Al Rowad International School,

Riyadh
International General Certificate of Secondary Education
Biology IGCSE Cambridge

[M Muhajireen]
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 Biology – IGCSE Cambridge -2010
Characteristics of living organisms
1. Movement: In response to changes in the environment, parts of body or the whole
body changes its position.
2. Respiration: The break down (oxidation) of food in cells to release energy.
3. Sensitivity: The ability to sense and respond to changes in the surroundings.
4. Growth: Irreversible increase in the size, dry mass and complexity of an organism by an
increase in cell number or cell size or both.
5. Reproduction: The process that makes more of the same kind of organism to ensure the
continuity of life.
6. Excretion: Removal of waste products, toxic materials made by chemical reactions in
cells and substances in excess of requirements.
7. Nutrition: The way in which living organisms obtain nutrients which are organic
substances and mineral ions, containing raw materials or energy for growth and tissue
repair, absorbing and assimilating.

Classification and diversity of living organisms.

 Why is classification important?
o Easier to find out to which species an organism belongs
o To learn about evolutionary links

Binomial system: in order to reduce confusion among people in identifying organisms

each organism is given two names, generic and specific names.
 Generic name is the first name and the first letter of it is written in capital.
 Species name is written in lower case letters.
 Names are written in English letters
 If the names are typed, it is italicized but if it is handwritten then the names
must be underlined.
Ex: Homo sapiens – human
Homo erectus
Homo habilis
Pisum sativum – pea plant

Matter
As far as biology is concerned, matter can be classified as follows
Non-living Virus Living
HIV Bacteria
Polio virus Fungi
TMV Plants
Influenza virus Animals
Bacteria

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Characteristics
1. They are unicellular
2. Cell organelles are non membrane bound
3. They have no nucleus
4. They have a cell wall
5. Some have flagellum or slimy capsule.
6. Storage food is glycogen and oil droplets
7. Most of them feed on dead matter, some are parasitic and the rests are autotrophs.

Fungi
Characteristics
1. They contain hyphae
2. Hyphae are arranged into mycelium
3. Some are unicellular, example yeast
4. They have membrane bound organelles such as nucleus, mitochondria etc.
5. The cell wall is made of chitin
6. During asexual reproduction spores are produced
7. Storage food is glycogen and oil droplets
8. Most of them feed on dead matter and some are parasitic.(no autotrophs)

Mould fungus
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 Yeast cell

Flowering plants
Characteristics
1. Multicellular organisms
2. Their cells have cellulose cell wall
3. They have membrane bound organelles such as nucleus, Mitochondria etc.
4. Cells contain chloroplast hence they are photosynthetic( they produce their own food)
5. Storage food is starch and sometimes sucrose
6. Mature cells have large permanent vacuole containing cell sap
7. The body is divided into root, stem and leaves.
Exercise: label the diagram fully

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There are two main groups of flowering plants
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons

Fibrous root Tap root system

Uniform stem Stem is broader at the base
Leaves do not have petiole(stalk) Do have petiole

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 Leaves have parallel veins Branching veins
Flower parts are 3 or multiples of 3 Flower parts are4 or 5 or multiples of 4
and 5
Seeds have 1 cotyledon Seeds have 2 cotyledon

Animals
Characteristics
1. Multicellular organisms
2. They have nervous coordination
3. They have membrane bound organelles such as nucleus, Mitochondria etc.
4. Cells do not have cell wall
5. Storage food is glycogen and fat

Note: All the living organisms except bacteria have membrane bound organelles

Animals can be divided into two major groups;

Invertebrates Vertebrates
Arthropods Fish
 Insects Amphibians
 Crustaceans Reptiles
 Arachnids Birds
 Myriapods
Annelids Mammals
Nematodes
Molluscs

Arthropods
Characteristics
1. They have jointed legs
2. Their body is segmented
3. They have an exo- skeleton which is water proof.

The arthropods include insects, crustacean, arachnids and myriopods.

Insects
Characteristics
1. Three pairs of jointed legs
2. Usually have two pairs of wings
3. One pair of antennae
4. Body is divided into three regions, head, thorax and abdomen
5. A pair of compound eyes

Ex: bees, butter fly

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 Suggest why insects are considered as the most successful animals on land
 The relative impermeability of their cuticles, which prevents desiccation in very
hot, dry climates
 Small in size – they can inhabit different places.
 Solid metabolic wastes hence conservation of water
 Flexible body

Crustaceans
Ex: crabs, prawns, wood lice, lobsters and shrimps

Characteristics
1. Five or more pairs of legs
2. Two pairs of antennae
3. Body is divided into two regions which are cephalothorax and abdomen
4. They have compound eyes

 List the differences between insects and crustaceans

Insects Crustaceans

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 Have wings No wings

One pair of antennae Two pairs of antennae

Three pairs of legs Five or more pairs of legs

Body is divided into 3 regions Body is divided into 2 regions

No limbs on the abdominal segments Limbs present on the abdomen

Arachnids
Ex: spiders, scorpions, mites and ticks

Characteristics
1. Body is divided into two regions, the cephalothorax and abdomen
2. Four pairs of legs on the cephalothorax
3. Several pairs of simple eyes
4. Chelicerae for biting and poisoning prey
5. They do not have antennae

Myriapods
Ex: centipedes and millipedes
Characteristics
1. Ten or more pairs of legs
2. One pair of antennae
3. Simple eyes present

Annelids
Ex: earth worm, leech
Characteristics
1. Elongated, cylindrical body covered with a mucus layer
2. Segmented body
3. Chaetae(bristles), which helps in locomotion, are usually present
4. May have a clitellum(reproductive structure)

Nematodes
Ex: hook worm

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Characteristics
1. Elongated, cylindrical body
2. Body not segmented
3. Body pointed at both ends

 List the differences between annelids and nematodes

Annelids Nematodes

Molluscs
Ex: snails, octopus, squid and slug

Characteristics
1. Have a soft body that may be protected by a hard shell
2. All have a structure called mantle
3. Have a muscular foot that is used for locomotion or attachment
4. May have eyes on tentacles

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Fish
Ex: shark, tuna, herring

Characteristics
1. Body covered with overlapping scales that cover the skin
2. Scales are coated with slippery mucus
3. Fins present
4. Most have a set of sensory organs called the Lateral line system along body for
detecting vibrations in water
5. Have a stream line body
6. Cold blooded,
7. Gills for gas exchange

Amphibians
An amphibian is a vertebrate that is well adapted to life both in water and on
land.
Ex: frogs, toads and newts

Characteristics
1. Back limbs longer than front
2. Have a moist skin
3. No scales on the skin

Reptiles

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Ex: lizards, snakes, turtle and crocodiles

They were the first vertebrates with adaptations

that enabled them to survive completely
independent of a water environment

Characteristics
1. Dry skin with scales
2. Have no glands in the skin
3. Lay leathery eggs

Birds

Characteristics
1. Feathers present
2. Fore limbs are modified as wings
3. Scales are confined onto legs and toes
4. Mouth modified into Beaks
5. They have a stream lined body
6. They are warm blooded animals

Mammals

Characteristics
1. Have fur or hair on the skin
2. Have external pinnae
3. Four types of teeth
4. Have sweat glands and mammary glands on the skin
5. They are warm blooded animals
6. They give birth to fully formed young
7. They have a diaphragm which plays a part in breathing.

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Virus
Ex: HIV, polio virus
Viruses are on the border between living and non living. They are much smaller than
bacteria. Further they do not have any cell reactions.

Characteristics
1. All are parasites
2. Smaller than bacteria
3. Have no cellular structure
4. Body is made up of a protein coat and a nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA but not both
5. Have only one life process that is reproduction
6. They need a host to reproduce
7. No metabolic reactions

Differences between virus and bacteria

Differences between fungus and bacteria

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There are other classification systems e.g. cladistics, it is a system of classification
which group taxa together according to the characteristics which have most recently
evolved.

Simple dichotomous keys

The first stage in many ecological investigations is to find out what species of organism
there are in the area being studied. This can be done by using keys.
Keys are constructed in this way:
 The key consists of a series of numbered stages
 Each stage consists of a pair of alternative characteristics
 Some alternatives give the next stage of the key to go to

 Some alternatives give the identification.

Example

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Structure and Functions of cellular structures

1.Plants Cell Wall:-

Structure;-Made of cellulose
therefore it is rigid. Cell Wall
surrounds the cell contents. It has
tiny pores in it which is fully
permeable.
Function:-It protects the cell from
bursting and gives shape to the cell.
It allows substances to move freely

2.Cell Surface Membrane:-

Structure:-It lines the inner surface
of the cell wall. It’s a thin layer
containing protein and lipids.
Function:- It controls the
movement of substances in and out
of cell. Also it encloses the cell
components.

3.Nucleus:-

Structure:-Contains chromosomes (DNA) which carry the genetic information for

making protein.
Function:-It controls all the functions of the cell.

4. Mitochondria:-

Structure:-It is the power house of cells.

Function: - It supplies ATP energy for cell activities.

5. Chloroplasts:-

Structure:-Contains the photosynthetic pigment, chlorophyll which absorbs light energy

to be converted into chemical energy which is used in formation of food by
photosynthesis, also in chloroplast starch granules can be stored as a food reserve.
Function:-It makes food through Photosynthesis.
Eg:- Carbon dioxide + Water ------------ Glucose + Oxygen
Light

6CO2 + 6H2O ----------- C6H12O6 + 6O2

6. Vacuole:-

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Structure:-Plant cells have permanent vacuoles which contain cell sap containing stored
food materials and water.
Function:- It collects wastes, salts and water.
Regulates the process of absorption of water by osmosis
Involved in cell turgidity

Ex: list the differences between plant cell and animal cell
Plant cell Animal cell

Exercise: what are the common features between plant and animal cell?
1.
2.
3.

Movement in and out of cells

There are 3 ways substances move in and out of cells:-

1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Active Transport
1. Diffusion:-
It is the movement of particles from a region of their higher concentration to a region of
their lower concentration down a concentration gradient.

Example:-

 The movement of oxygen from alveoli to blood capillaries.

 The movement of carbon dioxide from blood capillaries to alveoli.
 During the day time carbon dioxide moves from the atmosphere through the
stomata into the leaves.

Starch molecules are bigger than iodine molecules. Visking tubing does not allow the
starch molecules to come out, but the iodine molecules can penetrate through visking
tubing since iodine molecules are small enough to go through the visking tubing.

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Therefore, the starch solution will turn blue while the iodine solution in the beaker will
become lighter in colour.

Factors affecting Diffusion

1. Temperature:-the higher the temperature, the faster the diffusion.

2. Size of diffusing particles:-the larger the size, the slower the particles move.

3. Concentration gradient:-the higher the concentration difference between two

regions, the faster the diffusion.
4. Surface area to volume ratio small particles have a large surface area to volume ratio
whereas large particles have small surface area to volume ratio. The larger the surface
area to volume ratio the faster the diffusion.

2. Osmosis:-

It is the net movement of water from a region of its high concentration to a region of its
low concentration across a partially permeable membrane.
OR
It is the net movement of water molecules from a higher water potential to a lower
water potential, across a partially permeable membrane.
OR
It is the net movement of water molecules from a dilute solution to a concentrated
solution, across a partially permeable membrane.

Example:-

 Water potential in the soil is higher than the stem therefore water moves from
the soil to the root.
 Water potential in the root is higher than the stem therefore water moves from
the root to the stem.
 Water potential in the stem is higher than the leaf therefore water moves from
the stem to the leaf.
 Water potential in the leaf is higher than the atmosphere therefore water moves
from the leaf to the atmosphere.
Importance of osmosis
1. Plants absorb water from the soil by the root hair cells
2. Water flows inside the plant from one cell to another

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Experiment

Exercise: describe a simple experiment to demonstrate osmosis using

1. Living(potato)
And
2. Non living materials(visking tubing)

Importance of water to plants

A plant cell with the vacuole pushing out on the cell wall is said to be ‘Turgid’ and the
vacuole is exerting turgor pressure on the cell wall.

If all the cells in a leaf and stem are turgid, the stem will be firm and upright and the
leaves held out straight. If the vacuoles lose water for any reason, the cells will lose their
turgid and become ‘Flaccid’.

A leaf with flaccid cells will be limp and the stem will drop. A plant which loses water to
an extent is said to be ‘Wilting’.

When a plant cell is placed in a concentrated solution, water from the cell will move to
the solution due to osmosis. As a result, the pressure inside the cell will decrease, there
comes a point where the cell surface membrane starts detaching from the cell wall. Now
the cell is called ‘Plasmolysed’. This process is known as Plasmolysis.
On the other hand when a plant cell is placed in a dilute solution, water from the
external medium will move to the cell by osmosis. As a result, the pressure inside the
cell will increase.

Functions of water in plants

1. Maintaining cell turgidity preventing wilting
2. Transport of materials such as sucrose and amino acids
3. Raw material for photosynthesis
4. Medium for metabolic reactions

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3.Active Transport
It is the movement of particles across a partially permeable membrane from a region of
their lower concentration to a region of their higher concentration against a
concentration gradient, using cell energy.
Note: cell energy is obtained by respiration
Eg: - 1.Ion uptake by root hair cells from the soil.
2. Absorption of glucose by epithelial cells of villi.

Differences

Active Transport Diffusion

1.The particles move from lower 1. Particles move from higher
concentrations to higher concentration to lower concentration.
concentrations.
2. Particles move against the 2. Particles move down the concentration
concentration gradient. gradient.

3. ATP energy is used in the process. 3. No ATP energy is used.

LEVELS OF ORGANISATION

Tissue:- It is a group of cells of similar structure that work together to perform a

particular function.

Tissue Special features Function

Nerve Tissue Nerve cells have Dendron, It conducts impulse
cell body and axon. Most myelin sheath- speeds up
axons are wrapped around conduction velocity
by myelin sheath
Muscle Tissue Cells merge together to It helps in movement by
form fibres contracting and relaxing.
Phloem Contains phloem tube and Carries food (sucrose,
other cells. Phloem tube amino acid)in plants
does not have nucleus
Xylem Most of the cells are dead. transports water and
Xylem vessel has thick mineral ions and it gives
lignified wall. It’s a long mechanical support
tube.
Root hair cells Hair like projections give a Absorb water and mineral
large surface area ions
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 Red blood cell Biconcave discs containing Carries respiratory gases
haemoglobin, no nucleus

Organ:- It is a group of different tissues connected together in a certain way to

perform a specific function or functions.

