the current I through the cross-section is
ductor (metallic wire), we say that there is
I=Q/t
an electric current in the conductor. In a

233
 The S.I unit of electric charge is cou- 16.2. Electric potential
lomb. This is equivalent to the charge and potential
contained in nearly 6×1018 electrons.
The electric current is expressed by a
difference
unit called ampere (A), named after the What makes the electric charge to flow?
French Scientist. ­ter. Charges do not flow in a copper wire
From the above equation, by themselves, just as water in a perfectly
horizontal tube does not flow. One end of
When Q = 1 C, t = 1s, I=1A. the tube is connected to a tank of water. Now
there is a pressure difference between the
When one coulomb of charge flows
two ends of the tube. Water flows out of the
in one second across any cross section
other end of the tube. For flow of charges
of a conductor, the current in it is one
ampere. An instrument called ammeter is in a conducting metallic wire, the electrons
used to measure current in a circuit. move only if there is a difference of electric
pressure-called potential difference-along
Example 16.1 the conductor. This difference of potential
A current of 0.75 A is drawn by a may be produced by a battery, consisting of
filament of an electric bulb for 10 minutes. one or more electric cells. When the cell is
Find the amount of electric charge that connected to a conducting circuit element,
flows through the circuit. the potential difference sets the charges in
motion in the conductor and produces an
Solution: electric current.
Given, I = 0.75 A, We define the electric potential
t = 10 minutes = 600 s ­difference between two points in an
We know, Q=I×t electric circuit carrying some current
as the work done to move a unit charge
= 0.75 A × 600 s
from one point to the other.
Q = 450 C
Potential difference (V) between two
The Fig.16.1 shows a schematic points = work done (W)/charge (Q).
­diagram of an electric circuit comprising
V = W/Q
battery, bulb, ammeter and a plug key.
The S.I Unit of potential difference is volt
(V).
1 volt = 1joule/1coulomb
One volt is the potential difference
PHYSICS

between two points in a current

carrying conductor when 1 joule of
work is done to move a charge of
Fig. 16.1 Electric circuit 1 coulomb from one point to the other.

234
 Electricity and energy

The potential difference is measured by Example 16.2.

means of an instrument called voltmeter. How much work is done in moving a
charge of 5 C across two points having a
potential difference 10 V ?
16.3. Circuit diagram
Solution:
The Schematic diagram, in which
Given charge, Q=5C
different components of the circuit are
represented by the symbols conveniently Potential difference, V = 10 V
used, is called a circuit diagram. The amount of work done
Conventional symbols used to represent in moving the charge, W = V × Q
some of the most commonly used electrical W= 10 V × 5C = 50 J
components are given in table 16.1.
COMPO- 16.4. Ohm’s law
SYMBOLS
NENTS Is there a relationship between the poten-
An electric
Name : George Simon Ohm
cell
Born : 16 March 1789
A battery or a
combination Birth place : Erlangen, Germany

of cells Died : 06 July 1854

Plug key or Best known for : Ohm’s law

switch (open)
Plug key tial difference across a conductor and the
or switch current through it? .Let us explore with an
(closed) activity.
A wire joint
Wires cross-
Activity 16.1
ing without
joining •• Set up a circuit as shown in Fig.
16.2. consisting of a nichrome
Electric bulb wire XY of length say 0.5m,an
ammeter, a Voltmeter and four
A resistor of cells of 1.5V each.(Nichrome
resistane R is an alloy of nickel, chromium,
Variable manganese and iron metals).
resistance or •• First use only one cell as
9 16

rheostat the source in the circuit. Note

the reading in the ammeter I,
CHAPTER

Ammeter for the current and reading of

the voltmeter V for the potential
CHAPTER

difference across the nichrome

Voltmeter wire XY in the circuit. Tabulate
them in the table given.
Table 16.1.

235
 lic wire and the potential difference across
Activity its terminals.
Repeat the above steps using Ohm’s law states that at constant
two, three cells and then four cells temperature the steady current (I)
in the circuit separately. flowing through a conductor is directly
•• Calculate the ratio of V to I for proportional to the potential difference
each pair of potential difference V (V) between its ends.
and current I.
V∝ I (or) V/I=constant.
Example 16.3
The potential difference between the
terminals of an electric heater is 60 V
when it draws a current of 5 A from the
source. What current will the heater draw
if the potential difference is increased to
120 V?
Solution:
Fig. 16.2 Given the potential difference, V = 60 V
Current, I = 5 A,
According to ohm’s law,
In this activity you will find the ratio V/I
R = V/I = 60 V / 5 A = 12 Ω
is a constant.
When the potential difference is
In 1827, a German Physicist George
increased to 120 V, the current is given by
Simon Ohm found out the relationship
between the current I flowing in a metal- I = V/R = 120 V / 12 Ω = 10 A

S.No Number of Current through Potential V/I

cells used in the nichrome wire difference across (volt/ampere)
the circuit I (ampere) the nichrome Ω
wire. V (volt)
1.
2.
3.
4.
PHYSICS

5.
6.

236
 Electricity and energy

16.5. Resistance of a Activity

conductor
From Ohm’s law, we know •• Now repeat the above steps with
the LED bulb in the gap XY.
V ∝ I, V = IR
•• Are the ammeter readings differ for
R is a constant for a given metallic wire
different components connected
at a given temperature and is called its re-
in the gap XY? What do the above
sistance. It is the property of a conductor
observations indicate?
to resist the flow of charges through it. Its
S.I unit is ohm, represented by the Greek
letter Ω.
R = V/I, 1 ohm = 1 volt/1 ampere 16.6. System of resistors
If the potential difference across the In various electrical circuits we often use
two ends of a conductor is 1volt and the resistors in various combinations. There
current through it is 1ampere, then the are two methods of joining the resistors
resistance of the conductor is 1 ohm. together. Resistors can be connected in
series or in parallel.
Activity 16.2
Resistors in series
•• Set up the circuit by connecting
four dry cells of 1.5V each in series Consider three resistors of resistances
with the ammeter leaving a gap XY R1, R2, R3 in series with a battery and a
in the circuit, as shown in Fig. 16.3. plug key as shown in Fig. 16.4.

•• Complete the circuit by connecting

the nichrome wire in the gap
XY. Plug the key. Note down the
ammeter reading. Take out the
key from the plug.
•• Replace the nichrome wire with
the torch bulb in the circuit and find Fig. 16.4
the current through it by measuring The current through each resistor is
the reading of the ammeter. the same having a value I. The total po-
tential difference across the combination
of resistors in series is equal to the sum
of potential difference across individual
9 16

resistors. That is,

CHAPTER

V=V1+V2+V3 (1)
CHAPTER

Fig. 16.3
It is possible to replace the three re-
sistors joined in series by an equivalent

237
 single resistor of resistance Rs such that Resistors in parallel
the potential difference V across it, and Consider three resistors having resistances
the current I through the circuit remains R1, R2, R3 connected in parallel. This
the same. combination is connected with a battery
Applying ohm’s law to the entire circuit and plug key as shown in Fig. 16.5
we have, V=IR In parallel combination the potential
On applying ohm’s law to the three difference across each resistor is the same
resistors having a value V. The total current I is
separately we further have equal to the sum of the separate currents
through each branch of the combination.
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3
Substituting these values in equation (1) I = I1+I2+I3 (1)
Let Rp be the equivalent resistance of
IR = IR1+IR2+IR3

(or) Rs = R1+R2+R3

When several resistors are connected

in series, the resistance of the combina-
tion Rs is equal to the sum of their indi-
vidual resistances R1, R2, R3 and is thus
greater than any individual resistance.
Example 16.4
Two resistances 18 Ω and 6 Ω are con- Fig. 16.5
nected to a 6 V battery in series. Calcu- the parallel combination of resistors. By
late (a) the total resistance of the circuit, applying ohm’s law to the parallel combi-
(b) the current through the circuit.
nation of resistors we have I = V/Rp
Solution: On applying ohm’s law to each resistor
(a) Given the resistance, R1 = 18 Ω, We have
R2 = 6 Ω I1 = V/R1, I2 = V/R2 and I3 = V/R3
Substituting these values in equation (1)

The total resistance of the circuit RS= R1+R2 V/Rp = V/R1+V/R2+V/R3

RS = 18 Ω + 6 Ω = 24 Ω (or) 1/Rp = 1/R1+1/R2+1/R3
(b) The potential difference across Thus the reciprocal of the equivalent
the two terminals of the battery V = 6 V resistance of a group of resistance joined
PHYSICS

Now the current through the circuit, in parallel is equal to the sum of the
I = V/ RS = 6 V / 24 Ω reciprocals of the individual resistance.
= 0.25 A

238
 Electricity and energy

Example 16.5 We know that a battery is a source of

electrical energy. Its potential difference
Three resistances having the values
between the two terminals sets the
5 Ω, 10 Ω, 30 Ω are connected parallel
electrons in motion to flow the current
with each other. Calculate the total circuit
through the resistor. To flow the current,
resistance.
the source has to keep spending its
Solution: energy. Where does this energy go?
What happens when an electric fan is
Given, R1 = 5 Ω , R2 = 10 Ω,R3 = 30 Ω
used continuously for longer time? A
These resistances are connected parallel part of the energy may be consumed into
Therefore, 1 / Rp = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 useful work (like in rotating the blades
1 1 1 1 10 of the fan). Rest of the energy may be
— = — + — + — = — expended in heat to raise the temperature
Rp 5 10 30 30 of the gadget. If the electric circuit is
30 purely resistive, the source energy
Rp = — = 3 Ω continuously gets dissipated entirely
10 in the form of heat. This is known as
heating effect of electric current. Heating
effect of electric current has many useful
16.7. Heating effect of
appliances. The electric laundry iron,
electric current electric toaster, electric oven and electric
heater are some of the familiar devices
Activity 16.3
which uses this effect.
•• Take an electric cell, a bulb, a
switch and connecting wires. 16.8. Joules law of
Make an electric circuit as shown heating
in Fig. 16.6. By pressing the key
allow the current to pass through Consider a current I flowing through
the bulb. a resistor of resistance R. Let the po-
tential difference across it be V. Let t
•• The bulb gets heated when
be the time during which a charge Q
current flows continuously for a
flows across. The work done in moving
long time (when the key is on).
the charge Q through the potential dif-
ference V is VQ. Therefore the source
must supply energy equal to VQ in time
t. Hence the power input to the circuit
9 16

by the source is
P= V (Q/t) = VI
CHAPTER
CHAPTER

or the energy supplied through the

Fig. 16.6 circuit by the source in time t is P×t, that
is VIt. What happens to this energy ex-

239
 pended by the source? This energy gets electric current the fuse wire melts and
dissipated in the resistor as heat. Thus for protects the circuits and appliances.
a steady current I, the amount of heat H
produced in time t is
16.10. Domestic electric
H=V It
circuits
Applying ohm’s law we get H=I² Rt. In our homes, we receive supply of
electric power through a main supply (also
This is known as joules law of heating.
called mains), either supported through
The law implies that heat produced in
overhead electric poles or by underground
a resistor is (1) directly proportional
cables. One of the wires in the supply,
to the square of current for a given
usually with red insulation cover, is called
resistance, (2) directly proportional to
live wire (or positive). Another wire, with
the resistance for a given current, and
black insulation, is called neutral wire (or
(3) directly proportional to the time for
negative). In our country, the potential
which the current flows through the
differences between the two are 220 V.
resistor.
At the meter-board in the house, these
Example 16.6
wires pass into an electricity meter through
A potential difference 20 V is applied a main fuse. Through the main switch
across a 4 Ω resistor. Find the rate of pro- they are connected to the line wires in
duction of heat. the house. These wires supply electricity
to separate circuits with in the house.
Solution: Often, two separate circuits are used, one
Given potential difference, V = 20 V of 15A current rating for appliances with
higher power ratings such as geysers ,
The resistance, R=4Ω
air coolers ,etc . The other circuit is of 5
The time, t =1s A current rating for bulbs, fans, etc. The
According to ohm’s law, I = V / R earth wire which has insulation of green
I = 20 V / 4 Ω = 5 A color is usually connected to a metal plate
deep in the earth near the house. This
The rate of production of heat, H = I2RT
is used as a safety measure, especially
H = 52 × 4 × 1 J = 100 J for those appliances that have a metallic
body, for example, electric press, toaster,
16.9. Role of fuse
table fan, refrigerator, etc. The metallic
A common application of joules heating body is connected to the earth wire, which
is the fuse used in electric circuits. It provides a low-resistance conducting path
consists of a piece of wire made of metal for the current. Thus, it ensures that any
PHYSICS

or an alloy (37% lead, 63% tin). It has leakage of current to the metallic body of
high resistance and low melting point. the appliance keep its potential to that
The fuse is connected in series with the of the earth, and the user may not get a
device. During the flow of any unduly high severe electric shock.

240
 Electricity and energy

Fig.16.7 gives a schematic diagram of increases. This is called short circuiting

one of the common domestic circuits. In . The use of an electric fuse prevents
each separate circuit, different appliances the electric circuit and appliance from a
can be connected across the live and possible damage by stopping the flow of
neutral wires. Each appliance has a unduly high electric current.
separate switch to ‘ON’/‘OFF’ the flow
of current through it. In order that each
appliance has equal potential difference, 16.11. Electric power
they are connected parallel to each other. We know already that the rate of
doing work is power. This is also the rate
of consumption of energy. This is also
termed as electric power.
The power P is given by P=VI
(or) P=I² R = V²/R
The SI unit of electric power is watt
(W). It is the power consumed by a device
that carries 1 A of current when operated
at a potential difference of 1 V. Thus,
Distribution box

1 W=1 volt × 1 ampere =1 V A.

The unit watt is very small. Therefore,
in actual practice we use a much larger
Electricity meter

unit called “kilowatt”. It is equal to 1000

Electricity board’s fuse

watt Since electric energy is the product

of power and time, the unit of electric
energy is, therefore, watt hour (Wh). One
watt hour is the energy consumed when
one watt of power is used for one hour.
Live wire

The commercial unit of electric energy is

kilowatt hour (kWh), commonly known as
Neutral wire

‘unit’.
Earth wire

1 kWh = 1000watt × 3600second

= 3.6×106 watt second
Fig. 16.7 = 3.6 × 106 joule (J)
9 16

Electric fuse is an important component

of all domestic circuits. Over loading can Example 16.7
CHAPTER

occur when the live wire and the neutral

CHAPTER

An electric bulb is connected to a 220 V

wire come onto direct contact. In such a generator. The current is 0.50 A. what is
situation the current in the circuit abruptly the power of the bulb?