Organ Tissues it contains Function

Stomach epithelial cells, gland cells, Digestion of protein to
muscle cells, neurones polypeptide
Lung epithelial cells, blood Gas exchange between
vessels alveoli and blood capillaries
Leaf epidermis, palisade tissue, photosynthesis
spongy tissue, xylem and
phloem
Stem Epidermis, xylem and Mechanical support,
phloem transport of materials

Organ System:- Usually refers to a group of organs connected together to perform a

certain function or functions.
Eg: - 1. The heart and blood vessels make up the circulatory system.
2. Kidney, ureter, bladder and urethra make up the urinary system

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 Magnification
Refers to how many times an object is enlarged to give an image.

Magnification = Size of Image

Size of Object

Example:-
Measure the length of animal A and its enlarged diagram B. Then calculate the
magnification of B compared to A

ENZYMES

Properties of Enzymes

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1. They are made up of Proteins.

2. They are biological catalysts.

3. They are specific to substrate.

4. They speed up bio-chemical reactions.

5. They are affected by temperature, pH, etc.

Definitions:-

Catalyst: is a substance which speeds up chemical reactions without itself being used
up.

Enzymes: are biological catalysts which speed up the chemical reaction without
themselves being used up.

Mechanism of enzyme action

The figure below shows, in order, four stages in which an enzyme – controlled chemical
reaction may occur.

M – substrate, N – active site, O – enzyme molecule, P - product

Enzyme + substrate enzyme-substrate complex product + enzyme

Factors affecting enzyme reactions:-

1. Temperature: as the temperature increases, the rate of enzyme reaction also

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increases. This is true up to a certain temperature above which the enzymes are
denatured and stop working.

2. pH: Acidic and alkaline conditions alter the chemical properties of enzymes. Most
enzymes work best at a particular pH. This is called the optimum pH. On either side of
this pH the rate is lower. At optimum pH the active site is 100% complimentary to the
substrate. This is the reason why the rate is maximum.

Industrial uses of enzymes

1. Many washing powders contain enzymes. These enzymes remove different types
of stains.
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 Eg: proteases digest protein stains to soluble amino acids
Lipase digests insoluble lipids to fatty acids and glycerol
Since enzymes work at low temperature, industries can save energy.
2. In food industry, enzymes are used:-
a) Chymosin is used in cheese making
b) Proteases are used to make meat tender
c) Pectinase is used to clarify fruit juices.

Seed Germination and enzymes

During seed germination there are many enzymes involved. These enzymes break down
stored food in the seeds. Then the digested food is absorbed by the embryo.

Amylase Carbohydrases Carbohydr

Maltase

Manufacture of enzymes using micro-organisms and fermenter

In large scale production of enzymes are done in fermenters which are large, sterile
containers with a stirrer, a pipe to add feed stock, and air pipes to blow air into the
mixture. The micro-organisms are added and the liquid is maintained at around 26 oC.
the enzymes produced by the microorganisms may be extracellular or intracellular.
Extracellular enzymes are extracted from the feedstock by filtering. To extract
intracellular enzymes the microorganisms are filtered from the feedstock, then crushed
and washed with water.

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Part of fermenter Function
Paddle To mix the contents such as
microorganisms, feedstock, and air
Cooling jacket Contains cold water which maintains a
constant temperature by absorbing excess
heat
Air supply To provide oxygen for aerobic respiration
so that the growth will be faster

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Exercise

Use of microorganisms in the food industry

Brewing
Yeast cells respire sugar to form ethanol and carbon dioxide. The source of the sugar is
usually fruit juice or grain. The ethanol produced makes the drink alcoholic, carbon
dioxide gives the drink its fizz.

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Beer Making

Barley seeds are germinated. They make amylase to digest starch.

Seeds are killed and dried to make malt.

Malt is ground up and mixed with water in a mash tun. Amylase breaks down starch to
maltose.

Mash is boiled and filtered.

Hops are added for taste and yeast is added to ferment sugars, making beer.

Beer is centrifuged, filtered and sometimes pasteurized.

Beer is put into casks or barrels.

Making Yoghurt

Milk is pasteurized at 85-950 C for 15 – 30 minutes.

Milk is homogenized.

Milk is cooled to 40-450C and inoculated with a starter culture of lactic acid bacteria.

Mixture is inoculated at this temperature for several hours, while bacteria digests milk
proteins and ferment lactose to lactic acid.

Thickened yoghurt is stirred and cooled to 50C.

Flavourants, colourants and fruit may be added before packaging.

Bread making
Yeast is mixed with flour, some sugar and water to make dough. The dough is kept
warm to allow the yeast to respire the sugar, producing pockets of carbon dioxide.
These make the dough rise. When the bread is baked, the yeast is killed.
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Single cell protein (SCP)
This is protein produced by microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi or unicellular algae in
a fermenter.
Benefits
 Has a low fat content
 It also contains fibres

Food additives
 Antioxidants
stop foods reacting with oxygen, which may spoil the taste of the food or change its
colour.
 Colourings
 Flavourings
 Preservatives
Give processed foods a longer shelf life by preventing the growth of
microorganisms
Example; processed meat, jam and fruit juices

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Nutrition
Nutrition is the obtaining of organic substances and mineral ions from which organisms
obtain their energy and there raw materials for growth and tissue repair.

Nutrients: - 1.Carbohydrates Eg:- Glucose, Starch, Cellulose

2. Fats/ Lipids
3. Proteins

Properties of Carbohydrates
1. It consists of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen. ( C, H,O)
2. The ratio between hydrogen and oxygen is 2 : 1
3. They are classified into monosaccharide, disaccharides and polysaccharides.

Classification of Carbohydrates

Monosaccharide Disaccharide Polysaccharide

EXAMPLE:-
Glucose, Fructose, Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose.
Galactose.

FUNCTION:-
1. Immediate energy source 1.Energy source
in 1. Cellulose is used mainly
in respiration. respiration in making plant cell wall.
2. Glycogen is used as
2. They are used to make 2. Photosynthetic product storage food in animal
disaccharides and is transported in the form cells.
polysaccharides. of sucrose. 3. Starch is used as storage
food in plant cells.

FEATURES:-

1. Sweet in taste. 1. Sweet in taste. 1. Not sweet in taste.

2. Crystals are formed. 2. Crystals are formed. 2. No crystals are formed.
3. Soluble in water. 3. Soluble in water. 3. Not soluble in water.

Monosaccharide
They are used to make disaccharides and polysaccharides.

Eg:- Glucose + Glucose Maltose

Glucose + Galactose Lactose Disaccharides

Glucose + Fructose Sucrose

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Disaccharides
There are enzymes which break down the disaccharides into its constituent
monosaccharides.

Maltase
Maltose Glucose + Glucose
Lactase
Lactose Glucose + Galactose
Sucrase
Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
Note: in plants synthesized food is transported in the form of sucrose and amino acid.

Polysaccharides
Many polysaccharides are made from glucose molecules which act as basic units.

Reducing Sugars

Are the sugars which reduce Cu2+ to Cu+ which is red in colour.
Eg: glucose, fructose, galactose, maltose and lactose

Cu2+ + Reducing Sugar Cu+

(BLUE) (BRICK RED)

Test for reducing sugar

Take a test tube, add 2cm3 of the sample solution and then add equal amount of
benedicts solution. Next heat the test tube in a water bath, if the colour changes from
blue to brick red, then the sample is a reducing sugar.

 Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar. When sucrase enzyme or an acid is added, the

glycosidic bond breaks releasing monosaccharides which are reducing sugar.

Test for starch:-

Take a white tile and place the solid food sample on it and then add few drops of iodine
solution. If the colour turns from brown to blue black, starch is present.

LIPIDS Eg: - FATS & OIL

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Properties:-

1. They have C, H, and O as elements

2. Lipids are made up of fatty acids and glycerol.

3. The ratio between H to O is not 2:1. It has very less oxygen compared to hydrogen

Functions:-

1. They provide energy.

2. Being under the skin it acts as a good heat insulator.

3. It protects the internal organs of the body by surrounding them.

Ex: explain why the mammals living in Polar Regions have a thick layer of fat under the
skin.
Temperature of the polar region is very low. This temperature is not suitable for
mammals to live unless they have a mechanism to insulate the body. As
mammals generate heat in their body, it has to be conserved which would
otherwise be lost to the surroundings. The thick fat layer acts as a heat insulator.

Formation of Lipids

Condensation reaction
Glycerol + 3 Fatty acids Triglyceride (lipid) + Water

Test for lipids

Emulsion Test:- Take the food sample, dissolve it in ethanol as much as possible. Then,
filter the solution and take 3 cm3 of the solution and pour it into 3 cm3 of water in
another test tube. If there is a milky white layer appearing at the surface of water, then
lipid is present.

PROTEINS
Properties:-

1. C, H, O, N and sometimes S are the elements which make protein.

2. The basic unit of protein is amino acids.

3. Enzymes which break protein into smaller units are called Proteases.

4. These enzymes break down the peptide bond.

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Note:
Excess protein which we eat will not be stored in our body because the amine
part of the amino acid is poisonous to cells therefore the amine parts are
removed and made to form urea.

Functions:-
1. They help in growth and repair

2. Hair and nails are made from proteins.

3. Some proteins make enzymes which are useful in catalyzing reactions.

4. Some proteins act as hormones(example: insulin)

5. Some proteins act as anti-bodies, thereby destroying the foreign particles.

Test for Proteins

Biuret Test

Procedure:-Take the liquid food sample into a test tube, then add almost equal amount
of dilute KOH (Potassium Hydroxide) followed by a few drops of dilute copper(ii)
sulphate solution.

Observation:- If protein is present the solution will turn from blue to purple.

Balanced Diet
Is a diet which contains all the essential nutrients in the right amount and proportion. A
Balanced diet should contain the following substances:-

1. Protein
2. Carbohydrates
3. Lipids
4. Vitamins
5. Minerals.
6. Dietary fibre.(roughage)
7. Water

Vitamins :
Vitamins Source Deficiency disease Importance
1.Vitamin C Citrus fruits Scurry To make the vessels
Lack of vitamin C strong and to

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 doesn’t allow blood improve our
vessels to be immune system.
formed properly.
Therefore bleeding
under the skin &
gums and poor
healing of wounds.
Vitamin D Dairy products, Soft bones leading To make strong
Sunlight to rickets in young bones by absorbing
children. Calcium from the
intestine and
depositing in the
bones.

Minerals :
Minerals Source Importance Deficiency
disease
1.Calcium Milk To make strong Brittle bones,
bones. Osteoporosis
2. Iron Liver, some To make Anaemia
Vegetable(Spinach),ground haemoglobin
nuts.

Ex: Explain why the people who take less iron get tired quickly
Iron is important for making haemoglobin
Haemoglobin is needed for transporting oxygen for aerobic respiration
aerobic respiration generates a lot of energy
hence less iron makes people tired quickly

Dietary Roughage (Fibre)

Dietary fibres are the cellulose present in plant cell wall. This cannot be digested in our
body since we don’t have enzymes for digesting this substance. These substances are
called Dietary fibres.

Importance of dietary fibres

1. It prevents constipation.
2. It keeps the colon in a healthy condition.
3. It prevents bowel cancer.

Importance of water

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1. It is the main constituent in many bio-chemical reactions. Eg;-Photosynthesis.
2. It’s a good solvent, so it dissolves many substances in it.
3. Its a good transport medium. Eg;-Blood contains water.
4. Seed germination requires water.
5. Some seeds are dispersed by water.Eg;-Coconut seeds.

Malnutrition
This is the result of not eating a balanced diet. There may be too little food or too much,
or the diet could be lacking in one or more key nutrients.
Effects of Malnutrition
Malnutrition is the result of an unbalanced diet.
 Obesity
 Coronary heart diseases
 Anorexia
 Deficiency diseases example; kwashiorkor, scurvy, and blindness
 constipation
What is the main difference between malnutrition and starvation?
Starvation refers to massive lack of food which decreases in body weight whereas
malnutrition refers to unbalanced diet, i.e. taking more or less than the body
requirements.
The problems of world food supplies
Reasons
 climate change and natural disasters
 shortage of water
 pollution
 poor soil
 urbanization
 pest damage or disease

Animal Nutrition
(DIGESTIVE SYSTEM)

Human Alimentary Canal (Diagram)

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Human Nutrition is called holozoic nutrition which has the following stages:-

1. Ingestion
2. Digestion
3. Absorption.
4. Assimilation
5. Egestion

1. Ingestion: - intake of food into the mouth.

2. Digestion:-Is the breakdown of large food substances into small soluble,and
absorbable substances.
3. Absorption:-taking the digested food into the blood or lymph from the alimentary
canal across the wall of the intestine.
4. Assimilation:-Use of digested food in cells.
5. Egestion:-is the removal of undigested food from the body.

36
Parts of the Alimentary canal

A) Mouth: - 1. Is the first part of the system where food is taken in. The food is
broken down into smaller pieces by the action of teeth which chew
and grind the food as a result the surface area of the food increases.
This contains amylase enzyme to begin the digestion of starch.
TEETH

There are four types of teeth:-

1. Incisors:- chisel-shaped tooth present in the front of the upper and lower jaw.
This is to cut food into pieces. There are eight incisors altogether. Incisors have
single root
2. Canine:- On each side of the incisors there is a canine tooth. In carnivorous
mammals, this tooth is long and pointed but in humans they are similar to the
incisors but a little more pointed. Canine also has single root
3. Premolars:- two on each side of the jaw. They have two cusps. They help in
chewing food. Pre molars have two roots
4. Molars:- At the back of each jaw are molars which have four or five cusps. They
crush the food into small pieces. Molars have two or three roots. It is important
in chewing and grinding food

Molar Tooth
Structure of a molar tooth

Tooth contains the following parts:-

1. Crown:- is the part which is exposed

2. Root: is the part which is connected
to the gum by a substance called
cement.

Each tooth is made from many layers:-

i. Enamel :- this covers the crown of

the tooth and makes a hard biting
surface. 97% contains salts & 3%
organic matter.
ii. Dentine:- this is rather like a bone and softer than enamel. It is a living tissue.
This also contains calcium salts.

iii. Pulp:- in the center of the tooth is a soft connective tissue. It contains cells which
make the dentine and keep the tooth alive. In the pulp there are blood vessels
and sensory nerve endings present.
37
Dental Health:- Sugary food and the neglect of oral hygiene can lead to toothache, gum
disease and ultimately the loss of teeth.

 Dental decay:- is the dissolving of a hole in enamel and dentine by the effect of
the acids provided by certain bacteria that feed on the food remains in mouth
especially sugars.
Decay begins when small holes appear in the enamel. The cavities are caused by
bacteria in the plaque on the tooth surface. The bacteria feed on sugar,
producing acids which dissolve the calcium salts in the tooth enamel. The enamel
and dentine are dissolved away in patches, forming cavities. The cavities reduce
the distance between the outside of the tooth and the nerve endings. The acids
produced by the bacteria irritate the nerve endings and cause toothache. The
bacteria will also get into the pulp cavity and cause pain at the root.
 Gum disease:- There is a layer of saliva and mucus over the teeth. This layer
contains bacteria which live on the food residue in the mouth, building up a
coating on the teeth, called plaque. If the plaque is not removed, mineral salts of
calcium & magnesium are deposited on it, forming a hard layer of tar. If the
bacterial plaque is not removed regularly, it spreads down the tooth into the
narrow gap between the gum and the enamel. Here it causes inflammation
which leads to redness and bleeding of the gums and to bad breath. It also
causes the gums to expose the cement. If the inflammation is not treated, the
fibres holding the tooth in the jaw are destroyed. So the tooth becomes loose
and falls out.

Prevention of dental decay

1. Brushing the teeth with fluoride toothpaste frequently.
2. Reducing the intake of sweets.
3. Taking more of vitamin D and Calcium
4. Rinsing the mouth with water after intake of sweet.
5. Use dental floss or a toothpick to remove pieces of food trapped between teeth
6. Visit a dentist regularly to make sure any tooth decay is treated early and any
stubborn plaque is removed.

Adding fluoride to public water supplies

Growing children can absorb fluoride from toothpaste or drinking water. It
becomes part of the enamel hence; the enamel becomes more resistant to tooth
decay.
Ex: some people argue adding fluoride to drinking water is beneficial while
others say it is not good! Discuss these
Arguments for:
 Tooth decay in the local population of children decreases.
 There is no need to buy fluoridated toothpaste.
38
 Arguments against:
 Fluoride can cause white patches (fluorosis) on the teeth.
 Excess fluoride may have side effects
 Fluoride is beneficial only to growing children
 Some people may develop allergic conditions
 Cost of fluoridation is high
Salivary gland

There are 3 pairs of salivary glands which secrete saliva. This lubricates the food and
makes the small pieces stick together.
Saliva contains one enzyme, salivary amylase which works best at slightly alkaline
condition.

Amylase
Starch Maltose
Slightly alkaline

B) Peristalsis: - Waves of contraction and relaxation of muscles. Peristalsis takes place in

the alimentary canal (oesophagus to rectum) where the circular muscles above the food
contracts pushing the food down while the circular muscles below the food relaxes
allowing the food to pass through.

Diagram to illustrate peristalsis

C) Stomach:-

 In the stomach mechanical and chemical digestion takes place. Churning effect
of the stomach mixes the food with gastric juice. Gastric juice contains pepsin
enzyme (protease), concentrated hydrochloric acid. etc.
39
  Hydrochloric acid has many functions:-
i. It kills the bacteria moving along with the food.
ii. It activates the enzyme, Pepsin.
iii. Hydrochloric acid gives ideal conditions for pepsin enzyme to work.

 Mucus
Stomach wall contains mucus which
I. Protects the wall from getting damaged by hydrochloric acid or
enzymes.
II. Lubricates the passage of food.

 Chemical digestion: - Gastric juice contains pepsin enzyme which breaks down
protein into small polypeptide chains in acidic medium.
Then the food moves to the duodenum through pyloric sphincter.
Protease
Protein polypeptide

D) Duodenum:-

1. It doesn’t produce any enzymes but the digestive juice from the pancreas and bile
from the liver are poured into the duodenum to act on the food.
2. Bile has many effects:-
i. It emulsifies the fats. This means it breaks them up into small droplets
which are more easily digested by lipase as the surface area increases.
ii. Since bile is alkali, it neutralizes the acidic food coming from the stomach.
3. Pancreatic juice has many effects:-
i. It contains digestive enzymes such as amylase, lipase & trypsin and
furthermore, it has Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate.
ii. Amylase enzyme breaks down starch to maltose
iii. Lipase enzyme breaks down lipid (fats) to fatty acid & glycerol.
iv. Trypsin enzyme (protease) breaks down small polypeptide into
dipeptide.
v. Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate is important to neutralize the acidic food
coming from the stomach.

E) Ileum: - It has 2 functions:-

i. Completion of digestion:-

Protease
Dipeptide amino acids
40
 Maltase
Maltose Glucose
Lactase
Lactose Galactose + Glucose

Sucrase
Sucrose Fructose + Glucose

ii. Absorption of digested food:-

All the digested food particles are absorbed through the wall of the
ileum. In order to absorb the food efficiently, it has many adaptations.

Adaptations of the ileum

1. The ileum is long and coiled. This increases the surface area for absorption.
2. The internal surface of ileum has circular folds which are called villi, this further
increases the surface area for absorption.
3. The lining of the villus is called epithelium which is very thin so therefore
substances can rapidly pass through it.

41
 4. Epithelial cells have micro-villi which further increases the surface area for
absorption.
5. Each villus contains lacteals which absorb digested fats.
6. It also contains a dense network of capillaries which absorb digested food and
take away from the ileum maintaining concentration gradient.

 Blood capillaries in the ileum join to form the hepatic portal vein which
transports absorbed food to the liver.

Assimilation: is the use of food in the cells. Liver is one of the organs where assimilation
takes place efficiently.
Role of the Liver
1) Excess glucose is converted to glycogen and stored in the liver.
2) Excess amino acids are never stored; this is because the amine part of amino
acids is toxic to the cells. Therefore the amine part is removed and is
converted to form urea. This is called deamination, followed by release of
energy from the remainder of the amino acid.
3) Iron is stored.(recall the source of iron as a mineral)
4) Makes bile

Large intestine:
1) It absorbs water from food into the blood.
2) It produces vitamin K with the help of bacteria.
3) Rectum stores undigested food temporarily.

Complete the following table

Part Food Enzyme Medium Product(s)

Mouth Starch
Stomach Protein
Duodenum Starch
Polypeptide

42
 Lipid
Ileum Maltose
Dipeptide

What is the main difference between mechanical digestion and chemical digestion?
Mechanical digestion leads to breakdown of food particles without affecting their
molecular structure whereas chemical digestion affects food molecules to be broken
down into smaller molecules.

Plant Nutrition

Photosynthesis
Is the process by which plants produce organic food by using carbon dioxide and water
in the presence of light.

Light
Eg: - Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen
Light
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
The process of photosynthesis
 Green plants take in carbon dioxide through their leaves. This happens by diffusion.
 Water is absorbed through plants’ roots by osmosis and transported to the leaf through
xylem vessels.
 Chloroplasts, containing chlorophyll, are responsible for trapping light energy.
 Glucose is usually changed to sucrose for transport around the plant, or to starch for
storage.
 Oxygen is released as a waste product, or used by the plant for respiration.

Ex: explain why the synthesized food in plants is transported in the form of sucrose and stored
in the form of starch.
Sucrose is less reactive than glucose. If glucose were used, it would be used up on the
way before reaching the sink.
Starch is large, compact, and insoluble molecule with no osmotic effect.

Factors affecting rate of photosynthesis

1. Temperature
2. Light Intensity
3. Carbon dioxide
43
4. Water

1. Temperature: - as the temperature increases, rate of photosynthesis also

increases. This is because the metabolic reactions involve enzymes. As the
temperature increases rate of enzyme activity also increases up to the optimum.
This causes the rate of photosynthesis to increase.

2. Light Intensity: - as the light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis also
increases. This is because more stomata are opened with higher light intensity.
Hence more carbon dioxide can be absorbed through stomata for
photosynthesis.

3. Carbon Dioxide:- as CO2 increases, rate of photosynthesis also increases.

Limiting Factor:- A variable which limits the rate of a particular process. If it is

increased then the process will take place at a faster rate until another factor
becomes limiting.
Greenhouse systems
Greenhouses are used in some countries to control conditions for plant growth,
especially when growing conditions outside are not ideal. The glass helps trap heat
inside, and atmospheric conditions can be controlled by giving optimum amount of

44
carbon dioxide. If needed artificial lighting can be supplied. Burning fossil fuel inside
the system has dual advantage, more carbon dioxide and heat.
Surface view of a leaf

Cross section of a dicotyledonous leaf

45
 Adaptations of a leaf for photosynthesis:-

1. Thin leaf therefore distance over which gases diffuse is less.

2. Transparent cuticle therefore it allows the light to penetrate.
3. Palisade mesophyll cells are arranged near the upper surface.These cells
contain large no of chloroplasts. This is to increase the rate of
photosynthesis.
4. Loosely arranged spongy mesophyll cells. This is to allow gases to stay and
diffuse in.
5. There are vascular bundles (xylem & phloem). Xylem is for taking water &
minerals. Phloem is to transport synthesized food away from the leaf.
6. There are large no of stomata on the lower epidermis. This is for gas
exchange.
Part of leaf Features Function
Cuticle Transparent, lipid layer Protects the leaf
Epidermis Cells without pigments, no Secrets the cuticle and
chloroplast gives protection for the
mesophyll layer
46
Palisade mesophyll Columnar cells containing a Main site for
large no. of chloroplasts photosynthesis
Spongy mesophyll Irregular shaped cells It acts as the gas exchange
containing a few surface during respiration
chloroplasts. it also forms and photosynthesis
large air spaces
Guard cell Bean or dum-bell shaped It controls the size of
cells containing a few stoma(opening and closing)
chloroplasts
Starch test for leaf
Procedure:
 Take a leaf and boil in water to break open the cell wall and to denature
enzymes
 Then place the leaf in warm alcohol to remove chlorophyll
 Then dip the leaf in water to remove alcohol otherwise the leaf would be fragile
 Now place the leaf on a white tile and add a few drops of iodine
 If starch is present the leaf will turn blue.

Mineral Requirements:-

Minerals Importance Deficiency

1. Nitrate ion and To make proteins, Stunted growth
ammonium ion chlorophyll, nucleic acid
2. Magnesium ion To make chlorophyll Yellowing of leaves
 Explain why a plant which is grown in a soil containing less Magnesium ions gives
less yield.
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Nitrate ion: it is used to increase the crop yield. Nitrate ions are removed from the
soil easily due to its soluble nature and also due to the removal of harvest from the
area. Therefore the ion has to be replaced. This is done in three ways:
 Applying animal manure
 Crop rotation
 Adding artificial fertilizers

Figure below shows a pitcher plant, which has normal green leaves as well as leaves
modified to form pitchers. A pitcher plant makes carbohydrates in the usual way.
Normally this plant grows in a soil where the amount of nitrates is very low. These
plants obtain their nitrogen by trapping insects inside pitchers and digesting them.

47
Dangers of overuse of fertilizers
 Soil micro organisms which are useful in decomposition would die due to
exo-osmosis from micro organisms.
 Due to high concentrated salt, plants would wilt due to the loss of water
into the soil from plant by osmosis.
 The over use of fertilizers can damage the fine root. This will reduce the
uptake of mineral ions.
 Eutrophication
Transport in organisms
 Unicellular organisms do not require a transport system. This is because their
surface area to volume ratio is big; therefore they can exchange the substances
by simple diffusion.
 Multicellular organisms require a transport system because their surface area to
volume ratio is small. Hence most of the cells are deep inside the body. By
simple diffusion cells deep inside the body cannot get the things quickly,
therefore a transport system is vital.
48
Transport in Plants
Movement of water through a plant:-

The water potential of the atmosphere is

lower than the leaf as a result water
molecules move to the atmosphere. This
creates low water potential in the leaf.
Now, the water molecules from the stem
could move to the leaf. This causes
lowering of water potential in the stem so
water molecules move from the root to
the stem. Eventually, water will be pulled
from the soil into the root by osmosis.
The whole process is facilitated by
transpiration (in tall trees). This is called
transpiration pull. Transpiration pull is
facilitated by cohesive (water molecules attract each other) and adhesive force (water
molecules are attracted by the wall of xylem vessel)
In the plant root, water moves from the root hair cells to the cells of cortex, endodermis
and then reaches the xylem of the roots. This movement can also take place by osmosis.
From xylem of the root water ascends through xylem of the stem as xylem of the root is
continuous with the xylem of the stem. The process of ascending in the xylem of the
stem takes place mainly by transpiration pull which creates a negative water pressure at
the top of the plant. Root pressure and capillary action are other two forces which help
the process of ascending of water in the xylem of the stem.
Water from xylem of the stem passes to the xylem of the leaf which passes through the
stalk, midrib and veins.
Water moves from xylem of the leaf veins to the surrounding mesophyll cells where
water enters the mesophyll cells by osmosis and soaking but an amount of water moves
between the cells where it evaporates and diffuses through stomata to the outside of
the leaf.

Root hair cell

49
Function:-
1. Helps in increased absorption of water & minerals.
2. Provides anchorage for the plant.

 Describe the adaptations of root hair cells for efficient absorption of water &
minerals.
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Vascular tissues

Vascular tissue in plants includes xylem and phloem. In a dicotyledonous plant stem,
both xylem and phloem exist in the same radius. The diagram below shows the
arrangement of xylem and phloem in the transverse section in a stem of a
dicotyledonous plant.

50
Xylem:- is a vascular tissue which has most of its cells dead. It contains different kinds of
cells out of which the vessel element is prominent.
Adaptations of xylem vessel:-
1. Long cylindrical tube therefore water and minerals can move easily.
2. Thick lignified wall to withstand high pressure therefore the plant is supported.
3. It has lost its cell content therefore there is no blockage
4. It has pits therefore water can move sideways

Functions of xylem:-
1. It transports water and minerals.
2. It gives mechanical support to the plant.