241
 Solution: 16.13. Electrolysis- electro
Electric generator chemical cells
voltage,V = 220 V, the current,I = 0.50 A When the current is passed through
The power of the bulb, aqueous or molten solutions of inorganic
acids, bases and salts, the conduction
P = VI = 220 x 0.50 = 110 W
of electricity is always accompanied by
16.12. Chemical effect of chemical decomposition of the solutions
electric current such solutions are called electrolytes and
the phenomenon of the conduction of
Activity 16.4
electricity through electrolytes and chemi-
•• Take out carbon rods carefully cal decomposition is called electrolysis.
from two discarded cells.
•• Clean their metal caps with sand Electro chemical cell
paper. Name : Volta
•• Wrap copper wire around the Born : 18 February 1745
metal caps of the carbon rods. Birth place : Como, Italy

•• Connect these copper wires in Died : 05 March 1827

series with a battery and an LED. Best known for : The Italian who built the first battery

•• Dip the carbon rods into lemon The cells in which the electrical en-
juice taken in a plastic or rubber
ergy is derived from the chemical action
bowl.
are called electrochemical cells.
•• Does the bulb glow?
Voltaic cell consists of two electrodes,
•• Does lemon juice conduct one of copper and the other of zinc dipped
electricity? in a solution of dilute sulphuric acid in a
glass vessel. This is shown in Fig. 16.9.

Dilute H2so4

Glass vesssl
Fig. 16.8
PHYSICS

It is observed that lemon juice conduct

electricity.
Fig. 16.9

242
 Electricity and energy

On connecting the two electrodes ex- emf, when its constituents, two electrodes
ternally, with a piece of wire, current flows and a suitable electrolyte, are assembled
from copper to zinc outside the cell and together. The main primary cells are Dan-
from zinc to copper inside it. The copper iel cell and Leclanche cell. These cells
rod of the cell is the positive pole and the cannot be recharged. Leclanche cell is
zinc rod of the cell is negative pole. The discussed here.
electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid.
1. Leclanche cell
The action of the cell is explained in
A Leclanche cell consists of a glass
terms of the motion of the charged ions.
vessel which is filled with ammonium
At the zinc rod, the zinc atoms get ion-
chloride solution. Ammonium chloride
ized and pass into solution as Zn++ ions. solution is acting as electrolyte. In it there
This leaves the zinc rod with two elec- stands a zinc rod and porous pot contain-
trons more, making it negative. At the ing a carbon rod which is packed round
same time, two hydrogen ions (2H+) are with a mixture of manganese dioxide and
discharged at the copper rod, by taking powdered carbon. Therefore the carbon
these two electrons. This makes the cop- rod forms the positive pole and the zinc
rod the negative pole.
per rod positive. As long as excess elec-
trons are available on the zinc electrode, Ammonium chloride, splits into
this process goes on and a current flows ammonium and chloride ions. The chlo-
ride ions migrate to the zinc rod and de-
continuously in external circuit. This sim-
posit their negative charge at the zinc rod.
ple cell is thus seen as a device which Hence zinc becomes negatively charged
converts chemical energy into electrical and the reaction takes place in which zinc
energy. Due to opposite charges on the
two plates, a potential difference is set up
between copper and zinc. Copper being Carbon rod
at a higher potential than zinc, the differ- Zink rod
ence of potential between the two elec- Porous pot
trodes is 1.08 V. Ammonium
chloride solution
Mixture of carbon
16.14. Primary and secondary and Manganese
cells dioxide
Glass vessel
9 16

Primary cell
Fig.16.10
CHAPTER

The cells from which the electric

energy is derived by irreversible chem-
CHAPTER

is converted to zinc chloride. The ammo-

ical reaction are called primary cells. nium ions migrate to the carbon rod and
The primary cell is capable of giving an make it positively charged. When the car-

243
 bon rod and zinc rod are connected by
a wire, the current flows from carbon to
zinc through the wire. The e.m.f of the cell
is about 1.5V.

Secondary cells
The advantage of secondary cell is
that they are rechargeable. The chemi-
cal reactions that take place in secondary
cells are reversible. The active materials are connected by a wire, the current flows
that are used up when the cell delivers from cathode to anode through the wire.
current can be reproduced by passing
current through the cell in opposite direc- When current is applied to a lead-
tion. The chemical process of obtaining acid accumulator, the electrochemical
current from a secondary cell is called reaction is reversed. This is known as re-
discharge. The process of reproducing charging of the accumulator. The e.m.f of
active materials is called charging. One of freshly charged cell is 2.2V.
the most commonly used secondary cell 16.15. Sources of energy
is lead acid accumulator. Energy comes from different forms and
one can be converted to another. If energy
Lead-acid accumulator can neither be created nor be destroyed.
In a lead-acid accumulator, the anode we should be able to perform endless ac-
and cathode are made of lead and lead tivities without thinking about energy re-
dioxide respectively. The electrolyte is di- sources. But we hear so much about the
lute sulphuric acid. As power is discharged energy crises. What is the reason?
If we drop a plate from a height, the
potential energy of the plate is converted
mostly to sound energy when it hit’s the
ground. If we light a candle the chemical
Pb energy in the wax is converted to heat en-
PbO2 ergy and light energy on burning.
H2SO4
In these examples we see that energy,
in the usable form is dissipated to the sur-
Glass/rubber roundings in less usable forms. Hence
container
any source of energy we use to do work
is consumed and cannot be used again.
Fig. 16.11
We use muscular energy for carrying out
PHYSICS

from the accumulator, both the anode and physical work, electrical energy for run-
cathode undergoes a chemical reaction ning various appliances, chemical energy
that progressively changes them into lead for cooking food or running a vehicle, all
sulphate. When the anode and cathode come from a source. We should know

244
 Electricity and energy

how to select the source needed for ob- We will see how various sources of
taining energy in its usable form, and then energy can be used to run the turbine and
only it will be a useful source. generate electricity in the following sec-
tions.
A good source of energy would be one
•• W hich would do a large amount of 2. Thermal power plant
work per unit volume of mass?
Large amount of fossil fuels are burnt
•• Be easily accessible.
everyday in power stations to heat up
•• Be easy to store and transport and water to produce steam which further
•• Perhaps most importantly be runs the turbine to generate electricity.
economical. The transmission of electricity is more
efficient than transporting coal or petro-
16.15.1. Conventional-sources leum over the same distance. Therefore,
of energy many thermal power plants are set up
1. Fossil fuels near coal or oil fields. The term thermal
power plant is used since fuel is burnt to
In ancient time’s wood was the most
produce heat energy which is converted
common source of energy. The energy of
flowing water and wind was also used for into electrical energy.
limited activities. Can you think of some
3. Hydro power plants
of these uses? The exploitation of coal
as a source of energy made the industrial Another traditional source of energy
revolution possible. Industrialisation has was the kinetic energy of flowing water or
caused the global demand for energy to the potential energy of water at a height.
grow at a tremendous rate. The growing Hydro power plants convert the poten-
demand for energy was largely met by the tial energy of falling water into electricity.
fossil fuels, coal and petroleum. These fu-Since there are very few water falls which
els were formed over millions of years ago could be used as a source of potential en-
and there are only limited reserves. The ergy, hydro power plants are associated
fossil fuels are non-renewable sources with dams. In the last century, a large
of energy. So we need to conserve them. number of dams were built all over the
If we were to continue consuming these world. As we can see ,a quarter of our en-
sources at such alarming rates we would ergy requirements in India is met by hydro
soon run out of the energy. In order to power plants. In order to produce hydro
avoid this alternate source of energy were electricity, high-rise dams are constructed
9 16

explored. on the river to obstruct the flow of water

and there by collect water in larger res-
CHAPTER

Burning fossil fuels has other disad-

ervoirs. The water level rises and in this
CHAPTER

vantages like air pollution, acid rain and

process the kinetic energy of flowing wa-
production of green house gases.
ter gets transformed into potential energy.
The water from the high level in the dam

245
 is carried through the pipes, to the tur- Similarly, cow-dung, various plant ma-
bine, at the bottom of the dam Fig.16.12. terials like the residue after harvesting the
since the water in the reservoir would be crops, vegetable wastes and sewage are
refilled each time it rains(hydro power is decomposed in the absence of oxygen to
a renewable source of energy) we would give bio-gas. Since the starting material is
not have to worry about hydro electricity mainly cow-dung, it is popularly known as
sources getting used up the way fossil fu- ‘go bar-gas’. The ‘go bar-gas’ plant struc-
els would get finished one day. ture is shown in Fig. 16.13.
Gas outlet
Power transmission cables Slurry
Dam
Sluice Gas tank Manure
Transformer
gates
Power house Soil Soil
ck

Generator
to
ns

Outlet
Pe

Storage
Downstream Turbine Dam reservoir
outlet

Fig. 16.12 Digester

Fig 16.13
4. Bio-mass
5. Wind energy
We mentioned earlier that wood has
been used as a fuel for a long time. If we The kinetic energy of the wind can
can ensure that enough trees are planted, be used to do work. This energy was
a continuous supply of fire-wood can be harnessed by wind mills in the past to
assured. You must also be familiar with do mechanical work. For example, in a
the use of cow-dung cakes as a fuel. water-lifting pump, the rotatory motion
Given the large-stock published in India, of windmill is utilized to lift water from a
this can also assure us a steady source of well. Today, wind energy is also used to
fuel. Since these fuels are plant and ani- generate electricity. A wind mill essentially
mal products, the source of these fuels is consists of a structure similar to a large
set to be bio-mass. These fuels, however, electric fan that is erected at some height
do not produce much heat on burning and on a rigid support.
a lot of smoke is given out when they are To generate electricity, the rotatory
burnt. Therefore, technological inputs to motion of the windmill is used to turn the
improve the efficiency of these fuels are turbine of the electric generator. The out-
necessary. When wood is burnt in a lim- put of a single windmill is quiet small and
ited supply of oxygen, water and volatile cannot be used for commercial purposes.
materials present in it get removed and
PHYSICS

Therefore, a number of windmills are

charcoal is left behind as the residue. erected over a large area, which is known
Charcoal burns without flames, is com- as wind energy farm. The energy output
paratively smokeless and has higher heat of each windmill in a farm is coupled to-
generation efficiency.

246
 Electricity and energy

gether to get electricity on a commercial 1. Solar energy

scale. The sun has been radiating an enor-
Wind energy is a environment- mous amount of energy at the present
friendly and efficient source of renew-
able energy. It requires no recurring Activity 16.5
expenses for the production of electric- •• Find out from your grand-parents
ity. The wind speed should be higher or other elders
•• (a) How did they go to school?
•• (b) How did they get water for their
daily needs when they were
young?
•• (c)  What means of entertainment
did they use?
•• Compare the above answers with
how you do these tasks now.
•• Is there a difference? If yes, in
which case more energy from
external sources is consumed?

rate for nearly 5 billion years and will

continue radiating at that rate for about
5 billion years more. Only a small part
of solar energy reaches the outer layer
of the earth atmosphere. Nearly half of
Fig. 16.14 it is absorbed while passing through the
than 15 km per hour to maintain the re- atmosphere and the rest reaches the
quired speed of the turbine. Fig. 16.14. earth’s surface.
A black surface absorbs more heat than
16.15.2. Non-conventional any other surface under identical conditions.
sources of energy Solar cookers and solar water heaters use
Our life-styles are changing; we use this property in their working. Some solar
machines to do more and more of our cookers achieve a higher temperature by
tasks. Therefore our demand for the en- using mirrors to focus the rays of the sun.
ergy increases. We need to look for more solar cookers are covered with a glass plate.
9 16

and more sources of energy. We could These devices are useful only at cer-
develop the technology to use the avail- tain times during the day. This limitation of
CHAPTER

able sources of energy more efficiently using solar energy is overcome by using
CHAPTER

and also look to new sources of energy. solar cells that convert solar energy into
We shall now look at some of the latest electricity. A large number of solar cells are
sources of energy. combined in a arrangement called solar

247
 Activity 16.6 •• Design and built a solar cooker
or water-heater using low-cost
•• Take two conical flasks and paint
material available and check
one white and the other black.
what temperature are achieved
Fill both with water.
in your solar system.
•• Place the conical flask in direct
sunlight for half an hour to one •• Discuss what would be the
hour. advantages and limitations of
using the solar cooker or water-
•• Touch the conical flasks. Which heater.
one is hotter? You could also
measure the temperature of the
water in the two conical flasks
with a thermometer.
•• Can you think of ways in which
this finding could be used in your
daily life?
Solar cell
panel
Sun rays being
reflected

Glass
vessel Mirror

Fig. 16.15 Fig 16.16

cell panel that can deliver enough electric-
ity for practical use Fig. 16.16. The principal 16.15.3. Nuclear energy
advantages associated with solar cells are How is nuclear energy generated? In a
that they have no moving part, require little process called nuclear fission, the nucleus
maintenances. Another advantage is that of a heavy atom (such as uranium, pluto-
they can be set up in remote areas in which nium or thorium), when bombarded with
laying of power transmission line may be ex- low-energy neutrons, can be split apart
pensive. into lighter nuclei. When this is done, a
Activity 16.7 tremendous amount of energy is released
if the mass of the original nucleus is just a
•• Study the structure and working little more than the sum of the masses of
PHYSICS

of a solar cooker or a solar water- the individual products. The fission of an

heater, particularly with regard to atom or uranium, for example, produces
how it is insulated and maximum
10 million times the energy produced by
heat absorption is ensured.
the combustion of an atom of carbon from