Phloem Translocation

51
It is the movement of sucrose and amino acids from regions of production or of storage
to regions of utilization. Translocation involves phloem.

Phloem:- is a vascular tissue which has most of its cells living. Sieve tube (phloem tube)
and companion cells are two of them.

Function:-
1. It transports sucrose and amino acids from the leaf to other regions

Systemic pesticide is a chemical used to kill pests of certain plants. These

chemicals may be sprayed on to the leaves of a plant then they diffuse through
stomata. Once in the leaf they are transported through the phloem to other parts of
the plant by translocation. The pests which feed on the plant will die as they receive
a dose of this insecticide. The once which walk on the plant will not be harmed. This
is a good method to control pests without harming harmless animals.

Transpiration:- is the loss of water in the form of water vapour from the aerial parts
of a plant.

Advantages of Transpiration

1. Tall trees can take mineral ions to the top.

2. It keeps the surrounding of the plant cool therefore the plant will not be over
heated.
3. This is also important in hydrological cycle.

Factors affecting rate of transpiration:-

Environmental Factors Plant factors

1. Temperature 1.Surface area of a leaf
2. Wind speed 2. Distribution of stomata.
3. Light intensity 3. Thickness of a leaf
4. Humidity 4. Arrangement of leaves.

1. Temperature:- as the temperature increases the rate of transpiration also

increases. This is because the water molecules gain more kinetic energy and then
move away from the plant causing less vapour around the plant. This will create
a steep concentration gradient. Hence the rate is more.

52
2. Wind speed:- as the wind speed increases, rate of transpiration also increases.
This is because as the wind blows, it takes away the water vapour from the
surface of the plant as a result a steeper concentration gradient is maintained.
Hence the rate is more.

3. Light Intensity:- as the light intensity increases the rate of transpiration also
increases, because as there is more light, the stomata open wider for gas
exchange (photosynthesis), in the mean time water molecules escape through
the stomata.

53
4. Humidity:- as the humidity increases, transpiration decreases this is because
increase in humidity decreases the concentration gradient.

A volume potometer
Is an apparatus used to measure the rate of transpiration of a leafy shoot.

54
Experiment to investigate the role of environmental factors(wind) in determining the
rate of transpiration from a leafy shoot

Procedure:- Cut a branch from a plant, before fixing to the potometer, make another
diagonal cut from the leafy shoot to remove any air trapped. Fix the shoot as shown in
the diagram. By lowering the beaker, take an air bubble into the capillary tube. Make
sure that the place where the shoot is connected to the potometer is well sealed. In
order to check how wind speed affects the rate of transpiration, place an electric fan
near the apparatus. Switch it on to the lowest speed. Record the time taken for the air
bubble to move from one end to the marked distance. Repeat the same procedure with
higher wind speed and record the time taken.

Rate of transpiration= distance/ time

Wind speed Time taken for the air Rate

bubble
1 - -
2 - -
3 -- -
4 - -
Describe an experiment to demonstrate that the rate of transpiration in hot
condition faster than cold condition using a weight photometer.
Weight potometer
Procedure
Select two identical potted plants of same species, same age and same size and label
them as A and B.
The weight of each is determined, the pot must be sealed to avoid evaporation of
water from the soil.

55
 One of the potted plants must be kept in a cold place, the other must be placed in a
hot conditions.
After about five hours the two plants must be reweighed, and the decrease in
weight is determined. This decrease in weight determines the weight of water lost
by transpiration.
It is expected that the rate of transpiration in hot conditions is higher than that in
cold conditions as heat increases rate of evaporation of water.

Adaptations of plants to reduce transpiration:-

1. Thick waxy cuticle to reduce evaporation from the surface of the plant.
2. Small leaves to reduce surface area hence less transpiration rate.
3. In some plants, the leaves are modified to give spines and thorns. This reduces
surface area.
4. Sunken stomata: - so it is less exposed to environmental factors and to create
high humidity.
5. Fine hairs around stomata- to reduce air movement so humidity builds up and
transpiration is reduced.
6. Fleshy green stem-to store water and to do photosynthesis.
7. Some grass plants have their leaves rolled to increase humidity around stomata,
reducing transpiration.
8. The plants which live in dry conditions have both shallow and deep root. Long
roots to search for water deep down in the soil. Shallow roots to absorb water
vapour from the air and to take water immediately after a rain.

Ex:
Grass plants have almost equal number of stomata on both sides of a leaf
whereas dicotyledonous leaves have most of their stomata on the bottom side.

This is an adaptation to reduce transpiration. Dicotyledonous leaves are placed

almost horizontally hence upper surface is more exposed to environmental

56
 conditions than lower surface. Therefore having more stomata on the bottom
side, it can reduce transpiration rate.

 Compare the role of transpiration and translocation in the transport of

materials from sources to sinks, within plants at different seasons.

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Wilting
Wilting occurs due to rapid loss of water from the plant at a rate higher than the
rate of gaining water from roots, as a result the plant will have a water shortage.
Cells become flaccid if they lack water, and they will no longer press against each
other.
Hence stems and leaves lose their rigidity, and wilt
Reasons for wilting
 Shortage of water in soil
 Inability of the plant to absorb enough water because soil is salty
 High wind, low humidity, or high temperature

 Explain why an excess of chemical fertilizers make the plant wilt.

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Transport in Humans
The blood circulatory system

This consists of: 1. Heart

2. Blood
3. Blood vessels

1. Heart: Kidney - Renal

Lungs - Pulmonary
Liver – Hepatic

57
Functioning of the heart:
The blood vessels which bring blood to the heart are veins and the blood vessels which
take blood away from the heart are arteries.
When the two atria relax, the right atrium receives deoxygenated blood through vena
cava but the left atrium receives oxygenated blood through pulmonary veins.
When the two atria contract the ventricles relax, during this period the right ventricles
receives deoxygenated blood from the right atrium through the tricuspid valve, but the
left ventricle receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium through the bicuspid or the
mitral valve.
When the two ventricles contract the bicuspid and tricuspid valves close to prevent the
backflow of blood to the atria. Blood from the right ventricle is forced through the semi-
lunar valve into pulmonary artery to reach the lungs but oxygenated blood is forced
from the left ventricle through semi-lunar valve into aorta to reach the different parts of
the body.

Coronary artery supplies blood to the heart(cardiac)muscle

Double circulatory system: In a complete journey of blood through the body, the blood
travels twice through the heart.

List the differences in composition between the blood in the left and right ventricles
Right ventricle Left ventricle

58
Advantages of double circulation
 Oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood are separated without getting
mixed.
 To maintain the blood pressure at various level.
 Pulmonary circulation allows exchange of gases in lungs while the systemic
circulation provides the different parts of the body with oxygen and carries away
the waste products.
Ex: name the blood vessels A, B, C, D and E

A
B
C
D
E

Ex: Name the blood vessel which carries blood;

59
  At the highest pressure --------------------------------------------------------------------
 At the lowest pressure --------------------------------------------------------------------
 To the heart --------------------------------------------------------------------
 With the highest oxygen concentration ------------------------------------------------
 With the lowest oxygen concentration ------------------------------------------------
 With the highest glucose and amino acid concentration -----------------------------
 With the lowest urea concentration ----------------------------------------------------------
 With the highest urea concentration ----------------------------------------------------------

Factors affecting the rate of heart beat

1. Exercise: as the level of exercise increases the rate also increases. This is because
more carbon dioxide is produced; this will stimulate the medulla oblongata to detect. As
a result the heart beats faster; hence more oxygen is supplied to the active muscles. This
will increase the rate of respiration thus producing a lot of energy for muscle
contraction. In the mean time more carbon dioxide is removed.

2. Adrenaline: this also increases the rate of heart beat.

Ex: explain why the rate of heart beat is more in babies than adults.
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Main causes of a heart attack (coronary heart diseases)

 Poor diet with too much saturated fat- leads to cholesterol building up in
arteries, eventually blocking the blood vessels. If this happens in coronary artery,
the blood supply to the heart will decrease, resulting heart attack.
 Smoking- nicotine damages the heart and blood vessels, further it causes the
formation of cholesterol in arteries.
 Stress- tends to increase blood pressure, which can damage arteries, resulting
blockage. Eventually it can lead to heart attack.
 Lack of exercise- the heart muscle loses its tone and becomes less efficient in
pumping blood.
 Obesity- being overweight puts extra strain on the heart and makes it more
difficult, leading to fatigue (tired) in the heart.
 Inherited factors- some families are more prone to heart diseases than others.
This is related to defective (mutated) genes.

60
 BLOOD

Cells Plasma (pale yellow liquid)

Water
RBC WBC Platelets Salt

Wastes
Plasma Proteins Eg:-urea,
Eg:- Antibodies,Fibrinogen carbon dioxide

Nutrients
Glucose,amino acids
Hormones
Eg:- Insulin,adrenaline

Plasma: - it’s a pale yellow liquid containing many substances.

Functions of plasma

1. It transports heat.
2. It transports many different substances such as nutrients, wastes,
hormones.etc
3) It has anti-bodies which protect the body and it also has
fibrinogen which
helps in blood clotting.
4) It carries blood cells such as RBC, WBC and platelets.
Blood clotting
If a blood vessel is damaged, the platelets release an enzyme which triggers a series of
chemical reactions which will eventually convert the soluble fibrinogen into insoluble
fibrin. The fibrin fibres form a mesh on the wound, which trap blood cells to make a
blood clot.

61
 Blood cells

5) RBC

Structure:-

 It’s a biconcave disc. The middle part of the cell is depressed and out of all the
blood cells RBC is the most in number.
 It has haemoglobin which is made from iron and globin protein.(red respiratory
pigment)
 Many organelles are absent such as nucleus, mitochondria. Etc.
 Since RBC is small and flexible, it can easily pass through small blood
capillaries.

Functions:-

 It carries oxygen with the help of haemoglobin.

Eg: - Hb + 4 O2 Hb08
Dull red Bright red

62
  It also carries carbon dioxide

Adaptations:-

 Biconcave disc, this increases the surface area for absorbing oxygen.
 It does not have a nucleus; therefore more respiratory gases can be carried as
more Hb can be accommodated.
 It has respiratory pigment haemoglobin, to carry respiratory gases.

2) WBC there are different kinds of WBCS, all of them have nucleus

Structure:-

 It is a larger cell than RBC and also there number is less. RBC to WBC ratio
is 600:1 for a healthy person

 Unlike RBC, they almost have all the organelles

Functions:-

 There are two types:- a. Phagocytes:- Engulf

b. Lymphocytes:- Antibodies

o Phagocytes engulf micro- organisms then digest them, thereby they kill
micro-organisms. Phagocytes kill all the microorganisms.
o Lymphocytes produce antibodies, which bind to micro-organisms
as a result the movement of micro-organisms is restricted. Then
phagocytes come and eat them. Lymphocytes are unique to a type of
microorganisms. This means that a lymphocyte which attacks a type of
microorganism will not attack another kind.

3) Platelets

Are fragments of cells budded off from the cells of red bone marrow.

Functions:-
 It prevents loss of blood.

 It also prevents the entry of micro-organisms.

63
Blood Vessels

Arteries Capillaries Veins

1. Three layered wall. 1. One layered wall

2. Very thick wall. 2. Very thin wall. 1. Three layered wall.
3. No pores present. 3. Pores present. 2. Thinner than artery.
4. No valves 4. No valves 3. No pores present.
5. Blood flows at high 5. Medium pressure. 4. Valves are present.
pressure. 6. Little pulse flow 5. Low pressure.
6. Pulse flow of blood 7. Between arteries 6. Continuous flow
7. Takes blood away and veins. 7. Takes blood towards
from the heart. 8. Both oxygenated the heart.
8. Generally, it carries and deoxygenated. 8. Carries deoxygenated
oxygenated blood. blood.
9. Small lumen. 9. Very small lumen.
9. Large lumen.

Adaptations of blood vessels

Blood vessel Adaptation
Artery Large number of elastic fibres _ stretching and recoiling
Thick muscle – for contraction and relaxation so that blood will be
pushed
Small lumen – to maintain high pressure

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Vein Thin wall – can be compressed by skeletal muscle
Large lumen – to accommodate more blood
Valves – to prevent back flow of blood
Capillary Thin wall – permeable to small substances
Wall has fine pores – substances can move in an out of tissue fluid
Forms a dense network – provides large surface area

Naming blood vessels

This is based on the names of organ to which the blood vessel is connected. Example,
the kidney receives blood from renal artery and gives blood to renal vein.
Try this,
Organ Artery Vein
Liver
Lungs
Heart

65
Tissue fluid:- is the leaked blood plasma which has come from the blood capillaries. The
substances which are small enough can pass through the pores in the capillaries due to
high pressure.
In the tissue fluid, certain substances should be kept constant such as O2, CO2, H2O,
glucose. Etc.
 Tissue fluid and blood plasma are almost similar except that plasma has
large protein.

66
Lymph:- Not all the tissue fluid returns to the capillaries. Some of it enters into lymph
capillaries. Once it enters the lymph capillary it is known as lymph which is similar in
composition to tissue fluid.

Functions of lymphatic System

The lymphatic system is a collection of lymph vessels and glands.
 It contains lymphocytes.
 It takes the excess tissue fluid back to the blood.
 It absorbs the digested fats coming from the lacteal.

Respiration

It is the oxidation of food in cells to produce energy. This can be divided into two:-

67
 1. Aerobic Respiration
2. Anaerobic Respiration.

1. Aerobic Respiration:- is the oxidation of food in cells in the presence of oxygen to

release energy.
 Word equation
Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy

 Symbol equation
C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 + H2O + energy

It produces a large amount of energy and also involves the cytoplasm and mitochondria
of a cell.
 Ex: Explain why a plant which is grown in a poorly aerated soil exhibits poor
growth.
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2. Anaerobic Respiration:-is the oxidation of food in cells in the absence of oxygen.

During this process less energy is produced compared to aerobic respiration. Anaerobic
respiration can be of two types:-

i. Anaerobic Respiration in yeast and plants cells

In yeast:-
Glucose Ethanol + carbon dioxide
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
During this reaction less amount of energy is produced. This reaction is an
example for fermentation.

ii. Anaerobic Respiration in muscles

When muscle cells undergo anaerobic respiration, lactic acid is produced.

Cramp occurs due to excess amount of lactic acid present in the muscle cells.
This reaction produces less amount of energy.

Glucose Lactic acid

C6H12O6 2C3H6O3

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

1. In the presence of oxygen. 1. In the absence of oxygen.
2. More energy is produced 2. Less energy is produced.
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 3. By products are CO2 & H2O 3. By products can be ethanol & CO2
or lactic acid.
4. Mitochondria are involved. 4. Mitochondria not involved

RESPIRATORY System

Parts of the respiratory system

Nostrils Nasal Cavity Pharynx Larynx

Alveolus Bronchiole Bronchus Trachea

Pleural membrane:- Each lung is surrounded by a membrane called pleural membrane.

Functions of pleural membrane:-

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  It secretes the pleural fluid.
 It separates both the lungs.

Pleural fluid:- this is a sticky liquid present within the pleural membrane. This has some
biological values.

Functions of pleural fluid:-

 It prevents lungs from rubbing against the rib cage.

 It also ensures that, as the rib cage expands and contracts, lungs could also move
with it.
Respiratory surfaces
It is the surface where gas exchange takes place. Example, alveolus
A gas exchange surface has the following features;
Feature Reason
Thin Distance over which gases diffuse is short
hence rapid gas exchange
Moist To allow gases to dissolve and diffuse
Large surface More gas exchange in short time
Concentration gradient Rapid gas exchange

Adaptations of Alveoli

1) Large number of alveoli is present to increase the surface for gas exchange.
2) Alveoli are one cell thick; therefore distance over which gases diffuse will be less.
3) Alveoli are surrounded by a large no of capillaries; therefore the conc. gradient is
maintained.
4) Inner surface of the alveoli is moist. This is important for gases to dissolve and
diffuse.

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Exercise

Breathing:- is a muscular movement which brings the alveoli in close contact with the
air. Breathing has 2 steps:-

i. Inspiration
ii. Expiration

i. Inspiration:- During inspiration, the external inter-costal muscles contract, the

ribcage moves upwards & outwards, then the diaphragm muscles contract
enabling the dome shaped diaphragm to flatten. Due to this the volume in the
thorax increases and the pressure decreases, so the lungs expand and the
volume inside the lungs increases hence pressure decreases. As the pressure is
lower than the atmospheric pressure, air is forced into the lungs.
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 ii. Expiration:- During expiration, the external inter-costal muscles relax, the ribcage
moves inwards and downwards, the diaphragm muscle relaxes making the
flattened diaphragm to bounce back to dome shape. Due to this the volume in
the thorax decreases and the pressure increases, so the lungs contract & the
volume inside the lungs decrease therefore pressure increases. As the pressure is
greater than the atmospheric pressure, the air is forced out of the lungs.

Factors affecting breathing

 Concentration of carbon dioxide
 Temperature

Differences between inhaled and exhaled air

Inhaled air Exhaled air
1. More Oxygen. 1. Less oxygen.
2. Carbon dioxide is less. 2. Carbon dioxide is more.
3. Amount of water vapour changes. 3. Saturated with water vapour.

Test for carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide can be tested by either hydrogen carbonate indicator solution or
lime water.
Indicator Low CO2 Normal CO2 High CO2
Hydrogen carbonate Purple Red Yellow
Lime water Almost colourless Cloudy -

Describe an experiment to demonstrate that exhaled air contains more Carbon

dioxide than inhaled air

Procedure: set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram

Blow air (exhaled air) through the mouth piece, the solution in test tube A
will turn from red to yellow. In the mean time the solution in B will tend
to come up through the glass tube due to high pressure.
Now, suck the air through the mouth piece. This will reduce pressure
inside B, as a result the air from outside (inhaled air) will go into the
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 solution through the glass tube and bubble. This will cause slight or no
change in the solution. This shows that exhaled air contains more carbon
dioxide than inhaled air.
Effects of physical activity on breathing
Tidal volume – it is the amount of air breath in or out during quiet breathing (at
rest). This is about 500cm3.
Vital capacity – the maximum amount of air breathed in or out in one breath. During
exercise breathing rate and depth will increase. This is due to the fact that more
carbon dioxide gets accumulated in the blood. High carbon dioxide level stimulates
the brain to cause faster contraction of intercostal muscle and diaphragm muscle.

 Explain why resuscitation involves expired air

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Effects of smoking on the respiratory system.

Tobacco smoke contains a large number of toxic chemicals. The main ones are
carbon monoxide, nicotine, tar and smoke particles. These chemicals can affect the
respiratory system as well as other parts of the body.

Chemical Effects on body systems

Carbon It combines with haemoglobin, preventing it from transporting
monoxide respiratory gases.
Nicotine Addiction – once your body has got used to it, it is very hard to do
without it.
It is a stimulant (makes you more alert and active)
raises blood pressure and heart rate, increases cholesterol deposition
in arteries.
Tar It contains 16 carcinogenic substances hence it can cause lung cancer.
Irritates the lining of the trachea causing the Increased production of
mucus hence paralyses the cilia. It can also cause bronchitis. Excessive
coughing can breakdown the thin walls of alveoli decreasing the
surface area of gaseous exchange and this is called emphysema.
Smoke Inflammation and increased mucus production, resulting in bronchitis.
particles it can lead to emphysema.

1. Bronchitis:- this is another disease caused by cigarette smoke which

paralyses the cilia, as a result filtration of dust particles will not be effective.
Furthermore, there will be inflammation and secretion of excess mucus.
Excess mucus can reduce the diameter of the tract and can get into the
alveoli.

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 2. Lung Cancer:- cigarette smoke contains tar which has almost 16 carcinogenic
substances. Once the tar gets deposited in the wall of the alveoli, it can cause
lung cancer.
3. Emphysema:-

Emphysema is a disease where the wall of the alveoli breaks down. As a result, there
will be large air spaces back the surface area for gas exchange would decrease.
Therefore, the people who are suffering will get tired quickly. Hence, they may have
to rely on oxygen tank.

 Explain why the rate of breathing increases during exercise.

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Cystic fibrosis

EXCRETION

It is the process in which harmful and waste substances which are formed during
metabolic reactions are removed.

Excretory Organs Excretory Products

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1. Kidney Water, Urea, Ammonia, Salt.
2. Lungs Carbon dioxide, Water vapour.
3. Skin Water, Salt (NaCl), Urea.
4. Liver Bilirubin.

Liver: this is one of the main organs in our body that performs numerous functions
in the body. Some of these can be as follows:
1. Deamination – excess amino acids are never stored in
our body due to toxic nature of amine part of amino
acids. The liver removes the amine part and converts it
into urea.
2. Detoxification – the body treats alcohol as a poison.
The liver breaks down alcohol.
3. Storage of excess glucose as glycogen.
4. Production of heat
5. Destruction of old RBC and storage of Iron
Excretory System:-

Excretory system consists of the following parts:-

1) A pair of kidneys.
2) A pair of ureters.
3) Urinary Bladder.
4) Urethra.

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1) Kidney:-

 It has two regions:- 1. Cortex

2. Medulla
 Kidney is made up of large number of tiny tubules called nephron which is the
functional unit of the kidney.


 Functions of the kidney:- 1. Excretion

2. Osmo-regulation

2) A pair of ureters:- these are the tubes which convey urine from the pelvis into the
urinary bladder.

3) Urinary bladder:- This is a stretchable muscular bag which holds the urine
temporarily.

4) Urethra:- is the passage through which urine is passed to the environment. In males
the urethra carries urine and semen at different times.

Nephron:-

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  Collecting duct is the tube where many distal convoluted tubules join, and many
collecting ducts join and open at the pelvis. Eventually pelvis opens into the
ureter.

1. Excretion

 Excretion takes place through three stages:-

a) Ultra filtration.
b) Re- absorption.
c) Secretion

a) Ultra filtration:- The blood vessel which brings blood to the glomerulus is
wider than the vessel which takes blood away from the glomerulus. As a
result, high hydro static pressure develops. The substances which are small
enough to penetrate through the walls of capillaries will be squeezed into the
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 Bowman's capsule. The filtered substances are water, glucose, amino acids,
salt, and urea Etc. The substances which are not filtered include blood cells
and plasma protein. Once the blood is filtered, the liquid which enters the
bowman's capsule is called the Filtrate.

b) Re- absorption:- As the filtrate travels through the proximal convoluted

tubule, certain substances are re-absorbed back into the blood stream. 100%
of glucose and amino acids, and some water and salt. As the filtrate travels
through the loop of henle, some water and salts are re-absorbed. By the time
the filtrate reaches the collecting duct. It is known as urine. Urine then
travels through the ureter and is stored temporarily in the urinary bladder.

 State how the following substances are reabsorbed in the nephron.

Key words; osmosis diffusion active transport
Substance Method
Water
Glucose
Salt Diffusion, active transport
Amino acids

2. Osmo-regulation

It is the mechanism where the blood water level is maintained at a constant level. This
is very important for many reasons:-

i. If the water level is low, the blood will become very thick; hence the movement
will be slow.
ii. When the blood becomes concentrated; the blood cells would lose water by
osmosis. As a result the cells would shrink.
iii. When there is too much of water, the blood cells will burst.

Process of osmo-regulation:-

When there is less water in the blood, hypothalamus in the brain detects the
concentrated blood while the blood travels through it. Therefore the pituitary gland
is stimulated by the hypothalamus. As a result, ADH hormone is secreted, which will
travel in the blood to the kidney where it makes the wall of the collecting duct more
permeable to water, therefore more water is reabsorbed into the blood. Hence the
water level is maintained and the secretion of ADH hormone stops.

When there is too much water in the blood, the ADH is not secreted; therefore the
wall of the collecting duct will remain impermeable to water. This causes more
water to be excreted and the water level in the blood to decrease and become
normal.

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 o Renal Failure:- Due to various reasons the kidney loses its function and starts
getting degenerated, but the patient can survive with only one kidney, but if
both fail the patient would find it difficult to remove the wastes such as urea.
There are 2 ways through which we can reduce the severity of these problems:-
1. Dialysis machine.
2. Kidney Transplant.

1. Dialysis machine:- consists of a long cellulose tube coiled up, which is partially
permeable, in a water bath. The patient's blood is led from a vein in the arm and
pumped through the cellulose tubing. The small pores in the dialysis tubing allow small
molecules, such as urea, salts and glucose to diffuse into the fluid.
To prevent a loss of glucose and essential salts from the blood, the liquid in the machine
consist of a solution of salts and sugar of the correct composition, so that only the
substances above this concentration can diffuse out of the blood to the bathing
solution. The temperature of the bathing solution is kept at body temperature.

As shown in the diagram above, there are two seperate circuits along which liquids flow.
They are:

1. The blood-flow from the patient, into the dialyser, through the dialyser, then back to the patient,
79
 and
2. The flow of dialysate around its own circuit which includes the dialyser plus some other stages.

Disadvantages of the dialysis process:-

1. It is only a temporary relief.

2. Patients should be connected to the machine for a long time.
3. It is not so efficient in removing all the wastes.

2. Kidney Transplant:- This is a permanent solution for the renal failure but before
getting the kidneys transplanted certain things should be taken into consideration:-
I. Identify the donor who has the same blood group as the patient.
II. Make sure the donor is healthy.
Advantages of kidney transplant
1. The patient can return to a normal lifestyle
2. Dialysis machines are expensive to buy and maintain.
Disadvantages of kidney transplant

1. It’s quite expensive.

2. Once the kidney has been transplanted, the WBC will try to attack
the kidney, therefore to suppress the action of WBC, immune
suppressive drugs have to be taken, and as a result the person will be
affected by other disease causing organisms.
3. Finding a suitable donor is very hard

Coordination in organisms
Organisms have two kinds of movements
1 Taxes
2 Tropism

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 Taxes: it is the movement of whole body of an organism in response to a
stimulus.

Example, wood lice move away from bright light and dry condition.
Maggot larva also shows the same effect.
A piece of apparatus called a choice chamber is shown below.

The maggot larvae are put in the centre of the choice chamber and
allowed to move around for a few minutes. The number in each side is
then counted. As a result of taxic behavior, most collect in the moist, dark
area.
The response has the following advantages;
1. They can hide (survive) from predators
2. Less likely to dehydrate
3. Their food source is likely to be found here

Tropism:- it is the movement of a part of the plant in response to an external

stimulus. The response can be positive or negative.
Coordination in plants
The growth responses known as tropisms are made to a number of different stimuli.
Stimulus Type of response Example
1. light Positive photo tropism Shoot growing towards light
Negative photo tropism Root growing against sunlight
2.Gravity Positive geotropism Root growing toward the soil
Negative geotropism Shoot growing away from the soil

Auxins:- are powerful plant hormones and are effective in extremely low
concentrations. young parts produce more auxin than old parts.

Characteristic features of auxins

 involved in cell elongation
 plant growth substances
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  increase growth
 light sensitive (means when light is shown they move towards shady side)

How do auxins work in a plant?

The side of the shoot exposed to light contains less auxin than the side which is not
illuminated. Light causes the auxin to move laterally across the shoot, producing a
greater concentration on the unilluminated side. As a result more hormone diffuses
down to the region of cell elongation on the dark side causing more growth than the
illuminated side (differential growth). More auxins more water absorbed, hence the
shoot bends towards light.

However, auxins have the negative effect in root. When there is more of it, there will be
less growth. This can be demonstrated by placing a seedling horizontally. After 24 hours
the root would have bent towards gravity.
Describe the importance of positive phototropism
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Gravity
If a shoot is placed horizontally in the absence of light, auxins accumulate on the lower
side of the shoot, due to gravity. This makes the cells on the lower side grow more
quickly than those on the upper side, so the shoot bends upwards.

Describe the importance of positive geotropism

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Describe an experiment to show that auxin causes bending
Key points
Paint auxin on one side of shoot
Place shoot in a dark place
Place it for three days until shoot grows vertically or changes direction
Repeat the procedures without auxin

Explain why roots bend downwards when it is placed horizontally

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Effects of synthetic plant hormones used as weedkillers

Large concentrations are sprayed on to plants. As a result leaves and stem are
stimulated to grow rapidly resulting rapid, and uncontrolled growth. This will deplete
stored food quickly resulting in the death of the plants. Also the growth of root will be
inhibited by high concentration of auxin. Some plant species are more sensitive than
others to synthetic plant hormones. Many weedkillers kill mainly broadleaved plants,
leaving narrowleaved (monocotyledons) plants unharmed.