248
 Electricity and energy

coal. In a nuclear reactor designed for agent like temperature, pressure, electric
electric power generation sustained fis- and magnetic fields etc.
sion chain reaction releases energy in a
controlled manner and the released en- 16.15.5. Nuclear fission and
ergy can be used to produce steam and nuclear fusion
further generate electricity.
1. Nuclear fission
16.15.4. Radioactivity In 1939, German scientists Otto Hahn
Name : Henry Becquerel and Strassman discovered that when ura-
Born : 15 December 1852
nium nucleus is bombarded with a neu-
Birth place : Paris, France
tron, it breaks up into two fragments of
comparable masses with the release of
Died : 25 August 1908
energy.
Best known for : Discovery of radioactivity
The process of breaking up of the
The phenomenon of radioactivity was nucleus of a heavier atom into two
discovered by Henri Becquerel in 1896. fragments with the release of large
He found that a photographic plate amount of energy is called nuclear fis-
wrapped in a black paper was affected by sion. The fission is accompanied of the
certain penetrating radiations emitted by release of neutrons. The fission reactions
uranium salt. Rutherford showed later that with 92 U235 are represented as
the radiations from the salt were capable
U235 + 0n1 → 56Ba141 + 36Kr92 +30n1 + 200 Me V
of ionizing a gas. The current produced 92

due to the ions was taken as a measure In the above example the fission reac-
of activity of the compound. tion is taking place with the release of 3 neu-
A few years later Madame Marie trons and 200 Million electron volt energy.
Curie and her husband Pierre Curie
discovered the highly radioactive ele-
ments radium and polonium. The activ-
ity of the material has been shown to be
the result of the three different kinds of
radiations,α, β, and γ.
The phenomenon of spontaneous
emission of highly penetrating radia-
tions such as α, β, and γ rays by heavy
elements having atomic number greater
9 16

than 82 is called radioactivity and the sub-

CHAPTER

stances which emit these radiations are

The process of fission
CHAPTER

called radioactive elements. Fig. 16.17

The radioactive phenomenon is spon-
taneous and is unaffected by any external

249
 2. Nuclear fusion 16.15.6. Nuclear Reactivity
Nuclear fusion is a process in Advantantages
which two or more lighter nuclei com- Nuclear reactivity is a measure of the de-
bine to form a heavier nucleus. The parture of a reactor from criticality. It is a
mass of the product is always less than useful concept to predict how the neutron
the sum of the masses of the individual population of a reactor will change over
lighter nuclei. According to Einstein’s time.
mass energy relation E = mc2, the dif-
If a reactor is exactly critical, that is,
ference in mass is converted into en-
the neutron production is exactly equal
ergy. The fusion process can be carried
to the neutron destruction, then the reac-
out only at a extremely high temperature
tivity is zero. If the reactivity is positive,
of the order of 107 K because, only at
then the reactor is super critical. If the re-
these very high temperatures the nu-
activity is negative, then the reactor is sub
clei are able to overcome their mutual
critical.
repulsion. Therefore before fusion, the
lighter nuclei must have their tempera-
ture raised by several million degrees.
16.15.7. Hazards of nuclear
The nuclear fusion reactions are known energy
as thermo nuclear reactions. α, β and γ radiations are all ioniz-
A suitable assembly of neutron and ing radiations. These radiations cause
deuteron and triton is arranged at the a change in the structure of molecules
sight of the explosion of the atom bomb. in cells, disturbs the normal functioning
Favorable temperature initiates the fusion of the biological system. The extent to
of light nuclei in an uncontrolled manner. which the human organism is damaged
This releases enormous amount of heat depends upon
energy. This is the hydrogen bomb. 1. The dose and the rate at which the
The fusion reaction in the hydrogen radiation is given and
bomb is 1H2 + 1H3 → 2 He4 + 0n1 + Energy 2. The part of the body exposed to it.
Example: 16.8 The damage may be either pathological
or genetic.
Calculate the energy produced when
1 kg of substance is fully converted into The radiation exposure is meas-
energy. ured by the unit called roentgen(R). One
roentgen is defined as the quantity of ra-
Solution: diation which produces 1.6 x 1012 pairs of
Energy produced, E = mc2 ion in 1 gram of air.
Mass, m = 1 kg Safe limit of receiving the radiation is
PHYSICS

Velocity of light, c = 3×108 m s-1 about 250 milli roentgen per week.
E = 1×(3×108 )2 The following precautions are to be
E = 9 × 1016 J taken for those, who are working in radia-
tion laboratories.

250
 Electricity and energy

(i) R
 adioactive materials are kept in ing to the sea. A turbine fixed at the open-
thick-walled lead container. ing of the dam converts tidal energy to
electricity. Fig. 16.18. As you can guess,
(ii) L
 ead aprons and lead gloves are
the locations where such dams can be
used while working in hazardous built are limited.
area. 2. Wave energy
(iii) A
 small micro-film badge is always Similarly, the kinetic energy possessed
worn by the person and it is checked by huge waves near the sea-shore can be
periodically for the safety limit of trapped in a similar manner that gener-
radiation. ates electricity. The waves are generated
by strong winds blowing across the sea.
(iv) Nuclear devices can be operated
Wave energy would be a viable proposi-
using remote control system. tion only where waves are very strong.
(v) Clean up contamination in the work A wide variety of devices has been de-
area promptly. veloped to trap wave energy for rotation
of turbine and production of electricity.
Fig.16.19
16.15.8. SCIENCE TODAY -
Energy from seas
Air back in Air out
1. Tidal energy
Due to the gravitational pull of mainly
the moon on the spinning earth, the level Turbine
of the water in the sea rises and falls. If you Generator
live near the sea or ever travel to some
place near the sea, try and observe how
the sea-level changes during the day. The
Wave
Direction

Fig. 16.19
3. Ocean thermal energy
The water at the surface of the sea or
ocean is heated by the sun while the wa-
ter in deeper sections is relatively cooled.
This difference in temperature is exploited
9 16

Fig. 16.18 to obtain energy in ocean-thermal-energy

conversion plants. These plants can oper-
CHAPTER

phenomenon is called high and low tides ate if the temperature difference between
CHAPTER

and the difference in sea-levels gives us the water at the surface and water at
tidal energy. Tidal energy is harnessed by depths up to 2 kilometers is 293 K (20° C)
constructing a dam across a narrow open- or more . The warm surface-water is used

251
 to boil a volatile liquid like ammonia. The Ammonia vapours
vapors of liquid then used to run the tur- Generator
bine of generator. The cooled water from Heat
exchanger
the depth of the ocean is pumped up and (evaporator) Turbine
condense vapor again to liquid. Fig.16.20.
The energy potential from the sea Heat
(tidal energy, wave energy and ocean exchanger
Pump (condenser)
thermal energy) is quiet large, but efficient Warm
sea water
Liquid ammonia
commercial exploitation is difficult. Discharge
Cold sea
water
Fig. 16.20

EVALUATION
PART A a) current / potential difference =
1. The potential difference required constant
to pass a current 0.2 A in a wire of b) potential difference / current =
resistance 20 ohm is _________.(100 constant
V, 4 V, 0.01 V, 40 V) c) current = resistance x potential
difference
2. T  wo electric bulbs have resistances
in the ratio 1 : 2. If they are joined in 2. Fill in the blanks
series, the energy consumed in these a) Potential difference : voltmeter,
are in the ratio _________.(1 : 2, 2 : 1, then: current __________.
4 : 1, 1 : 1) b) power plant : conventional source
of energy then solar energy _____.
3. Kilowatt-hour is the unit of __________.
(potential difference, electric power, 3. In the list of sources of energy given
electric energy, charge) below, some of them are wrong. List
out the wrong ones. (Wind energy, solar
4. ________ surface absorbs more heat energy, hydro electric power, nuclear
than any other surface under identical energy, tidal energy, wave energy, geo-
conditions. (White, rough, black, thermal energy.)
yellow)
4. C o r r e c t t h e m i s t a k e s , i f a n y,
5. The atomic number of natural in the following statements.
radioactive element is _________. a) A good source of energy would be
(greater than 82, less than 82, not one which would do a small amount
PHYSICS

defined, atleast 92) of work per unit volume of mass.

PART B b) Any source of energy we use to do
1. From the following statements write down work is consumed and can be used
that which does not represent ohm’s law. again.

252
 Electricity and energy

5. The schematic diagram, in which They are electromagnetic radiation.

different components of the circuit They have high penetrating power.
are represented by the symbols They are electrons. They contain
conveniently used, is called a circuit neutrons.
diagram. What do you mean by the
8. Draw the schematic diagram of an
term components?
electric circuit consisting of a battery
6. Following graph was plotted between of two cells of 1.5V each, three
V and I values.What would be the resistance of 5 ohm, 10 ohm and 15
values of V / I ratios when the potential ohm respectively and a plug key all
difference is 0.8 V and 1.2 V. connected in series.
9. Fuse wire is made up of an alloy
1.6
of ___________ which has high
1.5 resistance and _______.
VOLT ( V )

1 10. Observe the circuit given below and

find the resistance across AB.
.5 1 ohm 1 ohm

A B

.2 .4 .6 .8 1 ohm 1 ohm
I (A)

6V
7. We know that γ – rays are harmful
radiations emitted by natural radio 11. Complete the table choosing the
active substances. right terms from within the brackets.
a) Which are other radiations from (zinc, copper, carbon, lead, leadoxide,
such substances?z aluminium.)
b) Tabulate the following statements + ve electrode Danial cell
as applicable to each of the
above radiations
- ve electrode Lechlechne cell

Further reference
Books : 1. Electricity and Magnetism, by D.C Tayal Himalayam publishing
house.
9 16

2. Sources of energy, by C. Walker, Modern curriculam press.

CHAPTER

Website : www.reprise.com, www.wikipedia.org

CHAPTER

253
 Chapter 17

MAGNETIC EFFECT OF
ELECTRIC CURRENT
AND LIGHT
 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

17. MAGNETIC EFFECT OF

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

Name : Oersted
Born : 14 August 1777
Birth place : Langeland Denmark
Died : 9 March 1851
Best known for : The study of
electromagnetism
S
17.1. Magnetic field and N
magnetic lines of
force
We are familiar with the fact that a
compass needle gets deflected when
brought near a bar magnet. Why does a
Fig. 17.1
compass needle get deflected?
Activity 17.1 The iron fillings arrange themselves in
•• Fix a sheet of white paper on a pattern as shown in Fig. 17.1. Why do
a drawing board using some the iron fillings arrange in such a pattern?
adhesive material. What does this pattern demonstrate? The
•• Place a bar magnet in the centre magnet exerts its influence in the region
of it. surrounding it. Therefore the iron fillings
•• Sprinkle some iron fillings experience a force. The force thus exerted
uniformly around the bar magnet makes iron fillings to arrange in a pattern.
CHAPTER 17

(Fig 17.1). The region surrounding the magnet, in

•• A salt-Sprinkler may be used for which the force of the magnet can be
this purpose. detected, is said to have a magnetic field.
•• Now tap the board gently. The lines along which the iron fillings align
•• What do you observe? themselves represent magnetic lines of
force.

255
255
 Activity 17.2
•• Take a small compass and a
bar magnet.
•• Place the magnet on a sheet of
white paper fixed on a drawing S
N
board, using some adhesive S
material. N
S N
•• Mark the boundary of the
magnet. Fig 17.2
• • Place the compass near the
north pole of the magnet. How
does it behave? The south pole
of the needle points towards
the north pole of the magnet.
The north pole of the compass S N
is directed away from the north
pole of the magnet.
•• Mark the position of two ends of
the needle.
•• Now move the needle to a new
position such that its south
Fig 17.3
occupies the position previously
occupied by its north pole. Magnetic field is a quantity that has
•• In this way, proceed step by both magnitude and direction. The
step till you reach the south direction of the magnetic field is taken
pole of the magnet as shown to be the direction in which a north pole
•• Join the points marked on the of the compass needle moves inside it.
paper by a smooth curve. This Therefore it is taken by convention that
curve represents a field line. the field lines emerge from the north pole
•• Repeat the above procedure and merge at the south pole as shown in
and draw as many lines as Fig.17.3. Inside the magnet, the direction
you can. You will get a pattern of field lines is from its south pole to its
shown in Fig.17.2.These lines north pole. Thus the magnetic field lines
represent the magnetic field
are closed curves. No two field-lines are
around the magnet. These are
found to cross each other.
known as magnetic field lines.
•• Observe the deflection of the 17.2. Magnetic field due
compass needle as you move it
PHYSICS

to current carrying
along the field line. The deflection
increases as the needle is moved conductor
towards the pole. In the activity 17.3 we have seen that
electric current through a metallic conductor

256
 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

produced by the electric current depends

Activity 17.3
upon the direction of flow of current.

•• Take a straight thick copper wire 17.2.1. Magnetic field due to

and place it between the points current carrying straight
X and Y in an electric circuit, as conductor
shown in Fig..17.4. The wire XY What determines the pattern of the
is kept perpendicular to the plane magnetic field generated by current
of the paper. through a conductor? Does the pattern
•• Horizontally place a small depend on the shape of the conductor?
compass near this copper wire. We shall investigate this with an activity.
See the position of its needle.
•• Pass the current through the
circuit by inserting the key into Activity 17.4
the plug.
•• Observe the change in the •• Take a battery (12 V), a variable
position of the compass needle resistance (rheostat), an ammeter
and the direction of deflection. (0-5A), a plug key, and a long
straight thick copper wire.
•• Replace the cell connection in
the circuit so that the direction •• Insert the thick wire through the
of the current in the copper wire centre, normal to the plane of a
changes. rectangular cardboard. Take care
that the cardboard is fixed and
•• Observe the change in the
does not slide up or down.
direction of deflection of the
needle. •• Connect the copper wire vertically
between the points X and Y, as
shown in Fig 17.5(a), in series
with the battery, a plug key,
ammeter and a rheostat.
•• Sprinkle some iron fillings
uniformly on the cardboard. (you
Fig 17.4 may use a salt sprinkler for this
purpose).
•• Keep the variable of the rheostat
produces a magnetic field around it. If the
at a fixed position and note the
current flows in one direction (from X to current through the ammeter.
CHAPTER 17

Y), the north pole of the compass needle

would move towards the east. If the •• Close the key so that the current
current flows in opposite direction (from Y flows through the wire. Ensure
that the copper wire placed
to X), you will see that the needle moves in
between the points X and Y
opposite direction, that is towards the west.
remains vertically straight.
It means that the direction of magnetic field

257
257
 What happens to the deflection of the
•• Gently tap the cardboard a few compass needle placed at a given point if
times. Observe the pattern of the
the current in the copper wire is changed?
iron fillings. You would find that
We find that the deflection in the needle
the iron fillings align themselves
showing a pattern of concentric also changes. In fact, if the current is
circles around the copper wire, increased, the deflection also increases.
Fig 17.5(b). It indicates that the magnitude of the
magnetic field produced at a given point
•• What do these concentric circles
increases as the current through the wire,
represent? They represent the
increases.
magnetic field lines.
•• How can the direction of the What happens to the deflection of the
magnetic field be found? Place a needle if the compass is moved from the
compass at a point (say P) over copper wire but the current through the
a circle. Observe the direction of wire remains the same? To see this, now
the needle. The direction of the place the compass at a farther point from
north pole of the compass needle the conducting wire. What change do you
would give the direction of the observe? We see that the deflection in
field lines produced by the electric the needle decreases. Thus the magnetic
current through the straight wire field produced by the given current in
at point P. Show the direction by the conductor decreases as the distance
an arrow. from it increases. From Fig.17.5 (b), it
•• Does the direction of magnetic can be noticed that the concentric circles
field lines get reversed if the representing the magnetic field around
direction of current through the a current-carrying straight wire become
straight copper wire is reversed? larger and larger as we move away from
Check it. it.