Explain why dicotyledons are more harmed than monocotyledons to weedkillers

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Experiments on tropisms

1. Geotropism in pea radicals

Procedure
Soak about 20 peas in water for a day and then let them germinate in a roll of moist
blotting paper. After 3 days, choose 12 seedlings with straight radicals and pin six of
these to a turnable clinostat so that the radicals are horizontal. Pin another six seedlings
to a cork that will fit in a wide mouthed jar. Leave the jar on its side. A clinostat rotates
the seedlings slowly about four times an hour. Although gravity is pulling sideways on
their roots, it will pull equally on all sides as they rotate.
Place the jar and the clinostat in the same conditions of lighting or leave them in
darkness for 2 days. Make sure both sets of seedling are watered equally when needed.

83
Result:- the radicals in the clinostat will continue to grow horizontally but those in the
jar will have changed their direction of growth, to grow vertically downwards.

Interpretation:- The stationary radicals have responded to the stimulus of one sided
gravity by growing towards it. The radicals are positively geotrophic. The radicals in the
clinostat are the controls. Rotation of the clinostat has allowed gravity to act on all sides
equally and there is no one-sided stimulus, even though the radicals were horizontal.

2. Phototropism in shoots:-
Procedure
Select two potted seedlings, e.g. sunflower or runner bean, of similar size and water
them both. Place one of them under a cardboard box with a window cut in one side so
that light reaches the shoot from one direction only. Place the other plant in an identical
situation but on a clinostat. This will rotate the plant in about four times per hour and
expose each side of the shoot equally to the source of light. This is the control.

result:- After one or two days, the plants are removed from the boxes and compared. It
will be found that the stem of the plant with one-sided illumination has changed its
direction of growth and its growing towards the window. The control shoot has
continued to grow vertically.

Interpretation:- The results suggest that the young shoot has responded to one-sided
lighting by growing towards the light. The shoot is said to be positively phototrophic
because it grows towards the direction of the stimulus.
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  Describe an experiment to show negative geotropism by a shoot

Exercise:

List the differences between taxes and tropism

Tropism Taxes

List the differences between plant hormones and animal hormones

Plant hormones Animal hormones
Produced in unspecialized cells Produced in specialized cells
Not necessarily transported widely Transported to all parts of body
Not particularly specific Effects are mostly highly specific

85
Co-ordination in humans
The process which makes the different systems in an organism work effectively together
by linking them.
Ex: Nervous coordination (nervous system)
Hormonal coordination (endocrine glands)
Any coordinated action will have the following stages:-

Stimulus Receptor Central nervous

system (CNS)

Response Effector

 Stimulus: - is an environmental change which can trigger the receptors. Eg: -

Light, Heat, sound, cold. Etc.

 Receptor: - is the part of the body which perceives the stimulus. Eg: - Touch
receptors, cold receptors, heat receptors. Etc.

 CNS:- includes brain and spinal cord. This is the place where the sensory
impulses are received then processed and finally converted for an action.

 Effectors: - body parts which respond to stimuli. There are 2 effectors in our
body. 1. Muscles
2. Glands
Ex: a child saw lightning and then ran inside his house, identify the coordinator,
Stimulus, receptor, effector and response
Coordinator
Stimulus
Receptor
Effector
Response

The human nervous system

This includes two parts:
 Central nervous system – brain and spinal cord
 Peripheral nervous system – nerves, which connect all parts of the body to the
central nervous system. Motor neurone and sensory neurone make the
peripheral nervous system.

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BRAIN

Brain has several regions:-

1) Cerebrum:- This is the most developed part in our brain which is divided into
two hemispheres known as left and right cerebral hemispheres. Left cerebral
hemisphere controls the right side of the body and vice versa. Cerebrum is
involved in voluntary actions (actions with our knowledge).

Functions of the cerebrum

I. It receives impulses from sensory organs of the body.
II. It initiates and controls movement of the skeletal muscles.

2) Hypothalamus
Functions of hypothalamus:-
I. It is involved in temperature regulation
II. It is also involved in osmoregulation.

3) Cerebellum:- is sometimes known as the small brain. This has some

important roles in our body:-

Functions of Cerebellum:
I. It controls posture and balance.
II. It is involved in the coordinated movement of skeletal muscles along
with the cerebrum.

4) Medulla Oblongata: - This is the last part of the brain, which is involved in all
involuntary actions.

Functions of Medulla Oblongata

I. It controls the rate of heart beat.

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 II. It also controls the rate and depth of breathing.
III. Sneezing, vomiting, and hiccupping are all controlled by medulla
oblongata.

SPINAL CORD:- it is the extension from the medulla oblongata through the vertebral
column. It is a cylindrical structure and has many neurons.

Spinal cord is involved in involuntary actions. These actions are called reflex action.

Reflex Action:- It is the simplest form of response to a stimulus. This is involuntary and
rapid. Eg:- withdrawal of fingers from a hot object and knee jerk reflex.

Reflex Arc:-

Withdrawal of fingers from a hot object

When a finger touches a hot object, the heat receptors present in the skin perceives
the stimulus and generates an electrical impulse which travels along the sensory
neurone to the grey matter of spinal cord where it synapses with a relay neurone
then the impulse moves to a motor neurone which conveys the impulse to the bicep
and tricep muscle in the upper arm. As a result the bicep contracts while the tricep
relaxes allowing the hand to move away from the hot object.

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 When the biceps contracts it causes the arm to bend, therefore, it is called flexor,
and when the triceps contract the arm extend, therefore, this muscle is known as
extensor muscle.
Neurone (Nerve cell)
A typical neuron has three common parts:-
1. Cell body
2. Dendrites
3. Axon

1. Cell body:- This consists of a nucleus surrounded by a little cytoplasm where all
the other organelles of a typical animal cell are present.
2. Dendrites:- These are branching fibres from the cell body. This carries impulses
towards the axon.
3. Axon:- This is also an extension from the cell body of a neuron. Each neuron has
one axon which is surrounded by an insulating sheath called myelin sheath. It
carries an impulse to other neurons or muscles.

Myelin Sheath:- This is the part which insulates the axon. They are arranged in a
regular pattern where there are tiny gaps in between them where there is no
myelin. When a nerve impulse arises at the axon, the impulse jumps from one gap to
another. This increases speed of an impulse.
Functions of myelin sheath
 Acts as insulating and protective layer
 Increases speed of transmission of impulses

Types of neurone:-
1) Motor neurone
2) Sensory neurone
3) Relay neurone

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 Motor Neurone Sensory Neurone
1) Many Dendrites. 1) One dendrite.
2) Dendrites are short. 2) Dendrites are long.
3) Cell body is in between 3) Cell body is away from dendrites
dendrites and axon. and axon. Dendrite and axon
originate from the same stem.
Voluntary and involuntary actions
A voluntary action starts in a brain. It may be the result of external events. These
actions don’t happen automatically, you can decide whether to carry out an action
or not.
The brain sends motor impulses down to the spinal cord in the nerve fibre. These
make synapses with motor fibres which enter spinal nerves and makes connections
to the sets of muscles needed to produce effective action.
Some involuntary actions start in the brain and the other are controlled by the spinal
cord. These actions are automatic. Eg:- Reflex action, stomach churning. Etc.

Voluntary actions Involuntary actions

1. Always brain is involved 1.Not always
2. Happens with our conscious 2. Without our conscious thought
thought.
3. It can be controlled by our will. 3. Cannot be controlled.

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The EYE

Label the diagram fully

A- E- I-
B- F- J-
C- G- K-
D- H-

Humans and carnivores have their eyes located in the front. This has many
advantages:-

91
 1) They can judge the distance of an object (prey) easily.
2) They can also judge the speed of a moving object.
3) They can get a 3 dimensional image.

Parts of a human eye:-

1) Conjuctiva:- it protects the eye.

2) Cornea:- This is the transparent layer on the sclera, which is useful bending the
light.
Damage of cornea may lead to loss of its transparency so light cannot fall on
retina and so no image can be detected.

3) Aqueous humour:- it maintains the shape of the cornea and also It nourishes the
cells which are present in the cornea.
4) Iris:- Controls the amount of light entering onto the retina. This is done by pupil
reflex action.

Pupil Reflex action:- When there is too much light entering the retina, the receptors in
the retina get stimulated and send an impulse to the brain through sensory neuron,
where the impulse is processed and then it is sent to the iris muscles enabling the radial
muscles to relax and the circular muscles to contract. This causes the pupil to constrict.
Hence, less amount of light is sent to the retina.
 Pupil Reflex action protects the retina from the exposure to excess light, which
may damage the retina.

5) Lens:- It is a flexible transparent material which refracts light to the retina. It is

supported by suspensory ligaments which emerge from ciliary muscles.
Damage of eye lens caused the image not to be focused sharply on fovea leading
to impaired vision or this damage may cause the lens to be opaque and so light
cannot reach the retina.

6) Ciliary muscle: a ring of muscle that controls the shape of the lens to allow
focusing
7) Suspensory ligament: attaches the lens to the ciliary body, so the lens is held in
place
8) Vitreous humour:- is a semi-solid which maintains the pressure of the eye ball.
9) Retina:- is the light sensitive layer which contains photoreceptors, rods and
cones

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 Damage of retina or retinal detachment causes loss of vision (blindness) as the
image cannot be converted into nerve impulses by the light receptor to reach
the centre of vision in brain.
10) Fovea: an area of the retina containing only cones, where different colours are
detected

Photo receptors Functions

1) Rods Works in dim light. It is responsible for
black, white and shades of grey. They are
evenly distributed in the retina.
2) Cones Works in bright light. They are responsible
for vision in bright light and are also
responsible for different colours.
List the differences between rods and cones
Rods Cones
Large in number Small in number
Sensitive in only low light intensity Sensitive in only high light intensity
Cannot detect colours Detect colours
Less resolution Greater resolution

11) Sclera:- is the white colour hard part of the eye which protects the eye from
external injuries.
12) Choroid: produces a black pigment to prevent reflection of light inside the eye.
The people who are suffering from albinism, do not have the black pigment in
the choroid layer. Furthermore, the nocturnal animals (the animals which come
out at night) also don’t have the black pigment.
13) Optic Nerve:- sends off impulses which travel in nerve fibres to the brain.
14) Blind spot:- At the point where the optic nerve leaves the retina, there are no
sensory cells and so no information reaches the brain about that part of the
image which falls on this blind spot.

Accomodation (focusing)

Front view of the lens and ciliary muscle

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1. Focusing on to a far object:-
Ciliary muscle relaxes; this exerts pressure on the vitreous humour. Vitreous
humour in turn exerts pressure on the eyeball. The eye ball becomes bigger.
Hence the suspensory ligament gets pulled, this would make the lens thin.

Side view
2. Focusing on to a near object:-
Ciliary muscle contracts, this reduces pressure on the vitreous humour. The
eyeball becomes smaller. Hence suspensory ligaments get relaxed, this would
make the lens fat.

Hormonal Control

Endocrine system

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 This system depends on chemicals called hormones, which are released from
special glands, called endocrine glands, into the blood stream. The hormones
circulate down the body in the blood and eventually reach certain organs called
target organs. Endocrine glands are ductless glands.

Hormones:- are chemicals substances produced in one area by various cells and
glands, are transported around the body and their effect on cells elsewhere at
low concentration.

Pituitary gland:- is the master gland which is attached to the base of the brain. It
produces many hormones:-
i. FSH
ii. LH
iii. ADH

Adrenal gland:- This gland is attached to the back of the abdominal cavity, one above
each kidney. This gland produces many hormones, example adrenaline.It has many
functions. This hormone is responsible for emergency reactions. This makes the person
fight or flight. This effect is supported by the following actions occurring due to
adrenaline:-

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 i. It increases the rate of heart beat hence more oxygen can be given to the active
muscles and remove carbon dioxide. This causes the person to be active since
more energy is released through aerobic respiration.
ii. It also increases the rate and depth of breathing. This allows more oxygen to be
taken to the blood stream.
iii. Adrenaline causes the blood to be diverted from inactive organs such as kidney,
liver, alimentary canal and spleen to active organs and tissue such as skeletal
muscle.

Pancreas: - is the gland which acts as an exocrine gland and an endocrine gland.
Exocrine glands secrete substances to the area through a tube. It is not transported
through blood. Eg:- Salivary gland, sweat gland, and glands in the small intestine. Etc.

Pancreas secretes two hormones: - 1.Insulin and 2.Glucagon

These two hormones control the blood glucose level. This is an example of homeostasis.

Homeostasis

Maintenance of a constant internal environment even though the external environment

keeps changing.
Eg:-

1. Maintaining a constant water level in the blood.

2. Maintaining the body temperature constant.
3. Maintaining a constant blood glucose level.

Temperature Regulation:- For warm blooded animals the body temperature should be
maintained constant no matter what the external temperature is. There are two groups
of animals which are warm blooded, they are mammals and birds.

Temperature regulation in human

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On a hot day the heat receptors in the skin perceive heat stimulus and send impulses to
the hypothalamus which in turn sends impulses the following parts to reduce body
temperature.
 Superficial blood vessels for vasodilation – this ensures more blood is taken to
the skin surface hence more heat is lost as radiation and conduction
 Sweat glands – more sweat is poured to the skin surface, and then it absorbs a
lot of heat from the body to become vapour.
 Hair erector muscles relax – this causes hairs to lie on the surface hence a layer
of air is not trapped.
All these events reduce the body temperature.
On the other hand, on a cold day the opposite occurs to increase the body temperature.
 Vasoconstriction – the blood vessels which bring blood to the surface of the skin
contract, preventing less blood flow to the surface. This enables less heat to be
lost to the surrounding from the body.
 Contraction of Hair erector muscles – This causes hairs to stand on end. As a
result a layer of air is trapped, this acts as a heat insulator and prevents the loss
of heat from the body.

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Maintaining a constant blood glucose level

After a heavy carbohydrate meal, the blood glucose level increases above normal. This is
detected by the endocrine part of the pancreas; as a result insulin is released into the
bloodstream. Insulin travels in the blood to the liver and muscle where it makes the cells
permeable to glucose. Then the glucose is taken in, converted to glycogen and stored.
Furthermore, it stimulates the different body cells to utilize glucose. Insulin also
stimulates conversion of excess glucose into fats to be stored.Therefore the blood
glucose level decreases and becomes normal. Some glucose is also stored as fat under
the skin. Certain amount of glucose is stored as glycogen in the muscle cells.
When there is a little glucose in the blood due to exercise or starvation, glucagon is
released into the blood stream from pancreas. This will increase the sugar level by
having opposite effect to insulin.

 Exercise
In what situations might a healthy person’s blood glucose level be expected to
I. Rise

II. Fall

Negative Feedback: - Many substances in living organisms have a set level. Negative
feedback is the process in which any change from this level will lead to a return to the
original value. Example: - If the blood glucose level increases from the original level, this
will stimulate the secretion of insulin which will bring the blood glucose level back to
normal.
Ex:
List the differences between hormonal control and nervous control
Nervous control Hormonal control

Similarities between nervous coordination and hormonal coordination

 Both are affected by certain stimulus to produce the proper response

 Both cause a response in an effector
 Both of the lead to the body coordination
Drugs
Drugs may be used to treat disease, reduce the sensation of pain, or helps calm us
down. In addition, they may change our mood by affecting the brain. Depressants have
a relaxing effect because they depress the central nervous system.
Misuse of drugs
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Drug Dangers (long term effects) Short term effects
Alcohol 1. liver damage such as cirrhosis 1 affects balance
(depressant) 2. brain damage 2 causes dizziness
3. peptic ulcers and obesity 3 slurred speech
4. cancers of the digestive system 4 blurred vision
5. Damaging of brain of fetus 5 and slows down
deformed babies. reaction time
6. Addiction 6 5 affects judgment
7. Heart disease
8. Risk of miscarriage

Heroin 1. Addiction
2. financial problems
3. chances of getting infected with
HIV due to the use of unsterilise
needle
4. usually have sexual act with
different prostitutes through
them HIV can be transmitted

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REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is one of the basic characteristics of organisms. This ensures the

continuity of life. Reproduction can be divided into two:-

1 Asexual Reproduction
2 Sexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction:- it is a form of reproduction where a single organism is involved

to produce offspring. In this process, gametes are not produced. The offspring are
identical to each other and to the parent. The following organisms can reproduce
asexually:-
i. Bacteria
ii. Fungi
iii. Plants

i. Asexual reproduction in bacteria:- bacteria undergo binary fission to produce

offspring where the cell divides equally to form two new bacteria. Inside an
individual bacterium, the DNA replicates. Then cell divides into two, with each
daughter cell containing a copy of the parental DNA. Once the daughter cells
have grown, they can also reproduce. The new cells may remain together and
divide repeatedly forming a colony.

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 ii. Spore production in fungi:- Aerial hypha emerges from the mycelium. Next,
nuclei and cytoplasm move to the aerial hypha and get collected at the terminal
part. As a result the terminal part of the hypha swells up to give a structure
known as sporangium where spores are formed by joining of nuclei and
cytoplasm. As the sporangium gets mature, it breaks up to release the spores
into the air. As the wind blows, the spores are carried to other places. Once they
fall on a suitable substratum, spores germinate to give mycelium again.

iii. Asexual Reproduction in plants:- Example:- Tuber formation in potato plants.

Potatoes are stem tubers. Lateral buds at the base of the potato shoot produce
underground shoots.(Rhizomes). The rhizomes swell up with stored starch and
form tubers. As the tubers are stems, they carry buds. If the tubers are left in the
ground, the buds will become shoot.

Advantages of asexual reproduction

 Rapid process and this provides a chance for the organism to keep its race
 Produced organisms are similar to the parent organism, therefore, the good
characteristics can pass to the produced offspring
 it does not need a partner, therefore, only one arrival needed to colonize a new
area and this helps the organism to be widely spread


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Sexual Reproduction: - it’s a form of reproduction where gametes are produced and the
offspring produced are non-identical to each other and to the parent. Generally, two
parents are involved.

Sexual Reproduction in flowering plants:-

Functions of flower parts:-

i. Receptacle:- It holds the flower parts.

ii. Sepal:- It protects the flower parts when it is in a form of a bud.
iii. Petal:- It protects the inner part of the flower and It also attracts insects for
pollination if it is colourful.
iv. Anther:- produces pollen grains.
v. Filament:- It holds the anther.
vi. Stigma:- It receives pollen grains and allows them to germinate.
vii. Style:- Allows the pollen tube to grow.

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viii. Ovary:- It produces ovules.
ix. Stalk:- It holds the flower and connects it to the stem.

Pollination:- is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma. It can be of two
types:-

1. Self pollination
2. Cross pollination

Self pollination: - is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of the same
flower or another flower on the same plant.

Advantages of self pollination:-

1. It is reliable, it means that the chances of flowers getting pollinated are very
high.
2. Wastage of pollen grains is minimum.
Disadvantages of self pollination
1. This can lead to less variation
2. If there is any inheridity disease, it won’t disappear from self pollinating plant
species
Exercise
Explain why some flowers cannot be self pollinated.

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Cross pollination :- is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther of one plant to the
stigma of another plant of the same species.

Advantages of cross pollination:-

1. It leads to variation therefore the new plants produced can colonise new
environments.
2. Genetic diseases can be eliminated.
Disadvantages:-
1. Wastage of pollen grain is high.
2. If plants are far apart, pollination won't be successful.
Worked exercise
Describe how cross pollination leads to variation in a species
As each plant may carry different alleles for the different characteristics than the other,
as a result of this combination of different alleles leads to formation of new
combinations of characteristics in their offspring.
 Cross pollination can take place through different ways:-

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 a) Insect pollination
b) Wind pollination

Differences between insect and wind pollinated flowers

Insect pollinated flower Wind pollinated flower

1. Large brightly coloured flowers. 1. Small dull coloured flowers.

2. Scented 2. Not scented.
3. Nectar is present. 3. No nectar.
4. Small sticky Stigma inside the 4. Large feathery stigma hanging
flower. outside.
5. Relatively less quantity. 5. Large quantities of pollen.
6. Less pollen wastage. 6. High pollen wastage.
7. Rough and heavy pollen grains. 7. Light & smooth pollen grains.
8. Anthers are inside the flower. 8. Anthers are dangling outside.

Changes taking place in a flower immediately after pollination until fertilization

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 Compatible pollen grains start germinating by absorbing the sugary solution.
A pollen tube grows from one of the pores in the pollen grain
The pollen tube grows through the style by dissolving it
Two male nuclei (gametes) are formed inside the tube
The tube grows through the ovary to the micropyle of an ovule
The tip of the tube breaks releasing both male nuclei into the ovule
One male nucleus fertilizes the egg while the other fertilizes the endosperm
nucleus
Changes taking place in a flower immediately after fertilization

Before fertilization After fertilization

Sepal May or may not fall off
Petals, anther, stigma, style Fall off
Ovary Fruit
Ovule Seed

Dispersal of seeds and fruits

Dispersal of seeds and fruits

Once seeds and fruits are formed they are taken away from the parent plants, this is
called seed and fruit dispersal. This has many advantages:-

Advantages of seed and fruit dispersal

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 1. Reduces competition for light, water, space and minerals between
members of the same species.
2. It may also result in plants growing in new environments. This ensures
that plants don’t become extinct.

Disadvantages of seed and fruit dispersal

1. A dispersed seed or fruit may fall on land which is not suitable for
germination.
2. Weaker or undesirable plants can be dispersed to grow between plants of
other fields such as parasitic plants that harm the crops.

Modes of dispersal:-

i. Wind:-
Eg:- dandelion.
Fruits and seeds which are dispersed by wind have the following adaptations:-
a) Parachute like structure:-feathery hairs project from the fruit or seed
which would increase its surface area, as a result, the seed floats over
long distances before sinking to the ground.
b) Winged fruits:- Fruits of some plants have wing like out growths from the
ovary wall. These wings cause the fruit to spin as it falls from the tree.
This slows down its fall; as a result they are easily carried away from the
parent plant by wind.
c) Fruits and seeds are light

ii. Animal:-
Eg: - Mangoes, Red current. Etc.
Adaptations are:-
a) Colorful
b) Fleshy
c) Sweet in taste
d) Hooked fruits which could easily cling onto the animal's skin.

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The seed contains the embryo, which consists of radicle and plumule. The embryo is
attached to leaves called the cotyledons, which are small and has stored food. The
embryo and cotyledon are enclosed in a tough seed coat known as testa. The micropyle
remains as a small hole in the testa and is an important path for the entry of water in
some seeds.

Seed Germination:-
The environmental factors needed for germination are:-
1. Moisture
2. Warmth
3. Air
4. Light (for some seeds)

1. Moisture:-
 Provides water to the seed as a result the enzymes present in the seeds become
active, hence the digestion of stored food will take place. Then the digested food
will be absorbed and used by the embryo in germination.
 Also water is used to expand the vacuoles of the newly formed cells to grow the
radicle and the plumule.
 Water also is used in the transport of digested food materials stored in the
cotyledons to the growing regions.

2. Warmth:-
 gives the suitable temperature needed for germination as germination is
controlled by enzymes, therefore suitable temperature is needed to keep high
activity of such enzymes.

3. Air:-

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  this provides oxygen which is necessary for aerobic respiration of the cells in the
cotyledon and in the embryo to produce the energy required for different
metabolic activities that take place during germination.

Ex: label the parts X, Y, and Z

X --------------------------------
Y --------------------------------
Z --------------------------------

Germination Process

As the seed is given the right temperature, it absorbs water through the micropyle. The
seed swells as a result and the testa
splits. Water activates the enzymes which would digest the food in the fallowing
manner:-
amylase
1) Starch Maltose
protease
2) Protein Amino acid
lipase
3) Lipids Fatty acids + Glycerol

Then the digested food is absorbed by the embryo. Hence, it starts growing, producing
the radicle outside followed by the plumule. The radicle becomes the root and the
plumule becomes the shoot. As the leaf opens, photosynthesis begins.
Figure below shows the different stages in germination of a seed

108
The graph below shows how the dry mass changes with time for a germinating seed

Explanation for the curve for seed

A – Respiration of the cells in seed, no
Photosynthesis.
B – Photosynthesis started, which is equal
to respiration.
C – Photosynthesis is faster than respi
ration

Sexual Reproduction in humans

The structure & function of male reproductive system:-

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 1. Scrotum:- it holds the testes and also to keep testes at lower temperature than
the body.
2. Testis:- it has two main functions:-
a) It secretes the hormone testosterone.
b) It produces sperm.
3. Epididymis:- It stores and allows the sperm to become mature.
4. Sperm duct:- It stores sperm temporarily. It also gives the passage for the sperm
to move.
5. Seminal vesicle:- It secretes alkali substances which would neutralize the acidic
passage in the urethra. It is also important to neutralize the acid present in the
vagina. It also supplies nutrients to the sperm.
6. Prostate gland: it adds alkali fluid to sperm to form semen
7. Urethra:- It is the passage for urine and semen to pass at different times.
8. Penis:- It is important in transferring sperm from a male to a female vagina.

The structure & function of female reproductive system

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 1. Ovary:- It has many functions:-
a) It produces ovum.
b) It produces the hormones Oestrogen and Progesterone.
2. Oviduct:- It is the passage for the ovum to move towards the uterus.
It is also the site where fertilization takes place.
3. Uterus wall( Endometrium):- This is the place where the embryo is embedded or
implanted.
4. Funnel of oviduct:- since this is a wide part, the possibility of receiving the ovum
is greater.
5. Cervix: it separates the vagina from the uterus
6. Vagina:- It has many functions:-
a) This is the place where semen is deposited
b) It also gives the passage for the baby to come out during birth.
Secondary sexual characteristics
Male Female
Voice becomes much deeper Voice becomes lower
Hair grows on chest, face, arm pit and in Hair grows in pubic region and arm pit
pubic region Menstruation begins
Penis becomes larger Vagina and uterus become larger
Testes start to produce sperm Ovaries start to release eggs
Broadening of shoulders Widening of hips
Body becomes more muscular Enlargement of breasts
Structure of gametes
Sperm and egg

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List the differences between sperm and ovum (egg)
Sperm Ovum
Smaller in size Larger
It can move on its own It cannot move by itself
It has X or Y chromosome It has X chromosome

Sexual Intercourse

As a result of sexual stimulation, in males penis becomes erect. This is due to blood
flowing into the erectile tissue round the urethra. In the female, the lining of the vagina
produces mucus which makes it possible for penis to enter. The sensory stimulus
(sensation) produced by copulation causes a reflex in the male which results in the
ejaculation of semen into the top of the vagina.

Fertilization
It is the fusion of sperm nucleus and egg nucleus to form zygote. This takes place in the
fallopian tube.
Processes leading to fertilisation
Sperm travel on their own with the help of the tail. The mitochondria present in sperm
provide energy for the movement. Sperm move passing cervix and then uterus finally to
the fallopian tube where fertilization takes place.
The enzymes present in the acrosome digest zona pellucida followed by the egg
membrane. Then the sperm head, containing the haploid nucleus, enters the egg where
sperm nucleus and egg nucleus fuse to give a zygote.

Implantation

The fertilized ovum (zygote) keeps on dividing by mitosis forming a ball of cells known as
the embryo. During this it is forced along the oviduct to reach the uterus. Here it sinks
into the lining of uterus (endometrium). The embryo uses the broken down cells and the
substances used by the uterus as food to grow and to become firmly embedded in the
uterus. This process is called implantation.

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Placenta
It is a disc shaped structure formed from two organisms. The placenta becomes closely
attached to the lining of the uterus and is attached to the embryo by the umbilical cord.

Functions of placenta:-

1. It produces hormones including oestrogen and progesterone.

2. It allows the nutrients such as glucose, amino acids to pass from the mother's
blood to the fetus.
3. It also allows the oxygen to diffuse from the mother's blood to the embryo.
4. It allows anti-bodies to move from the mother's blood to the embryo.
5. The waste materials such as urea and carbon dioxide are allowed to diffuse from
the embryo’s blood into the mother's blood.