Variable resistence
17.2.2. Magnetic field due to
current carrying circular
loop
We have so far observed the pattern of
the magnetic field lines produced around
a current-carrying straight wire. Suppose
this straight wire is bent in the form of
a circular loop and current is passed
through it, how would the magnetic field
lines look like?
PHYSICS

We know that the magnetic field

produced by a current- carrying straight
wire depends inversely on the distance
Fig.17.5

258
 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

Activity 17.5

•• Take a rectangular cardboard

having two holes. Insert a circular
coil having large number of turns
through them, normal to the plane
of the cardboard. N S
•• Connect the ends of the coil in
series with a battery, a key and
rheostat, as shown in Fig.17.6.
•• Sprinkle iron fillings uniformly on
the cardboard.
•• Plug the key.
•• Tap the cardboard gently a few Fig.17.7
times. Note the pattern of the We know that the magnetic field
iron fillings that emerges on the produced by a current- carrying conductor
cardboard. at a given point, depends directly on the
current passing through it. Therefore,
if there is a circular coil having n turns,
B the field produced is n times as large as
produced by a single turn. This is because
the current in each circular turn has the
A same direction, and the field due to each
turn then just adds up.
_
+
17.3. Force on a current
K
Fig.17.6
carrying conductor
in a magnetic field
from it. Similarly at every point of a current- We know that an electric current
carrying circular loop, the concentric flowing through a conductor produces
circles representing the magnetic field a magnetic field. The field so produced
around it becomes larger and larger as exerts a force on a magnet placed in the
we move away from the wire (Fig. 7.7). vicinity of a conductor. French scientist
By the time we reach the centre of the Andre Marie Ampere suggested that the
CHAPTER 17

circular loop, the arcs of these big circles magnet must also exert an equal and
would appear as straight lines. Every opposite force on the current carrying
point on the wire carrying current would conductor. The force due to a current
give rise to the magnetic field appearing carrying conductor can be demonstrated
as straight lines at the centre of the loop. through the following activity.

157
2597
 The displacement of the rod in the
Activity 17.6
above activity suggests that a force is
•• Take a small aluminium rod AB of exerted on the current- carrying aluminium
about 5 cm. using two connecting rod when it is placed on a magnetic field.
wires suspend it horizontally from It also suggests that the direction of force
a stand as shown in Fig. 17.8. is also reversed when the direction of
•• Place a horse-shoe magnet current through the conductor is reversed.
in such a way that the rod lies Now change the direction of field to
between two poles with the vertically downwards by interchanging the
magnetic field directed upwards. two poles of the magnet. It is once again
For this put the North Pole of observed that the direction of force acting
the magnet vertically below and
on the current-carrying rod gets reversed.
South Pole vertically above the
aluminium rod. It shows that the direction of force on the
conductor depends upon the direction
•• Connect the aluminium rod in
of current and the direction of magnetic
series with a battery, a key and a
rheostat. field. Experiments have shown that the
displacement of the rod is largest when
•• Now pass a current through the
the direction of current is at right angles to
aluminium rod from end B to A.
the direction of magnetic field.
•• What do you observe? It is
observed that the rod is displaced
towards the left. You will notice 17.3.1. Fleming left hand rule
that the rod gets displaced. We considered that the direction of
•• Reverse the direction of current the current and that of the magnetic field
flowing through the rod and perpendicular to each other and found that
observe the direction of its the force is perpendicular to both of them.
displacement. It is now towards
the right. The three directions can be illustrated
through a simple rule, called Fleming’s left
•• Why does the rod get displaced? hand rule.(Fig.17.9).
Field
Field

Thumb - Motion Current

Force

Current
PHYSICS

Fig. 17.9

Stretch the thumb, fore finger and

Fig. 17.8 middle finger of your left hand such

260
 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

that they are mutually perpendicular. Current in the coil ABCD enters from the
If the forefinger points in the direction source battery through conducting brush
of magnetic field and the middle finger B1 and flows back to the battery through
points in the direction of current, then brush B2. Notice that the current in arm AB
the thumb will point in the direction of the coil flows from A to B. In arm CD it
of motion or the force acting on the flows from C to D, that is, opposite to the
conductor. direction of current through arm AB. On
applying Fleming’s left hand rule for the
direction of force on a current-carrying
17.4. Electric motor conductor in a magnetic field. We find
An electric motor is a rotating device that the force acting on arm AB pushes it
that converts electrical energy in to downwards while the force acting on arm
mechanical energy. Do you know how an CD pushes it upwards. Thus the coil and
electric motor works? the axle, mounted free to turn about an
axis, rotate anti-clockwise. At half rotation
An electric motor, as shown in S2 makes contact with the brush B1 and S2
Fig. 17.10, consists of a rectangular coil
with brush B2. Therefore the current in the
ABCD of insulated copper wire. The coil is
coil gets reversed and flows along the path
placed between two poles of a magnetic
DCBA. A device that reverses the direction
field such that the arm AB and CD are
of flow of current through a circuit is called
perpendicular to the direction of magnetic
a commutator. In electric motors, the split
field. The ends of the coil are connected
ring acts as a commutator. The reversal
to the two halves S1 and S2 of a split ring.
of current also reverses the direction of
The inner side of these halves insulated force acting on the two arms AB and CD.
and attached to an axle. The external Thus the arm AB of the coil that was earlier
conducting edges of S1 and S2 touch two pushed down is now pushed up and the
conducting stationary brushes B1 and B2, arm CD previously pushed up is now
respectively. pushed down. Therefore the coil and the
axle rotate half a turn more in the same
direction. The reversing of the current is
B C
repeated at each half rotation, giving rise
to a continuous rotation of the coil and to
the axle.
The commercial motors use (i) an
A D
electro magnet in place of permanent
magnet; (ii) large number of turns of the
CHAPTER 17

B1
S1
conducting wire in the current-carrying
B2
coil, and (iii) a soft iron core on which the
B2 coil is wound . The soft iron core, on which
Bt
the coil is wound, plus the coils, is called
K
( ) an armature. This enhances the power of
Fig. 17.9 the motor.

261
 17.5. Electromagnetic
induction •• Connect the ends of the coil
Faraday in1831 discovered that an to a galvanometer as shown
electro motive force is produced in a in Fig.17.11
circuit whenever the magnetic flux linked •• Take a strong bar magnet and
with a coil changes. He showed that emf move its north pole towards
is generated in a conductor when ever the end B of the coil. Do
there is a relative motion between the you find any change in the
conductor and a magnetic field. Then emf galvanometer reading?
produced in this way is called an induced •• There is a momentary
emf and the phenomenon is known as deflection in the needle of the
electro magnetic induction. The induced galvanometer, say to the right.
emf will cause a current to flow through This indicates the presence of
the conductor. Such a current is known a current in the coil AB. The
as induced current .Faraday made an deflection becomes zero, the
important break through by discovering moment the motion of the
magnet stops.
how a magnet can be used to generate
electric currents. •• Now withdraw the north pole
of the magnet away from the
17.5.1. Faraday’s Experiments coil. Now the galvanometer
is deflected toward the left,
We know that when a current-carrying showing that the current is
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it now setup in the direction
experiences a force. This force causes the opposite to the first.
conductor to move. Now let us imagine a
•• Place the magnet stationary
situation in which a conductor is moving
at the point near to the coil,
inside a magnetic field or a magnetic field keeping its north pole toward
is changing around a fixed conductor. the end B of the coil. We
What will happen? To observe this effect, see that the galvanometer
let us perform the following activity. needle deflects towards the
right when the coil is moved
Activity 17.7 towards the north pole of the
A B magnet. Similarly the needle
moves toward left when the
N S
coil is moved away.
•• When the coil is kept stationary
with respect to the magnet, the
deflection of the galvanometer
PHYSICS

G
Fig.17.11 drops to zero. What do you
conclude from this activity?
•• Take a coil of wire AB having a
large number of turns.

262
 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

You can also check that if you have

moved South Pole of the magnet towards Now the current flows in the
the end B of the coil, the deflections in opposite direction in coil -2.
the galvanometer would just be opposite
to the previous case. When the coil and Coil -1 Coil -2
the magnet are both stationary, there is
no deflection in the galvanometer. It is
thus clear that motion of a magnet with
respect to the coil produces an induced
electromotive force, which sets up an
induced electric current in the circuit.
Let us now perform a different activity in Fig. 17.12
which the moving magnet is replaced by a
current-carrying coil and the current in the
coil can be varied. In this activity we observe that as soon
as the current in coil-1 reaches either a
Activity 17.8 steady value or zero, the galvanometer
in coil-2 shows no deflection. From these
•• Two different coils of copper
wire having large number of observations we conclude that a potential
turns (say 50 and 100 turns difference is induced in coil-2 when ever
respectively). Insert them over a the current through the coil-1 is changing.
non conducting cylindrical roll as Coil-1 is called the primary coil and coil-2
shown in Fig.17.12. is called the secondary coil. As the current
•• Connect the coil -1 having large in the first coil changes, the magnetic field
number of turns, in series with associated with it also changes. Thus the
a battery and a plug key. Also magnetic field lines around the secondary
connect the other coil -2 with a coil also change. Hence the change in
galvanameter assam.
magnetic field lines associated with the
•
•Plug in the key. Observe the secondary coil is the cause of induced
galvanameter. Is there a deflection electric current in it. The direction of
in its needle?. You will observe that
the induced current can be found using
the needle of the galvanameter
instantly jumps to one side and Fleming’s right hand rule.
just as quickly returns to zero, Stretch the thumb, forefinger and
indicating a momentary current in middle finger of right hand so that they
coil -2.
CHAPTER 17

are perpendicular to each other. If the

•• Disconnect coil-1 from the forefinger indicates the direction of the
battery. You will observe that the magnetic field and the thumb shows the
needle momentarily moves, but
direction of motion of conductor, then the
to the opposit side. It means that,
middle finger will show the direction of
induced current.

157
2637
 17.6. Electric Generator a result, the directions of the induced
currents in both the arms change,
The phenomenon of electro magnetic
giving rise to the net induced current in
induction is employed to produce large
the direction DCBA. The current in the
currents for use in homes and industry. In
external circuit now flows from B1 to B2.
an electric generator, mechanical energy
Thus after every half rotation the polarity
is used to rotate a conductor in a magnetic
of the current in the respective arms
field to produce electricity.
changes. Such a current which changes
An electric generator, as shown direction after equal intervals of time, is
in Fig.17.13a, consists of rotating called an alternating current (AC). This
rectangular coil ABCD placed between device is called an AC generator.
the two poles of a permanent magnet.
The two ends of this coil are connected to B C
the two rings S1 and S2. The inner sides of
these rings are made insulated. The two
conducting stationary brushes B1 and B2
are kept pressed separately on the rings N S
S1 and S2 respectively. The two rings S1 A D
and S2 are internally attached to an axle. B1
S1
The axle may be mechanically rotated R
B2
from outside to rotate the coil inside the
magnetic field. Outer ends of the two S2
brushes are connected to the external
circuit.
When the axle attached to the two rings A.C Generator
is rotated such that the arm AB moves up,
the arm CD moves down in the magnetic a
field produced by the permanent magnet.
Let us say the coil ABCD is rotated
clockwise. By applying Fleming’s right-
hand rule the induced currents are setup
in these arms along the directions AB
and CD. Thus an induced current flows
in the direction ABCD. If there are large
numbers of turns in the coil, the current
generated in each turn adds up to give a
large current through the coil. This means
that the current in the external circuit flows
PHYSICS

from B2 to B1.
D.C Generator
After half a rotation, arm CD starts b
moving up and AB moving down. As
Fig 17.13

264
 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

To get a direct current (DC), a ­split- These laws of reflection are applicable
ring type commutator must be used with to all types of reflecting surfaces including
this arrangement, Fig.17.13b, one brush spherical surfaces.
is at all times in contact with the arm
Spherical mirrors
moving up in the field, while the other is in
contact with the arm moving down. Thus Activity 17.9
a unidirectional current is produced. The
•• Take a perfect hemispherical
generator is thus called a DC generator.
spoon. Try to view your face in its
An important advantage of AC over DC curved surface.
is that electric power can be transmitted •• Do you get the image? Is it larger
over long distances without much loss of or smaller?
energy.
•• Move the spoon slowly away from
17.7. LIGHT your face. Observe the image.
How does it change?
We see a variety of objects in the world
around us. However we are unable to see •• Reverse the spoon and repeat
anything in a dark room. On lighting up the activity. How does the image
the room things becomes visible. What look like now?
makes things visible? During the day the •• Compare the characteristics of
sunlight helps us to see objects. An object the images on the two surfaces.
reflects light that falls on it. This reflected
light when received by our eyes, enables
The curved surface of a shining spoon could
us to see things.
be considered as a curved mirror. The most
There are a number of common commonly used type of curved mirror is the
wonderful phenomena associated with spherical mirror. The reflecting surface of a
light. In this chapter, we shall study the spherical mirror may be curved inwards or
phenomena of reflection and refraction of outwards. A spherical mirror whose
light using the straight-line propagation of reflecting surface is curved inwards is
light. called a concave mirror. A spherical
mirror whose reflecting surface is
Reflection of light curved outwards is called a convex
mirror. The schematic representation of
A highly polished surface, such as a
these mirrors is shown in Fig. 17.14.
mirror, reflects most of the light falling on
it. You are already familiar with the laws of
reflection of light. Let us recall these laws.
CHAPTER 17

(i) The angle of incidence is equal to the

angle of reflection, and
(ii) The incident ray, the normal to the
mirror at the point of incidence and
(a) concave mirror (b) convex mirror
the reflected ray, all lie in the same
plane. Fig 17.14

265
157
26
 You may now understand that the Let us understand important terms
surface of the spoon curved inwards can be related to mirrors, through above activity.
approximated to a concave mirror and the The paper at first begins to burn
surface of the spoon bulged outwards can producing smoke. It may even catch fire.
be approximated to a convex mirror. Why does it burn? The light from the sun
Before we move further on spherical is converged at a point, as a sharp, bright
mirrors, we need to recognise and understand spot by the mirror. In fact, this spot of
the meaning of a few terms. These terms light is the image of the sun on the sheet
are commonly used in discussions about of paper. This point is the focus of the
spherical mirrors. concave mirror. The heat produced due
The centre of the reflecting surface of a to the concentration of the sunlight ignites
spherical mirror is a point, called the pole. It the paper. The distance of the image
is represented by the letter P. from the position of the mirror gives the
approximate focal length of the mirror.
The reflecting surface of a spherical
Observe Fig.17.15(a) closely
mirror forms a part of a sphere. This sphere
has a centre. This point is called the centre M
of curvature of the spherical mirror. It is A
D
.
represented by the letter C. I
r

The radius of the sphere of which the

At P
reflecting surface of a spherical mirror forms C F
Infinity
a part, is called the radius of curvature of the
mirror. It is represented by the letter R.
B
(a) N
Imagine a straight line passing through
the pole and the centre of curvature of
G
a spherical mirror. This line is called the M

principle axis. A
D

Activity 17.10 E
P F C
•• Hold a concave mirror in your hand
and direct its reflecting surface B
towards the sun. N
At Infinity
•• Direct the light reflected by the (b)
mirror on to a sheet of paper held
close to the mirror. Fig. 17.15
•• Move the sheet of paper back and
forth gradually until you find on the A number of rays parallel to the principal
paper sheet a bright, sharp spot of axis are falling on a concave mirror.
PHYSICS

light. Observe the reflected rays. They are all

•• Hold the mirror and the paper in the meeting at a point on the principal axis of
same position for a few minutes. the mirror. This point is called the principal
What do you observe? Why? focus of the concave mirror. Similarly

266
 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

observe Fig. 17.15(b). How are the rays (i) A ray parallel to the principal axis,
parallel to the principal axis reflected by a after reflection, will pass through principal
convex mirror? The reflected rays appear focus in case of a concave mirror or appear
to come from a point on the principal axis. to diverge from the principal focus in case
This point is called the principal focus of of a convex mirror. This is illustrated in Fig.
the convex mirror. The principal focus is 17.16(a) and (b).
represented by the letter F.
The distance between the pole and . r
the principal focus of
.I a spherical mirror I

r It is represented
is called the focal length.
by the letter f. P
C F P F C
The diameter of the reflecting surface of
spherical mirror is called its aperture. In fig
17.15, distance MN represents the aperture.
In our discussion we shall consider only (b)
such spherical mirrors whose aperture is
much smaller than its radius of curvature. Fig. 17.16
Is there any relationship between the
(ii) A ray passing through the principal
radius of curvature R, and focal length f, of
focus of a concave mirror or a ray directed
a spherical mirror? For spherical mirrors of
towards the principal focus of a convex
small apertures the radius of curvature is
mirror, after reflection, will emerge parallel
found to be equal to twice the focal length.
to the principal axis. This is illustrated in
We put this as R = 2f.
Fig.17.17 (a) and (b).

17.7.1 Reflection of light by spherical

mirror
The reflection of light by a spherical mirror
takes place according to certain definite
rules as follows.
F P
. r .I
.I C I
r
r
P
CHAPTER 17

C F P F C

(a)
Fig. 17.17
(a)

157
267
 Image formation by concave mirror
.
I
How about the images formed by
r spherical mirrors? How can we locate
the image formed by a concave mirror
F P for different positions of the object?
.I
r P F C Are the images real or virtual? Are the
images enlarged, diminished or have
the same size?
The nature, position and size of the
(b)
image formed by a concave mirror
(iii) A ray passing through the centre of
depend on the position of the object in
curvature of a concave mirror or directed
relation to point P, F and C. The image
in the direction of the centre of curvature
formed is real for some positions of the
of a convex mirror, after reflection, is
object. It is found to be a virtual image
reflected back along the same path. This
for a certain other position. The image
is illustrated in Fig.17.18 (a) and (b).
is either magnified, reduced or has the
same size, depending on the position of
the object.
We can study the formation of image
by spherical mirrors by drawing ray
P diagrams. To construct the ray diagrams,
C F it is more convenient to consider only
two rays. These rays are so chosen that
P F C
it is easy to know their directions after
reflection from the mirror. You may take
any two of the rays mentioned in the
(a) previous section for locating the image.
The intersections of the two reflected rays
give the position of image of the point
object. This is illustrated in the Fig.17.19.
Uses of concave mirror
P
Concave mirrors are commonly used in
P F C torches, search-lights and vehicles head
lights to get powerful parallel beams of
light. They are used as shaving mirrors to
see a lager image of the face. The dentists
PHYSICS
PHYSICS

(b) use concave mirrors to see large images

of the teeth of patients. Large concave
Fig 17.18 mirrors are used to concentrate sun light
to produce heat in solar furnaces.

268
 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

A M

A . D
I
r B1
P C F P
B
C F
A1
B N
At Infinity (a)
D (b)
M
E
M
A D A
B1 D
C
B P
P F
B
B C F
E
A A1 N
(d)
(c) N

M A1
M E
E A
A D .I
C
C B
P F B r P B1
F

At Infinity (e) (f) N

N
Fig 17.19
A summary of these observations is given in Table: 17.1.
Position of Position of the Relative size of Nature of the
the Object image the image image
At infinity At focus F2 Highly dimin- Real and inverted
ished, point-sized
Beyond 2F1 Between F2 and 2F2 Diminished Real and inverted
At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size Real and inverted
Between F1 & 2F1 Beyond 2F2 Enlarged Real and inverted
At focus F1 At infinity Infinitely large or Real and inverted
CHAPTER 17

highly enlarged
Between focus On same side of the Enlarged Virtual and erect
F1 and optical lens as the object
centre O
Table 17.1

157
269
 Image formation by a convex mirror
We consider two positions of the object for studying the image formed by a convex
mirror. First is when the object is at infinity and the second position is when the object
is at a finite distance from the mirror. The ray diagrams for the formation of image by a
convex mirror for these two positions of the object are shown in Fig 17.20(a) and (b),
respectively.
M
A M

A
A1
P F C
B B P B1 F C
At Infinity
N
(a) (b) N

Fig. 17.20
A summary of these observations is given in Table: 17. 2

Position of the Position of the Relative size of Nature of the

object image the image image
At infinity At focus F1 Highly dimin- Virtual and erect
ished, point-sized
Between infinity Between focus F1 Diminished Virtual and erect
and optical centre and optical centre
O of the lens O
Table 17.2
You have studied the image formation by a concave mirror and a convex mirror,
which of these mirrors will give the full image of a large object? Let us explore through
an activity.

Activity 17.11
•• Observe the image of a distant tree in a concave mirror.
•• Could you see a full length image?
•• Repeat this Activity with a convex mirror. Did the mirror show full length
image of the object?
PHYSICS

•• Explain your observations with reason.

You can see a full length image of a tree in a small convex mirror.

270
 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

Uses of convex mirrors The New Cartesian Sign Convention

described above is illustrated in Fig. 17.21.
Convex mirrors are commonly used
as rear-view mirrors in vehicles. These Object on the left M
Direction of
mirrors are fitted on the sides of the A Incident Light
vehicle, enabling the driver to see traffic
Height
behind him/her to facilitate safe driving. Upwards
Distance towards Distance towards
{+ve} the left {-ve}
Convex mirrors are preferred because P
the right {+ve}

they always give an erect image. Also X

X

Height B B1
they have a wider field of view as they downwards
{-ve}
are curved outwards.
A1
Mirror
Sign convention for reflection by N
spherical mirrors Fig. 17.21
While dealing with the reflection of
light by spherical mirrors, we shall follow These sign conventions are applied to
a set of sign conventions called the New obtain the mirror formula
Cartesian Sign Convention. In this
convention, the pole (P) of the mirror is Mirror formula
taken as the origin. The principal axis of In a spherical mirror, the distance of
the mirror is taken as the X axis (X′X) of the object from its pole is called the object
the coordinate system. The conventions distance (u). The distance of the image
are as follows. from the pole of the mirror is called the
(i) The object is always placed to the image distance (v). You already know that
left of the mirror. the distance of the principal focus from the
pole is called the focal length (f). There
(ii) All distances parallel to the principal is a relationship between these three
axis are measured from the pole of quantities given by the mirror formula
the mirror. which is expressed as
(iii) All the distances measured to the 1/v + 1/u = 1/f
right of the origin (along +X-axis)
This formula is valid in all situations for
are taken as positive while those all spherical mirrors for all positions of the
measured to the left of the origin object. You must use the New Cartesian
(along -X-axis) are taken as negative Sign convention while substituting
(iv) Distances measured perpendicular numerical values for u, v, f, and R in the
CHAPTER 17

to and above the principal axis (along mirror formula for solving problems.
+Y-axis) are taken as positive. Example: 17.1
(v) Distances measured perpendicular A convex mirror used for rear-view on
to and below the principal axis (along an automobile has a radius of curvature
-Y-axis) are taken as negative. of 3 m. If a bus is located at 5 m from this

157
2717
 mirror, find the position and nature of the water appears to be raised. Similarly,
image. when a thick glass slab is placed over
some printed matter, the letters appear
Solution: raised when viewed through the glass
Radius of curvature, R = +3.00 m slab. Why does it happen? Have you seen
Object distance u = - 5.00 m a pencil partially immersed in water in a
glass tumbler? It appears to be displaced
Image distance v = ?
at the interface of air and water. You might
Focal length , have observed that a lemon kept in water
f = R/2 = + 3.00 m/2 = 1.5 m in a glass tumbler appears to be bigger
than its actual size, when viewed from
We know,
the sides. How can you account such
1 1 1 experiences?
— + — = —
v u f Let us consider the case of the
apparent displacement of the pencil, partly
or,
immersed in water. The light reaching you
1 1 1 from the portion of the pencil inside water
— = — – —
v f u seems to come from a different direction,
1 1 1 1 compared to the part above water. This
= — – —— = — + —— makes the pencil appear to be displaced
1.5 -5.00 1.5 5.00 at the interface. For similar reasons, the
5.00 +1.50 6.50 letters appear to be raised, when seen
=  =  through a glass slab placed over it.
7.50 7.50 Does a pencil appear to be displaced
7.50 to the same extent, if instead of water, we
V =  = 1.15 m use liquids like kerosene or turpentine?
6.50 Will the letters appear to rise to the
The image is 1.15 m at the back of the same height if we replace a glass slab
mirror. The image is virtual. with a transparent plastic slab? You
will find that the extent of the effect is
17.7.2. Refraction of light
different for different pair of media. These
Light seems to travel along straight- observations indicate that light does not
line paths in a transparent medium. What travel in the same direction in all media. It
happens when light enters from one appears that when traveling obliquely from
transparent medium to another? Does
one medium to another, the direction of
it still move along a straight-line path or
propagation of light in the second medium
PHYSICS

change its direction? We shall recall some

changes. This phenomenon is known as
of our day-to-day experiences.
refraction of light. Let us understand this
You might have observed that the phenomenon further by doing an activity.
bottom of a tank or a pond containing

272
 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

This constant value is called the

Activity 17.12
refractive index of the second medium
•• Place a coin at the bottom of a with respect to the first.
bucket filled with water.
•• With your eye to a side above 17.7.3 Refractive index
water, try to pick up the coin We know that a ray of light travels
in one go. Did you succeed in obliquely from one transparent medium
picking up the coin?
into another will change its direction in the
•• Repeat the Activity. Why did you second medium. The extent of the change
not succeed in doing it in one go? in direction that takes place in a given
•• Ask your friends to do this. pair of media is expressed in terms of the
Compare your experience with refractive index of the second medium
theirs. with respect to the first medium.
The refractive index can be linked
The apparent position of the coin as to the relative speed of propagation of
seen through water differ from its actual light in different media. Light propagates
position . with different speeds in different media.
It travels the fastest in vacuum with the
Laws of refraction highest speed of 3 × 108 m s-1. Its speed
Refraction of light is due to change reduces considerably in glass.
in the speed of light as it enters from Consider a ray of light traveling from
one transparent medium to another. medium 1 into medium 2 as in Fig.17.22.
Experiments show that refraction of light Let i,r be the angle of incidence and
occurs according to certain laws. The angle of refraction.
following are the laws of refraction of light. A
N
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray .
I Medium 1
and the normal to the interface of ( Air)

two transparent media at the point

Medium 2
of incidence, all lie in the same r ( Glass)
plane.
N
(ii) The ratio of sine of angle of
incidence to the sine of angle of B
refraction is a constant, for the
light of a given colour and for the Fig. 17.22
CHAPTER 17

given pair of media. This law is also

The refractive index of the second
known as Snell’s law of refraction.
medium with respect to the first
If i is the angle of incidence and r is µ = Sin i /sin r
the angle of refraction, then,
Speed of light in air
Sin i /sin r = constant µ = –––––––––––––––––––––––––
Speed of light in medium

273
 17.7.4 Refraction by spherical centre of curvature of a lens is usually
lenses represented by the letter C. Since there
are two centre’s of curvature, we may
Spherical lenses
represent them as C1 and C2.
You might have seen people using
An imaginary straight line passing
spectacles for reading. The watchmakers
through the two centres of the curvature
use a small magnifying glass to see tiny
of a lens is called its principal axis.
parts. Have you ever touched the surface
of a magnifying glass with your hand? Is it The central point of a lens is called its
plane surface or curved? Is it thicker in the optical centre. It is represented by the
middle or at the edges? The glasses used letter O. A ray of light through the optical
in spectacles and that by watchmaker are centre of a lens passes without suffering
examples of lenses. What is a lens? How any deviation.
does it bend light rays? Let us discuss in The effective diameter of the circular
this section. outline of a spherical lens is called its
A transparent material bound by two aperture. Lenses whose aperture is
surfaces, of which one or both surfaces much less than its radius of curvature
are spherical, forms a lens. This means are called thin lenses with small aperture.
that a lens is bound by at least one What happens when parallel rays of light
spherical surface. In such spherical are incident on a lens?
lenses, the other surface would be plane.
A lens may have two spherical surfaces,
Activity 17.13
bulging outwards. Such a lens is called •• CAUTION: Do not look at the sun
a double convex lens. It is simply called directly or through a lens while
a convex lens. It is thicker at the middle doing this Activity or otherwise.
as compared to the edges. Convex lens You may damage your eyes if
converges light rays. Hence it is called you do so.
converging lens. Similarly, a double •• Hold a convex lens in your hand.
concave lens is bounded by two spherical Direct it towards the sun.
surfaces, curved inwards. It is thicker at
•• Focus the light from the sun on
the edges than at the middle. Such lenses
a sheet of paper. Obtain a sharp
diverge light rays and are called diverging
bright image of the sun.
lenses. A double concave lens is simply
called a concave lens. •• Hold the paper and the lens in
the same position for a while.
Let us understand the meaning of a Keep observing the paper. What
few terms which are commonly used in happened? Why?
discussions about spherical lenses. A
PHYSICS

lens has two spherical surfaces. Each of

these surfaces forms a part of a sphere. The light from the sun constitutes
The centers of these spheres are called parallel rays. These rays were converged
centres of curvature of the lens. The by the lens as a sharp bright spot.
This is the real image of the sun. The

274
 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

concentration of the sun light at this spot principal foci. They are represented by F1
generated heat. This caused the paper to and F2.
burn. The distance of the principal focus
Observe Fig.17.23(a) carefully. from the optical centre of a lens is called
its focal length. The letter f is used to
Fig.17.23(a)
M represent the focal length.

17.7.5 Image formation by lenses

C1 C2 We can represent image formation by
2F F1 F2 2F2 lenses using ray diagrams. Ray diagrams
will also help us to study the nature,
position and relative size of the image
N
formed by the lenses. For drawing ray
diagrams in lenses, we consider any two
Several rays of light parallel to the of the following rays.
principal axis are falling on a convex lens.
(i) A ray of light from the object, parallel
These rays after refraction from the lens
to the principal axis, after refraction
are converging to a point on the principal
from a convex lens, passes through the
axis. This point is called the principal
principal focus on the other side of the
focus of the lens.
lens, as shown in Fig.17.24(a). In case
Observe Fig. 17.23(b) carefully, of a concave lens, the ray appears to
Fig.17.23(b) diverge from the principal focus located
on the same side of the lens, as shown in
Fig.17.24(b)

2F1 F1
F1 F2

Several rays of light parallel to the (a)

principal axis are falling on a concave
lens. These rays after refraction from the
lens, are appearing to diverge from a point
on the principal axis. This point is called
CHAPTER 17

the principal focus of the concave lens.

If you pass parallel rays from the
opposite surface of the lens, you will get
another principal focus on the opposite
(b)
side. Letter F is usually used to represent
principal focus. However, a lens has two Fig. 17.24

275
 (ii) A ray of light passing through Sign convention for spherical lenses:
a principal focus after refraction from
All measurements are taken from the
a convex lens will emerge parallel to
optical centre of the lens. According to the
the principal axis. This is shown in Fig
convention, the focal length of a convex
17.25(a). A ray of light appearing to
lens is positive and that of a concave lens
meet at the principal focus of a concave
is negative. We must take care to apply
lens, after refraction, will emerge parallel
appropriate signs for the values of u, v, f,
to the principal axis. This is shown in
object height h and image height h′.
Fig. 17.25(b).

17.7.6 Lens formula

0 This formula gives
0 the relation between
F1 object-distance (u), image-distance (v)
F2 F1 F2 formula
and the focal length (f). The lens
is expressed as
(a) 1 1 1
— + — = - —
v u f
The lens formula given above is
general and is valid in all situations for
0
any spherical lenses.
F2 F1 F2
Example: 17.2
A concave lens has focal length of 15
(b)
cm. At what distance should the object
Fig. 17.25
from the lens be placed so that it forms an
(iii) A ray of light passing through image 10 cm from the lens?
the optical centre of a lens will emerge
without any deviation. This is illustrated in Solution:
Fig 17.26(a) and (b). v = -10 cm, f = - 15 cm, u=?
— 1 - —1 = 1
—
v u f Or,
0 0
1 1 1
F1 F2 F1 — = — - — F 2
u v f
1 1 1
(a) — = —— - ——
u -10 -15
PHYSICS

0 0 1 -3 + 2 -1
— = ——— = ——
F2 F1 F2 u 30 30
u = -30 cm
(b) Thus, the object distance is 30 cm.
Fig. 17.26
276
 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

The ray diagrams for the image formation in a convex lens for a few positions of the
object are shown in Fig. 17.27.

C1

a b

c d

e f
Fig. 17.27

A summary of these observations is given in Table 17.3.

Positionon of the Position of the Relative size of Nature of the

object image the image image
At infinity At focus F Highly dimin- Real and inverted
ished, point-sized
Beyond 2F Between F and 2F Diminished Real and inverted
At 2F At 2F Same size Real and inverted
Between F and 2F Beyond 2F Enlarged Real and inverted
At focus F At infinity Infinitely large or Real and inverted
CHAPTER 17

highly enlarged
Between focus F On the Same Enlarged Virtual and erect
and optical centre side of the lens
O as the object
Table 17.3

157
277
 The ray diagrams for the image formation in a concave lens for various positions of
the object are shown in Fig. 17.28.
M M
M
A
A1

O F1 O 2F B F1 B1 O 2F
2F

N N N
(a) (b)
Fig. 17.28
A summary of these observations is given in Table. 17.4.

Position of Position of the Relative size of the Nature of the

the objecob- image image image
ject
At infinity At focus F Highly diminished, Virtual and erect
point-sized

Between infin- Between focus Diminished Virtual and erect

ity and optical F and optical
center O of the center O
lens

Table 17.4

Magnification Example: 17.3

The magnification produced by a An object is placed at a distance of 30

lens is defied as the ratio of the height cm from a concave lens of focal length 15
cm. An erect and virtual image is formed
of the image to the height of the object
at a distance of 10 cm from the lens.
It is represented by the letter m. If h Calculate the magnification.
is the height of the object and h′ is the
Solution:
height of the image given by the lens,
then the magnification produced by the Object distance, u = -30 cm
lens is given by,
Image distance, v = -10 cm
PHYSICS

Height of the image (h′) v Magnification, m = v/u

m = —————————— = — -10 cm 1
Height of the object (h) u m =  =  = + 0.33
-30 cm 3

278
 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

17.7.7. Power of lens the refraction of light through a triangular

glass prism.
The degree of convergence or
divergence of light rays achieved by a Activity 17.14
lens is expressed in terms of its power.
The power of a lens is defined as •• Fix a sheet of white paper on a
drawing board using drawing pins.
the reciprocal of its focal length. It is
represented by the letter P. The power P •• Place a glass prism on it in such
of a lens of focal length f is given by a way that it rests on its triangular
1 base. Trace the out line of the
P=— prism using a pencil.
f
•• Draw a straight line PE inclined
The SI unit of power of a lens is to one of the refracting surfaces,
‘dioptre’. It is denoted by the letter D. say AB, of the prism.
If f is expressed in meter, then, power is
•• Fix two pins, say at points P and
expressed in dioptres. Thus 1 dioptre is
Q, on the line PE as shown in
the power of a lens whose focal length
Fig 17.29
is 1 meter. The power of a convex lens
is positive and that of a concave lens is •• Look for the images of the pins,
negative. fixed at P and Q, through the
other face AC.
Example: 17.4 •• Fix two more pins, at points R
The focal length of a concave lens is and S, such that the pins at R and S
2m. Calculate the power of the lens. lie on the same straight line.
•• Remove the pins and the glass
Solution:
prism.
Focal length of concave lens, f = - 2 m
•• The line PE meets the boundary
Power of the lens, of the prism at point E (see
1 Fig 17.29). Similarly, join and
p= 
f produce the points R and S. Let
1 these lines meet the boundary of
p=  the prism at E and F, respectively.
-2m Join E and F.
p = - 0.5 dioptre •• Draw perpendicular to the
refracting surfaces AB and AC
17.7.8. Refraction of light through a
of the prism at points E and F,
prism respectively.
CHAPTER 17

Consider a triangular glass prism. It has •• Mark the angle of incidence (∠i),
two triangular bases and three rectangular the angle of refraction (∠r) and
lateral surfaces. These surfaces are the angle of emergence (∠e) as
inclined to each other. The angle between shown in Fig 17.29.
its lateral faces is called the angle of the
prism. Let us now do an activity to study

157
279
 A
H Activity 17.15
N M •• Take a thick sheet of cardboard
G
D
.
I
and make a small hole in its
r e
E F middle.
Q N’ M’ R
S •• Allow sunlight to fall on the
P
C
narrow slit. This gives a narrow
B
PE - Incident ray i - Angle of incident beam of white light.
EF - Refracted ray r - Angle of refraction •• Now, take a glass prism and
FS - Emergent ray e - Angle of emergence allow the light from the slit to fall
A - Angle of the Prism D - Angle of deviation on one of its faces.
Fig.17.29
•• Turn the prism slowly until the
Here PE is the incident ray. EF is the light that comes out of it appear
refracted ray. FS is the emergent ray. You on a near by screen.
may note that a ray of light is entering from •• What do you observe? You will
air to glass at the first surface AB. The find a beautiful band of colours.
light ray on refraction has bent towards
•• Why does this happen?
the normal. At the second surface AC,
the light ray has entered from glass to
air. Hence it has bent away from normal. colours that you see on the screen? The
Compare the angle of incidence and angle various colours seen are Violet, Indigo,
of refraction at each refracting surface of Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red. As
the prism. The peculiar shape of prism shown in Fig.17.30.
makes the emergent ray bent at an angle
to the direction of the incident ray. This
angle ∠r is called the angle of refraction.
In this case ∠D is the angle of deviation. R
O
Mark the angle of deviation in the above Y
G
B
activity and measure it. White light I
Glass Prism V
beam
17.7.9. D
 ispersion of white light
by a glass prism
Fig. 17.30
You must have seen and appreciated
The acronym VIBGYOR will help you
the spectacular colours in a rainbow.
to remember the sequence of colours.
How could the white light of the sun
give us various colours of the rainbow? The band of the coloured component of a
light beam is called its spectrum. You might
PHYSICS

The prism has probably split the incident not be able to see all the colours separately.
white light into a band of colours. Note Yet something makes each colour distinct
the colours that appear at the two ends of from the other. The splitting of light into its
the colour band. What is the sequence of component colours is called dispersion.

280
 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

You have seen that white light enters the eye through the thin membrane
is dispersed into its seven-colour called the cornea. It forms the transparent
components by a prism. Why do we get bulge on the front surface of the eye ball
these colours? Different colours of light as shown in Fig. 17.31.
bend through different angles with respect
to the incident ray as they pass through Crystalline lens → Ciliary muscles

→
the prism. The red light bends the least

→
Aqueous Retina
while the violet the most. Thus the rays of
→
→
humour
each colour emerge along different paths
and thus become distinct. It is the band of Pupil →
distinct colours that we see in a spectrum.
Iris →
17.7.10. Atmospheric refraction

→
Cornea
→
You might have observed the apparent

→
Optic nerve

random wavering or flickering of objects

Vitreous
seen through a turbulent stream of hot air humour
rising above a fire. The air just above the
fire becomes hotter than the air further up. Fig 17.31
The hotter air is lighter (less dense) than the
cooler air above it, and has a refractive index The eye ball is approximately spherical
slightly less than that of the cooler air. Since in shape with a diameter of about 2.3cm.
the physical conditions of the refracting Most of the refraction for the light rays
medium (air) are not stationary, the apparent entering the eye occurs at the outer
position of the object, as seen through the surface of the cornea. The crystalline lens
hot air fluctuates. This wavering is thus an merely provides the finer adjustment of
effect of atmospheric refraction (refraction focal length required to focus objects at
of light by the earth’s atmosphere) on a different distances on the retina. We find
small scale in our local environment. The a structure called iris behind the cornea.
twinkling of stars is a similar phenomenon Iris is a dark muscular diaphragm that
on a much larger scale. controls the pupil. The pupil regulates
and controls the amount of light entering
17.7.11. Human eye
the eye. The eye lens forms an inverted
The human eye is one of the most real image of the object on the retina.
valuable and sensitive sense organs. It The retina is a delicate membrane having
enables us to see the wonderful worlds enormous number of light-sensitive
and colours around us. Of all our sense cells. The light sensitive cells get
CHAPTER 17

organs, the human eye is the most activated upon illumination and generate
significant one as it enables us to see the electrical signals. These signals are
beautiful, colorful world around us. sent to the brain via the optic nerves.
The human eye is like a camera. Its The brain interprets these signals, and
lens system forms an image on a light- finally, processes the information so that
sensitive screen called the retina. Light we perceive objects as they are.

1527
281
 Defects of vision and rectification This defect may arise due to (i)
excessive curvature of the eye lens, or
There are mainly three common
(ii) elongation of the eyeball. This defect
refractive defects of vision. These are
can be corrected by using a concave lens
(i) Myopia or near - sightedness.(ii) of suitable power. This is illustrated in
Hypermetropia or far-sightedness, and Fig.17.32(c). A concave lens of suitable
(iii) Presbyopia. These defects can be power will bring the image back on to the
corrected by the use of suitable spherical retina and thus the defect is corrected.
lenses.
(b) Hypermetropia
(a) Myopia
Hypermetropia is also known
Myopia is also known as near-
as far-sightedness. A person with
sightedness. A person with myopia
hypermetropia can see distant objects
can see near by objects clearly but clearly but cannot see near by objects
cannot see the distant objects distinctly. distinctly. The near point, for the person,
A person with this defect has the far is further away from the normal near point
point nearer than infinity. Such a person (25 cm). Such a person has to keep a
may see clearly up to a distance of a reading material such beyond 25cm from
few meters. In a myopic eye, the image the eye for comfortable reading. This is
of a distant object is formed in front of because the light rays from a close by
the retina [Fig. 17.32(a)] and not at the object are focused at a point behind the
retina itself. retina as shown in Fig.17.33 (b)

O
N

(a) near poinf of hypemetropic eye

(a) Far point of myopia eye

O
N N

(b) Hypemetropia eye

(b) myopia eye

O O
N
PHYSICS

(c) Correction of myopia (c) correction of hypemetropia eye

Fig. 17.32 Fig. 17.33

282
 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

This defect either because (i) the focal Hubble is the only telescope ever
length of the eye lens is too long or (ii) the designed to be serviced in space by
eyeball has become too small. This defect astronauts. The H.S.T design with two
can be corrected by using a convex lens hyperbolic mirrors is known for good
of appropriate power. This is illustrated imaging performance over a wide field of
in Fig.17.33(c). Eye- glasses with view. During the launch scientist found
converging lenses provide the additional that the main mirror had been ground
focusing power required for forming the incorrectly, which severely affect the
image on the retina. telescopes capabilities. After a servicing
(c) Presbyopia mission in 1993, the telescope was
restored to its intended quality. Four
The power of accommodation of the servicing missions where performed from
eye usually decreases with ageing. For 1993-2002. But the fifth was completed in
most people, the near point gradually 2009. The telescope is now expected to
recedes away. They find it difficult function until at least 2014.
to see near by objects comfortably
and distinctly without corrective
eye - glasses. This defect is called
Presbyopia. It arises due to the gradual
weakening of the ciliary muscles and
diminishing flexibility of the eye lens.
Sometimes, a person may suffer from
both myopia and hypermetropia. Such
people often require by-focal lenses.
A common type of by-focal lenses
consists of both concave and convex
lenses. The upper portion consists of a
concave lens. It facilitates near vision. Fig.17.34
These days, it is possible to correct the
Hubble’s orbit outside the distortion
refractive defects with contact lenses.
of earth’s atmosphere allows it to take
17.12. S
 cience today - Hubble extremely sharp images with almost no
space telescope (H.S.T) background light. Hubble’s Ultra Deep
Field image is the most detailed visible-
Hubble telescope is a space telescope
light image ever made of the universe’s
that was carried into orbit by a space
most distant object. Hubble Deep field
shuttle in April 1990. It is named
CHAPTER 17

and Hubble ultra Deep field images

after the American astronomer Edwin
reveals that galaxies are billions of light
Hubble. It becomes a most popular
years away.
research tool for astronomy. The H.S.T
is collaboration between NASA and the Many Hubble observations accurately
European Space Agency, and is one of measure the rate at which the universe
NASA’s great observatories. is expanding. It constrain the value of

157
283
 Hubble’s constant and estimates the age Hubble’s observations found that
of the Universe. black holes are common to the centers
of all galaxies.
Hubble’s images of planets were crucial
in studying the dynamics of the collision of The astronomers used the telescope
a comet with Jupiter, an event believed to to observe distant supernovae.
occur once every few centuries.

EVALUATION
PART A b) The magnetic field lines emerge from the
1. The magnification produced by a mirror is south pole and merge at the north pole.
1/3, then the type of mirror is
4. T
 he ray diagram shown below is introduced
(concave, convex, plane) to show how a concave mirror forms an
2. An electric current through a metallic conductor immage of an object.
produces _________ around it. a) identify the mistake and draw the correct
(heat, light, magnetic field, mechanical force) ray diagram.

3. The field of view is maximum for b) Write the justifications for your corrections.
(plane mirror, concave mirror, convex mirror) M
4. An object is placed 25 cm from a convex
lens whose focal length is 10 cm. The image
distance is ________ .(50 cm, 16.66 cm, 6.66
C F P
cm, 10 cm)
PART B
1. From the following statement write down that
which is applicable to a commutator. N
a) galvanometer uses commutator for 5. In traffic signals _________ colour light is
deadbeat used to stop vechicles because it is having
b) transformer uses commutator to step up ______ wave length.
voltage 6. Considering this write down the names of the
c) mototr uses commutator to reverse the parts in human eye.
current
a) D
 ark muscular diaphragm that controls
2. Fill in the blanks the pupil.
a) For a motor : a permanent magnet, then b) The screen at where the image is formed
commercial motor : _______ by eye lens.
b) Focal length of a lens; meter, then for 7. You know that myopia is a common refractive
power of a lens____________ defects of vision. Person with this defect
PHYSICS

can see only nearby objects clearly. Using

3. Correct the mistakes, if any, in the following concave lens of suitable power this defect is
statements. corrected.
a) Magnetic field is a quantity that has a) mention other two types of defects like
magnitude only. this.

284
 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND LIGHT

b) explain how can we correct it. a) Incident ray b) Refracted ray

c) Emergent ray d)Angle of refraction
8. (a) Which of the compass needle orientations
e) Angle of deviation f) Angle of emergence
in the following diagram might correctly
describe the magnet’s field at that point? 1. (b) The retractive index of diamond is 2.42.
b What is the meaning of this statement in
a relation to speed of light?
c
B C
N S

N S
d A D
(b) To an astronaut sky appears dark instead B1
S1
of blue. Give the reason. R
B2
PART – C A
H
S2
N M
G
D
.
I
r e
E F
Q N’ M’ R
S 2. a) Re draw the above diagram.
P
C
B b) This diagram represents _________
c) Label the parts of the diagram.
1. (a) Label the following in the given diagram d) Write the principle of the name of the
given below. device denoted by this diagram.

Further Reference
books: 1. Fundamentals of optics
D.R. Khanna and H.R. Gulati R.Chand & Co
2. Magnetism Joy Frisch - Schnoll published by Creative Eduction.
3. Advanced physics Keith Gibbs Cambridge University press
Website: www.physics about.com
www.opticalsres.com
www.newdn.com.
CHAPTER 17

157
285
 Syllabus
1. Applied Biology Heredity and Evolution :- Heredity –Variations-Evolution-Speciation-
Human evolution-Evolution tree-Genetic engineering-Bio technology
and cloning-Stem cell-Organ culture-Microbial production-Biosensor
– Bio chips-Science today – Gene therapy
2. Health and Immune System:- Health and its significance-Diseases and causes-
Hygiene Diseases caused by microbes and prevention-Modes of transmission-
Immunization-Treatment and prevention-Biotechnology in Medicine-
HIV and Prevention

3. My Body Structure & Function of the Human Body – Organ System:-

Nervous system-Endocrine system-Cell division-Stages of Meiosis-
Heredity

4. World of Plants Reproduction in Plants:-Modes of reproduction - vegetative,

asexual and sexual reproduction in plants-Pollination-Fertilization-
Fruits and seeds formation-Seed dispersal
5. World of Animals A Representative Study of Mammals- Morphology-Habitats-
Adaptations-Basic Physiological Functions.-Circulatory system in
man-Excretory system in man.-Relationship of structure to functions-
Animal Behaviour - Behaviour (social, reproductive, parental care)
-Some case studies from researchers(animals behavior)

6. Life Process Life Processes:- Definition-Types of nutrition and human digestive

system-Respiration -Transportation in plants-water and minerals and
animals - blood circulation-Excretion in plants and animals-Nervous
system-Coordination in plants-Movement due to growth-Hormones
in animals
7. Environmental Conservation of Environment:- Bio degradable and non bio
Science - Ecology degradable wastes-Water management-Wild life sanctuaries-
Balance in Ecosystem-Coal and petroleum-Green chemistry-Science
today – Towards a global village

8. Environmental Waste Water Management:- Journey of water-Sewage -Treatment

Science – -Domestic practices -Sanitation and diseases-Alternate arrangement
Resource use and for sewage disposal -Sanitation in public places-Energy Management-
Management Energy audit (home, school)- Renewable sources (solar, hydrogen,
wind)- Non–renewable sources—(coal, petroleum, natural gas)- Bio-
fuels-generation & use-Energy Conservation & How we can help.
9. Matter Solutions:- Solute and Solvent-Types of Solutions-Solubility-Factors
affecting – Solubility-Problems
SCIENCE

10. Atomic Structure Atoms and Molecules:- Modern atomic theory- Avogadro Hypothesis-
Atomicity-Relation between vapour density and molecular mass of a
gas- Difference between-Atom and Molecules-Relative Atomic Mass-
Relative Molecular mass-Mole Concepts- Mole- Definition-Problems
based on mole concept

286
 Chemical Reactions:- Types of chemical reactions -Rate of chemical
reaction-Factors influencing the rate of the chemical reaction-Acids-
Exploring
Classification of acids- Chemical properties of acids-Uses of acids-Bases-
11. Chemical Changes
Classification of bases-Chemical properties of bases- uses of bases-
and Formulation
Identification of acids and bases-pH scale-pH paper-Importance of pH in
everyday life-Salts- Classification of salts-Uses of salts

Periodic Classification of Elements:- Modern periodic law-Modern

periodic table-Characteristics of modern periodic table-Metallurgy –Intro-
12. duction-Terminologies in metallurgy-Differences between Minerals and
Exploring Ores-Occurrence of metals- Metallurgy of Al, Cu and Fe- Metallurgy of
Chemical Families Aluminium-Metallurgy of Copper- Metallurgy of iron- Alloys- Methods of
making alloys-Copper Aluminium and Iron alloys-Corros ion -Method s
of preventing corrosion

Carbon and its Compounds:- Introduction-Compounds of carbon-Mod-

ern definition of organic chemistry-Bonding in carbon and its compounds-
Allotropy- Physical nature of carbon and its compounds- Chemical- prop-
13. Exploring the World
erties of carbon compounds-Homologous series-Hydrocarbons and their
types -Functional groups- Classification of organic compound based on
functional group-Ethanol-Ethanoic acid

Matter and Measuring Instruments:- Screw Gauge-Measuring long-Distances – As-

14. tronomical distance, light year
Measurement
Laws of Motion and Gravitation-Balanced and imbalanced forces-First
law of motion-Inertia and mass-Momentum-Second aw of motion-F=ma-
Third law of motion-Conservation of momentum and proof-Moment of
Forces and force and couple-Gravitation Newton’s law of gravitation –Mass- Weight-
15.
Movement Acceleration due to gravity-Mass of Earth-Science Today- Chandrayan,
Cryogenic Techniques and Manned Space Station

Electricity and Energy:- Electric current and circuit-Electric potential and

potential difference-Circuit diagram-Ohm’s law-Resistance of a conduc-
tor-System of resistors -Heating effect of electric current-Joules law of
heating-Role of fuse-Domestic electric circuits-Electric power-Chemical
16. Exploring Energy effect of electric current-Electrolysis electro chemical cells-Primary and
Secondary cells-Sources of Energy-Conventional sources of energy-
Non- conventional source of energy- Nuclear energy-Radioactivity-
Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion-Nuclear reactivity advantages-
Hazards of nuclear energy-Science today – Energy from seas.

Magnetic Effect of Electric Current and Light :-Magnetic field and

magnetic lines of force-Magnetic field due to current carrying conductor-
Magnetic field due to current carrying Straight conductor- Magnetic field
due to current carrying Circular loop-Force on a current carrying conductor
in a magnetic field-Fleming left hand rule -Electric motor-Electromagnetic
Exploring induction- Faraday’s experiments-Electric generator –Light-Reflection of
17. light by Spherical mirrors – image formation and Mirror Formula - Refrac-
Phenomena
Syllabus

tion – Laws of refraction-Refractive index-Refraction by spherical lens-

es- Image formation by lenses-Lens formula and magnification-Power
of lens-Refraction of light through a prism-Dispersion-By a glass prism-
Atmospheric refraction- Human eye –Defects and rectification-Science
today –Hubble space telescope

18. Technology Practical and Projects

287
 Design of Question Paper – X Std Science (Theory)
Time: 2½ Hours Max. Marks: 75
The weightage of marks allotted for the design of question paper shall be as under:

A. Weightage to Learning Outcome

Sl.No Categories Mark PERCENTAGE
1 Knowledge 17 15
2 Understanding 52 45
3 Application 35 30
4 Skill 11 10
Total 115 100
Note: (1) Total Marks is 115 inclusive of choice. (2) While preparing the question paper, there may be
variations in weightage to the extent from 2 % to 5 %.

B. Weightage given to various types of question

S.No Types of Questions Marks Total No. of Questions Total
for Each No. of to be answered Marks
Question Questions
Section A 15x 1=15
1 1 15 15
Objective Type (OT)
Section B
2 2 30* 20 20x2 = 40
Short Answer (SA)
Section C
3 5 8 4 4 x 5 = 20
Long Answer (LA)*
Total 53 39 75
* Each Question may be split into 2 or 3 sub-divisions carrying 1, 2 or 3 marks. But the questions shall
be from each area (Botany, Zoology, Chemistry, Physics). Choices will be internal (Either - or)

*Short Answer split up

Sl.No. Very Short Answer To be
Type of Questions asked
1 To Match 3
2 To spot the error / mistake in the given statements 3
3 Reason and Assertion 3
4 To Raise questions 3
5 To label the parts in the given diagram 3
6 To copy a diagram & to identify /mark the parts 3
7 To calculate the required value(Problem solving) 3
SCIENCE

8 To fill up the blanks (from the given pair of answers) 3

9 To interpret what happens in the given situations 3
10 To find the odd one out 3
Total Number of Questions given 30
Total Number of Questions to be answered 20

288
C. Weightage given to the higher order of questions
% Percentage
Sl.No Estimated higher order of questions

1 Easy 50
2 Average 40
3 Difficult 10

D. Weightage to Content Unit

No. of Questions
Total
Units OT SA LA Marks
1. Heredity and Evolution 1(1) 1(2) 1(5) 8
2. Immune System 1(1) 1(2) 1(5) 8

Botany and Zoology

3. Structure & Function of the Human
Body – Organ System
- 3(2) - 6
4. Reproduction in Plants 1(1) 1(2) 1(5) 8
5. A representative Study of Mam-
mals
- 3(2) - 6
6. Life Processes 1(1) 1(2) 3
23
7. Conservation of Environment 1(1) 1(2) 1(5) 8
8. Waste Water Management - 3(2) - 6
9. Solutions 1(1) 2(2) - 5
Chemistry

10. Atoms and Molecules - 1(2) 1(5) 7

15
11. Chemical Reaction 1(1) 2(2) 5
12. Periodic Classification of Elements 2(1) 2(2) 6
13. Carbon and its Compounds 1(1) 1(2) 1(5) 8
14. Measurements -
15. Laws of Motion and Gravitation 1(1) 2(2) 1(5) 10
Physics

16. Electricity and Energy 2(1) 3(2) 15 8

17. Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
and Light
2(1) 3(2) 1(5) 13

Total Number of Questions

15(15) 30(60) 8(40) 53 115
Syllabus

given

Total Number of Questions to be an-

swered
15(15) 20(40) 4(20) 39 75

() Indicates the marks

289
 SCIENCE
BLUE PRINT
Unit Related Knowledge Understanding Application Skill Total No. Total
Content Unit of Ques-
No. Subject OT SA LA OT SA LA OT SA LA OT SA LA tions Marks

1 Heredity and Evolution Zoo 1(1) 1(2) 1(5) 3 8

2 Immune System Zoo 1(1) 1(5) 1(2) 3 8

Structure & Function
of the

3 Human Body Zoo 1(2) 1(2) 1(2) 3 6

Human Body – Organ

System
4 Reproduction in Plants Bot 1(1) 1(5) 1(2) 3 8
A Representative Study Zoo 1(2) 1(2) 1(2) 3 6
of Mammals
5

6 Life Processes Bot & Zoo 1(1) 1(2) 2 3

Conservation of Envi-
7 Bot 1(1) 1(5) 1(2) 3 8
ronment

290
Waste Water Manage-
8 Bot 2(2) 1(2) 3 6
ment
9 Solutions Che 1(1) 1(2) 1(2) 3 5

10 Atoms and Molecules Che 1(5) 1(2) 2 7

11 Chemical Reaction Che 1(2) 1(1) 1(2) 3 5

Periodic Classification
12 Che 1(1) 1(1) 1(2) 1(2) 4 6
of Elements
Carbon and its Com-
13 Che 1(1) 1(5) 1(2) 3 8
pounds
14 Measurements Phy - -
Laws of Motion and
15 Phy 1(2) 1(2) 1(5) 1(1) 4 10
Gravitation
16 Electricity and Energy Phy 1(2) 1(1) 1(2) 1(1) 1(2) 5 8
Magnetic Effect of Elec-
17 Phy 1(1) 1(2) 1(1) 1(2) 1(5) 1(2) 6 13
tric Current and Light

Total 4(4) 4(8) 1(5) 8(8) 12(24) 4(20) 2(2) 9(18) 3(15) 1(1) 5(10) - 53 115
 science PRACTICALS
S.No Content

Biological Science (Zoology & Botany)

1 To find out the presence of starch in the given food samples of A and B
by using iodine solution.
2 To find out the rate of heart beat of human beings by using stethoscope
under normal physical conditions.

3 To find out the body temperature by using clinical thermometer and to

compare with surrounding temperature.

4 To calculate is the Body Mass Index (BMI) of a person, by using the BMI
formula and to compare the value with BMI chart.

5 To dissect and display the androecium and gynoecium of any locally

available flowers.

6 To classify the fruits,separating the pericarps and writing the edible parts.

7 To identify the structure of ovule.

8 To prove the anaerbic respiration (Fermentation).

Physical Science (Chemistry & Physics)

9 To find the pH of a given solution using pH paper.

10 To identify the presence of acids and bases in a given solution.

11 Preparation of true solution, colloidal solution and suspension.

12 To predict whether the reaction exothermic or endothermic.

13 Screw cauge-measuring small dimensions.

14 Resistance of a coil of wire,


15 To map of magnetic field of a bar magnet when its north pole pointing
PRACTICALS

north of the earth.

16. Focal length of a convex lens by distance object method.

Record the findings directly in the table provided.

291
291
 Zoology

Ex. No. 1 Date :

To find out the presence of starch in the given food samples of A and B
by using Iodine solution.

Aim:

To find out the presence of starch in the given food samples of A and
B by using iodine solution.
Requirements:

Test tubes, Iodine solution.

Procedure:

Take 1 ml of foood sample A and B in separate test tubes.

Add one drop of Iodine solution in bothe the test tubes.

Observe the colour change and record.

Indication : Appearence of dark blue colour indicates the presence of

starch.

Table:

Sl.No Food Sample Observation Presence / Absence of Starch

1 A

2 B
SCIENCE

Result:
The food sample__________________contains starch.

292
Ex. No. 2 Date :

To find out the rate of heart beat of human beings by using stethoscope
under normal physical conditions.

Aim:

To find out the rate of heart beat of a person by using stetheoscope.

Requirements:

Stethoscope, stop watch.

Procedure:

Use the stethoscope and hear Lubb and Dubb sound which make up
a heart beat.

Count the number of heart beats per minute and record.

Table:

Sl. No Persons No. of heart beat per minute

1 A
2
3
4
5
Average :
PRACTICALS

Inference:

Under normal conditions the average human heart beat is found

to be _____ per minute.

293
293
 Ex. No. 3 Date :

To find out the body temperature by using clinical thermometer and to

compare with surrounding temperature.

Aim:

To find out the body temperature of human being using clinical thermometer.

Requirement:

Clinical thermometer, lab thermometer

Procedure:

Find out the room temperature by using lab thermometer.

Clean the Clinical thermometer in dilute dettol soaked cotton.

Shake the clinical thermometer at least four times.

Keep the mercury bulb of the clinical thermometer at the arm pit in boys or
elbow in girls for a minute and record the temperature.

Repeat the same outside the room and record your findings for atleast three
of your friends.

Table:

S.No Test Body Room C=F-32 x 5/ 9

Temperature oF Temperature oC
Inside the room
1
Outside the room
Inside the room
2
Outside the room
Inside the room
3
Outside the room
Inference:
SCIENCE

Under normal conditions the body temperature of human beings is

______oF, ______oC.

The body temperature of human beings remains the or same/ varies irrespective of
surroundings.
294
Ex. No. 4 Date :

To calculate the Body Mass Index (BMI) of a person, by using the BMI
formula and comparing the value with BMI chart.

Aim:
To calculate the BMI of any one of your classmates by using the BMI formula.

Requirements:

Weighing machine, measuring tape.

Procedure:
Find out the weight in kg of your calssmate by using weighing machine.

Find out the height of the same person and convert into meter2

By using the formula

weight in kg
BMI = --------------
height in m2

Find out the BMI and record.

Note:

BMI 19-25 is normal , 26 and above is obese, below 19 is lean.

Table:

weight
Sl. No Persons Height in meter Height in meter2 BMI
in kg

2
PRACTICALS

Inference:

The BMI of my classmate Selvan/Selvi ______________is _______ and

so he/she is normal / obese / lean.

295
 Botany
Ex. No. 5 Date :

To dissect and display the androecium and gynoecium of any locally

available flowers.

To dissect and display the androecium and gynoecium of any locally
available flowers.

Androecium
1) Androecium is the male reproductive part.
2) It has two parts, the filament and anther.
3) Pollen grains develop inside the anther.

Gynoecium
1) Gynoecium is the female reproductive part.
2) It has three parts, the ovary style and stigma.
3) Ovules are seen inside the ovary.

Separate the Androecium and Gynoecium of a given flower and paste in a

separate sheet. Record your observations with regard to number of stamen
shape of anther and shape of stigma in the given table.

Sl.no Name of the flower Androecium Gynoecium

1.

2.

3.

4.
SCIENCE

5.

296
Ex. No. 6 Date :
To classify the fruits. Separate the pericarps and write the edible parts and
fill in the blanks
Simple fleshy fruits
Berry - Tomato
1) The pericarp is divided into and .
2) The mesocarp and endocarp remain .
3) The edible part in tomato is .
Berry - Banana
1) The pericarp is divided into and .
2) The epicarp is and the mesocarp is .
3) The edible part in banana is .
Hesperidium - Orange/Lemon.
1) The pericarp is differentiated into layers.
2) The outer glandular skin is .
3) A middle thin whitish layer is .
4) An inner membranous part is .
5) The juicy hairs or out growths are .
Pepo - Cucumber/ivy gourd (Kovai)
1) The pericarp is and .
2) The mesocarp is .
3) The edible part is
Drupe – Mango
1) The number of seeds in mango is .
2) Pericarp is differentiated into epicarp, ,
and
3) Epicarp is s , mesocarp is and
endocarp is in nature.
4) Edible part of the mango is .
Drupe – Coconut
1) The pericarp is. differentiated into , and
2) The epicarp is thick, the mesocarp is , and the
endocarp is hard.
3) The endosperm seen inside the is edible.
Classify the given fruits, record your observations in the given table.
Type of fruit of
PRACTICALS

Sl. No. Nature of pericarp Edible part

fruit
1.

2.
3.

297
 Ex. No. 7 Date :

To identify the structure of ovule.

The given slide kept for identification is L.S. of ovule
The charecteristics of ovule :
1) The ovule has layers of walls called as integuments.
2) Inner to the integuments, is present.
3) The embryo sac has , and

Observe the given slide and record your observations in the table :

Sl.No Observation
1.
2.
3.

Ex. No. 8 Date :

To prove the anaerbic respiration (fermentation).
Aim:

To prove the anaerobic respiration(fermentation)

Materials required:

Test tube, sugar solution, yeast.

Procedure:
Sugar solution in a test tube is taken. A little quantity of yeast is added.
The tube is placed in a warm place–sunlight.

Record your observations and inference in the table given below :

Observation Inference
SCIENCE

Results: The alcohol smell indicates that the sugar is converted into alchohol

in the fermentation process

298
 Chemistry
Ex. No. 9 Date :
To find the pH of a given solution using pH paper.
Aim:

To find the pH of the given solution using pH paper.

Materials and Apparatus required:

Test tubes, test tube stand, test tube holder, pH paper, dil. HCl, dil. NaOH,
lemon juice, water, baking soda solution, vinegar etc.
Procedure:

Take about 10 ml of the given samples in different test tubes and label
them as A, B, C, D, E and F. Dip the pH paper into the test tubes and
compare the colour of pH paper with the colour chart of pH reference.
Note the approximate value of pH.
Table:

pH paper Nature of solution

Test tubes Sample Colour Approximate Acidic/Basic/
produced pH Neutral
A

E
PRACTICALS

299
 Ex. No. 10 Date :
To identify acids and bases
Aim
To identify the presence of an acid or a base in a given sample.
Materials and apparatus required :
Test tubes, test tube stand, glass rod, litmus paper (both red and blue),
acids, bases, phenolphthalein, methyl orange solution.
Note:
• All acidic solutions are colourless in phenolphthalein, pink in methyl
orange and turn blue litmus paper to red.
• All basic solutions are pink in phenolphthalein, straw yellow in methyl
orange and turn red litmus paper to blue.

Observation Inference
S.No Experiment
(Colour change) (Acid/base)

Take 5 ml of the test

solution in a test tube,
1
add phenolphthalein in
drops to this content.

Take 5 ml of the test

solution in a test tube
2
and add methyl orange
in drops.

Take 10 ml of the test

solution in a
3
test tube and dip litmus
SCIENCE

paper into the test tube.

300
 Ex. No. 11 Date :
Preparation of true solution, colloidal solution and suspension
Aim :
To prepare true solution, colloidal solution and suspension
Materials and apparatus required :
Beakers, common salt, table sugar, starch, chalk powder,
sand, egg albumin.
Procedure: Take 20ml of water in three different beakers and label them as
A, B & C. Add common salt in A, starch in B, and chalk power in C.
Stir the contents of three different beakers gently. Record your
observations.

Beaker Observation Inference

A.

B.

C.

Note :
i. If the particles do not settle down at the bottom and pass through
the filter paper easily the solution is said to be a true solution.
ii. If the particles do not settle down but they form turbid solution
then the solution is said to be a colloidal solution.
iii. If the particles settle down to form sediments leaving behind
residue on the filter paper then the solution is said to be a
suspension.
:
Result True solution is in beaker _____________
PRACTICALS

Colloidal solution is in beaker __________

Suspension is in beaker ______________

301
 Ex. No. 12 Date :
To predict whether the reaction is exothermic or endothermic.experiment
Aim.
To predict whether a reaction is exothermic or endothermic using
the given chemicals
Materials and apparatus required
Test tubes, test tube stand, water, glass rod, sodium hydroxide
(pellets),ammonium chloride etc.
Note:
• Exothermic reaction evolves heat
• Endothermic reaction absorbs heat

Inference
S.No Experiment Observation( hot/cold)
(exo/endo)

Take water in a test

tube. Add sodium
hydroxide pellets one by
1
one followed by stirring.
Touch the test tube and
note the observation.

Take water in a test tube.

Add ammonium chloride
2 salt and stir well .Touch
the test tube and note
the observation.
SCIENCE

302
 PHYSICS

Ex. No. 13 Date :

SCREW GAUGE - Measuring small dimensions of the object
Aim:
To find the radius of the given wire.

Apparatus required :
Screw gauge, a uniform thin metal wire.

Formula :
Radius of the wire r = d/2, d – diameter of the wire.

Milled Head (H)

S2 S1 Hallow Cylindrical tube Safety device (D)
(Ratchat)

U-Shaped Frame pitch scale

Head Scale

Index line

PRACTICALS

Procedure :

The least count of the screw gauge is found .Zero error of the screw gauge is
found in the following way. The plane surface of the screw and the opposite

303
 plane stud on the frame are brought in to contact. If zero of head scale
coincides with the pitch scale axis, there is no zero error.

If the zero of the head scale lies below the pitch scale axis, the zero error is
positive. If the n th division of the head scale coincides with the pitch scale axis

ZE = + (n × LC )

Then the zero correction ZC = - (n × LC )

If the zero of the head scale lies above the pitch scale axis, the zero error is
negative. If the n th division of the head scale coincides with the pitch scale axis

ZE = - (100 – n) × LC

Then the zero correction ZC = + (100 – n) × LC

Place the wire between two studs. Rotate the head until the wire is held firmly
but not tightly . Note the pitch scale reading(PSR) and the head scale division
which coincides with the pitch scale axis (HSC). The diameter of the wire is
given by PSR + (H.S.C × LC) + ZC. Repeat the experiment for different portions
of the wire. Tabulate the readings. The average of the last column readings
gives the diameter(d) of the wire.The value d/2 gives the radius of the wire.

Table:
L.C = Z.E = Z.C =

H.S.C × Total reading

S.No P.S.R (mm) H.S.C
L.C P.S.R +(H.S.C ×L.C) ± Z.C (mm)
1
2
3

Mean =

The radius of given wire r = d/2

Result :
SCIENCE

The radius of the given wire = mm

304
Ex. No. 14 Date :

RESISTANCE OF A WIRE
Aim
To determine the resistance of the given wire .

Apparatus required
A battery(2 V), ammeter(1.5 A), voltmeter(1.5 V), key, rheostat, experimental
wire(1 Ω or 2 Ω) and connecting wires.

Formula
V
Resistance of the wire R = ––
I

V is the potential difference across the wire.

I is the strength of the current through the experimental wire.

k Rh
(•)

PRACTICALS

305
 Procedure

C
 onnect the battery eliminator, ammeter the given wire, rheostat and key in
series. The voltmeter is connected in parallel connection across the given wire.
The circuit is closed and the rheostat is adjusted such that a constant current
flows through the given coil of wire. The current is noted as ‘I’ from the ammeter
and the potential difference across the wire V is noted from the voltmeter. The
value V/I gives the resistance of the wire. The experiment is repeated for different
values of the current.

V
The average value of –– gives the resistance of the wire R.
I

Tabulation

Ammeter reading Voltmeter reading Resistance

Trial No
I (ampere) V (volt) R = V/I (ohm)
1
2
3
4
5

Mean R =

Result
Resistance of the given wire R = –––––––– ohm.
SCIENCE

306
Ex. No. 15 Date :

MAPPING OF MAGNETIC FIELD

Aim:
 To map the magnetic lines of force when the bar magnet is placed with its north
pole facing geographic north

Apparatus required:
Drawing board, drawing pins, bar magnet, small magnetic compass needle and
white sheet.

Procedure:
 sheet of paper is fixed on a drawing board. Using a compass needle, the
A
magnetic meridian is drawn on it. A bar magnet is placed on the magnetic me-
ridian such that its north pole points towards geographic north. The north and
south poles of the compass are marked by pencil dots. The compass needle is
shifted and placed so that its south pole touches the pencil dot marked for the
north pole. The process is repeated and a series of dots are obtained. The dots
are joined as a smooth curve. This curve is a magnetic line of force. In the same
way several magnetic lines of force are drawn around the magnet as shown in
figure. The magnetic lines of force is due to the combined effect of the magnetic
field due to bar magnet and the Earth.

PRACTICALS

Result:
The magnetic lines of force are maped when the bar magnet is placed with
its north pole facing geographic north. The maped sheet is attached.

307
 Ex. No. 16 Date :
FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX LENS
Aim
To determine the focal length of convex lens by distant object method
Apparatus required
The given convex lens, lens stand, white screen and meter scale
Procedure

ƒ1+ ƒ2+ ƒ3
Formula : Focal length ƒ =
3
ƒ1,ƒ2, ƒ3, are the focal lengths measured by focucing different distant objects.
Distant object method
The convex lens is mounted on the stand and is kept facing a distant object
(may be a tree or a building). The white screen is placed behind the convex lens
and its position is adjusted to get a clear, diminished and inverted image of the
object. The distance between the convex lens and the screen is measured. This
gives an approximate value of the focal length of the convex lens.
Parallel rays from distant object

Image f Lens

S.No Distant object Distance between the

convex lens and the screen
1 Tree f1

2 Building f2

3 Electric pole f3

Mean =
SCIENCE

.
Result:
Focal length of the given convex lens f = ––––––––––––––-cm

308