Amnion
As the embryo grows, the uterus enlarges to contain it. Inside the uterus, the
embryo becomes enclosed in a fluid filled sac called the amnion.

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Functions of amniotic membranes (sac)

1. The amniotic membrane secretes the amniotic fluid.

2. It also retains the fluid inside.

Functions of amniotic fluid

1. It cushions the embryo.

2. It allows the embryo to move freely.
3. It provides the embryo with suitable environment.

Antenatal Care (Prenatal care) :- It is the way a woman should look after herself
during pregnancy, so that the birth will be safe and her baby healthy. The important
things for pregnant women are:-

1. Diet:- her diet should include protein rich food more than her normal diet, along
with all the other nutrients should be taken in a high quantity. There
should be more iron, calcium and vitamin C for the embryo.

2. Precautions
a) No smoking - This is to prevent light weighted, miscarriaged babies.
b) No alcoholic drinks – damaging of brain of fetus and deformed babies.
c) No heavy work- for the safety of the baby.
d) Pregnant women should not take drugs unless they are prescribed by a
doctor.
e) Before women conceive, she should be vaccinated for rubella which
would otherwise cause defect eye, deafness or damage nervous system.
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Birth
With a mild contraction of the uterus, the birth process begins. This is
initiated by the hormone, oxytocin. The mild contraction stimulates more
secretion of oxytocin which will further induce the contraction of the uterus
wall. As the time goes, the contraction becomes violent. This breaks the
amniotic sac, releasing the amniotic fluid followed by pushing the baby down
towards the cervix, which becomes dilated to allow the baby to pass through.
The vagina stretches to allow the baby to be born. At the end the placenta
breaks away from the wall of the uterus and passes out.
Advantages of Breast feeding
1) Breast feeding provides milk free from bacteria.
2) It creates an emotional bond with the baby and the mother.
3) Antibodies are present in breast milk, this gives protection to the baby.
4) Breast milk is produced at the correct temperature.
5) Breast feeding triggers a reduction in the size of the mother's uterus.
6) Immediately after birth, a liquid called colostrum is secreted. This
contains large amounts of anti- bodies.
7) It has a high content of Lipids which are needed for making myelin
sheath.
Menstrual cycle

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At the start of cycle, the FSH concentration is relatively high. This hormone causes the
follicles to develop. As the follicles develop, it produces oestrogen and a little amount of
progesterone. The production of oestrogen stops the secretion of FSH. As the follicle
becomes bigger and bigger, the concentration of oestrogen would increase. The
increased concentration of oestrogen enables the LH to be secreted. LH helps ovulation.
Once the ovum is released, the empty follicle becomes the corpus luteum which
secretes more progesterone and a little oestrogen. The production of progesterone
stops the secretion of LH.
Progesterone and oestrogen are important to retain the endometrium. If fertilization
doesn’t take place, the corpus luteum degenerates causing the concentration of
oestrogen and progesterone to fall. Thus, making the endometrium break. This marks a
new menstrual cycle.

List the differences between asexual and sexual reproduction

asexual reproduction sexual reproduction

1.
2.
3.
4.

Functions of reproductive hormones

Hormone Site of production Role

1) Oestrogen Ovary It repairs the endometrium and
stops the secretion FSH. It is also
important in developing secondary
sexual characteristics in females
2) Progesterone Ovary It makes the uterus ready for
receiving the embryo and prevents
the secretion of LH.
3) Testosterone Testes It stimulates the production of
sperm and is important in
developing secondary male
characteristics.

Methods of Birth control

1) Natural
2) Chemical
3) Mechanical
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 4) Surgical

1) Natural:- a) preventing sexual intercourse during or around the period of

ovulation.
b)The man can withdraw his penis from the vagina just before
ejaculation.

2) Mechanical:- a) Condom: a thin rubber sheath is placed on the erect penis

before sexual intercourse. The sheath traps the sperms and prevents them from
reaching the vagina.
b) The Diaphragm: a thin rubber disc, placed in the vagina before
sexual intercourse which covers the cervix and stops sperms entering the uterus.
c) Intra uterine device: a small metal bent into a loop or coil is
inserted and retained in the uterus, where it probably prevents implantation.

3) Chemical:- a) The contraceptive pill: The pill contains chemicals which have the
same effect on the body as the hormones oestrogen and progesterone which
suppress ovulation,
b) Spermicides: These chemicals are placed in the vagina in the form
of a cream, gel or foam. These chemicals kill or immobilize the
sperms.

4) Surgical:- a) Vasectomy: It’s a surgical operation in which the sperm duct is cut
and the ends sealed.
b) Laparotomy: It’s an operation in which the women’s oviducts are
tied, blocked or cut.

Sexually transmissible diseases

1) Gonorrhea:- This is a bacterial disease, caused by having sexual intercourse with an

infected person.
Symptoms: a) In men, pain and a discharge of pus from the urethra. Also sores on penis
b) In women, there may be similar symptoms or no symptoms at all.

Effects: a) In men, the disease leads to a blockage to the urethra and to

sterility.
c) In women, she can pass her disease to her child during birth which can
cause blindness in the baby due to the entry of bacteria to the eyes.

Treatment: The disease can be cured by antibiotic, penicillin.

2) Aids:- This disease is caused by HIV.

Methods of transmission:
1. Sexual intercourse with an infected person.

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 2. Unscreened blood transfusion
3. Same needle used to inject drugs between an infected person
and a healthy person.
4. From an infected mother to the embryo through the placenta.
5. Feeding a baby with milk from an infected mother

Methods of prevention
1. Avoid sexual intercourse with an unknown person.
2. Wear condoms or diaphragm during sexual intercourse.
3. Before blood transfusion, the blood should be screened.
4. Sterilised needles must be used for injecting drugs.
5. Feed a baby with bottled milk when the mother has HIV

 Explain why an aids patient can even die from a simple sickness.

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 Artificial insemination
It is a way of increasing the chances of a woman having a baby when the male
partner is infertile. It involves using sperm from a donor, stored in a sperm bank.

 In vitro fertilization (IVF)

If a woman has a problem with blocked oviducts, a doctor can collect the ova
produced by FSH and LH treatment. Then the ova are fertilized in a Petri dish
using the male partner’s sperm. The early embryo produced are then inserted
into the uterus.

Growth and development

Growth:- it is an irreversible increase in dry mass. The value of dry mass is

obtained by drying the organism until it gives a constant mass.

Development:- it is the increase in complexity of an organism as it grows. As

the number of cells increases, they become differentiated to carry out
different tasks. Eg:- forming a flower, leaves. Nerve cells, etc.

Inheritance

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Nucleus:- this is the largest organelle present in eukaryotic cells. Nucleus contains
chromosomes which are made from DNA and protein. The DNA has heredity
information in the form of genes.
DNA is made up of two polynucleotide chains.

Gene
It is a part of DNA that is involved in protein synthesis, thereby it controls body
characteristics.

Eg:- 1. Eye colour of a human is controlled by a gene.

2. Shape of earlobe is controlled by a gene.

Alleles:- They are different forms of a gene which occupy the same locus on
homologous chromosomes. Thereby it controls the protein synthesis.

Eg: - Allele 1----- blue colour

Allele 2 ---- brown colour

Diploid cell (2n)

This is a cell which contains two sets of chromosomes where one chromosome of a set
will be having an identical chromosome (Homologous) from the other set. Eg:- Body
cells.

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Haploid cell (n)
This is a cell which contains only one set of chromosomes.
Eg:- gametes:- sperm or ovum.

Mitosis:- It is the nuclear division where one parent nucleus divides to give two
identical daughter nuclei which are identical to parent nucleus too.

Features of mitosis:-

1. Two daughter cells are produced with identical sets of chromosomes.

2. There is no variation.

Significance of mitosis:-

1. Basis of asexual reproduction

2. It is involved in growth.
3. Repairing of cells.

Places where mitosis takes place

1. Lining of the alimentary canal

2. Skin cells. (Malpigean)
3. In pants shoot tip.

Meiosis:- It is a form of nuclear division where four daughter nuclei are formed from
one parent nucleus. The number of chromosomes in the daughter nuclei is half of the
parent's nucleus.

Significance of meiosis

1. Basis of sexual reproduction.

2. One parent nucleus gives four daughter nuclei.
3. This leads to variation.
Mitosis Meiosis
1. two daughter nuclei. 1. four daughter nuclei.
2. chromosomes no is unchanged 2. Chromosome no is halved from the
between parent nucleus & parent nucleus.
daughter nuclei. 3. Variation.
3. No variation. 4. Basis of sexual reproduction.
4. Basis of asexual reproduction.
Exercise:
 Explain why farmers prefer their crop plants to reproduce asexually, not from
seeds.

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First of all farmers choose good varieties of plants with high yield and resistant to
diseases.
Asexual reproduction involves mitosis which does not exhibit variation among individual
generation after generation.
Same characteristics will run through generations
On the other hand sexual reproduction involves meiosis which does exhibit variation.
Seeds are formed through sexual reproduction.
 Explain why an orange tree with sweet taste fruits will transform into savour
taste fruits after few years.
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Name the following processes

Monohybrid inheritance
This is the study of in heredity by taking one character at a time.

Homozygous:- When both the alleles of homologous chromosomes are similar then
they are called as Homozygous.
Eg:-TT, BB, GG

Heterozygous:- When both the alleles of homologous chromosomes are different then
they are called Heterozygous.
Eg:- Tt, Bb, Gg

Dominant Allele
This is the allele which expresses itself in both homozygous and heterozygous
conditions.
Eg:- 1. BB brown eye
Bb brown eye.
2. When the allele for tallness is with the allele for dwarfness, offspring
receives tall character in pea plants.

Recessive allele
This is the allele which expresses itself only in homozygous condition. In heterozygous
condition the allele is masked by the dominant allele.
Eg;- bb blue eye
Bb-- not blue because simple b is masked by capital B.

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Genotype:- This is the genetic makeup of a phenotype in an organism.
Eg:- Tt Tallness
BB Brown

Phenotype:- It is the physical and chemical appearance of an organism.

Eg:- Brown colour eye.

Test Cross
This is a cross done to identify an unknown genotype of a dominant character. This is
done by crossing the organism with an organism that is recessive to the character.
Eg;
1. Determination of the genotype of tall pea plants.

If the pea plant is Tt, when it is crossed with recessive one (tt) them:-

Phenotype Tall Dwarf

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 Punnet squre
Genotype Tt tt
Gametes

Offspring Tt tt tt Tt

If 50 % of the offspring are tall, then the genotype is heterozygous.

2. If the genotype is TT all the offspring would be tall

Carriers
Isa
Exercise

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Codominance
Is the condition where both alleles for a gene express themselves equally in the
offspring. Eg:- Human AB blood group.

Genotype Phenotype
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 A blood group
A
B
B
AB (example of codominance)
O
Exercise
Explain, with a genetic diagram, how parents, neither of whom has blood group O, can
have two children, one with blood group O and the other with blood group AB.

(4)

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Sex determination in humans

Male XY
FemaleXX

There are 23 pairs of chromosomes present in each human body cell, out of which 22
pairs are responsible for body characters. These chromosomes are called autosomes.
The last pair is called sex chromosomes. This determines the sex of a person. Sex of a
baby mainly depends on fathers sex chromosomes as he donates two types of alleles
(sex chromosomes), X and Y.

Phenotype:- Father Mother

Genotype:- XY XX

Gametes

Offspring:- XX XY XY XX
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50 % XX and 50% XY

Chances of getting each gender is 50% but in reality the ratio of male to female is
not 1: 1

Variation:-

The differences that exist between living organisms. One of the fundamental
characteristics of all living organisms is that they show a considerable range of variation
within a particular species. There are two main causes of variation:-

Continuous variation:- in which there is a range of measurements from one extreme to

the other. This happens due to polygenic (many genes) condition. Continuous variation
is influenced by genes which a organism carries and the environment.

Eg:- 1. Height of humans

2. Complexion of skin colour in human
3. Intelligence

Discontinuous variation:- in which individuals fall into distinct categories. This is due to
one or a few genes. Here there are no intermediate categories.

Eg:- 1. Blood group of humans

2. Free earlobe or attached earlobe.

Continuous Variation Discontinuous variation

1. Range of measurements 1. Discrete measurements.
2. Many genes are involved. 2. One or a few genes are involved.
3. Environment plays a major role in 3. Environment does not have any
determining a character. connections.

Mutation:- A change in either amount of the arrangement of the genetic material in

a cell. Mutation can take place in any cell. If it occurs in a gamete, the resulting
characteristic can be inherited.

Mutagen:- An environmental factor which increases the rate of mutation. There are
many different mutagens.
Eg: - Ionizing radiation such as X-rays, UV rays. Chemicals such as mustard gas, Tar in
cigarettes. Etc
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Types of mutation :-

1Point Mutation
2Chromosomal Mutation

Sickle cell anaemia:- This happens due to a substitution of an organic nitrogen base with
another base in a gene. People who suffer from sickle cell anaemia will have an
abnormal type of haemoglobin. This abnormal haemoglobin crystalises in low
concentration of oxygen as a result the red blood cells of a sufferer collapse into a sickle
shape. Sickle cells may clump together and block the flow of blood. This condition is
determined by a single gene with codominant alleles.
Sufferer gets tired quickly even for a mild work due to less oxygen carried to the cells by
the abnormal haemoglobin. As a result, there will be less aerobic respiration, producing
less energy.

Eg:-
1. HbA HbA Normal doent suffer from anaemia but vulnerable to malaria.
2. Hbs Hbs Sickle cell anaemia. They get tired quickly and die at early
ages. They will never get malaria.
3. HbA HbS carrier. (Sickle cell trait)These people have a selective advantage in
parts of the world where malaria is common and also they don’t get sickle
cell disease. This is because the malaria parasite, plasmodium, can not dwell inside
sickle shaped RBC. Furthermore they have normal RBCs as well, hence they don’t exhibit
any anaemic conditions provided they don’t do vigorous exercise.

Cystic fibrosis
It is an inherited disorder in humans in which an important protein is not produced. This
protein is responsible for preventing the accumulation of thick and sticky mucus in the
breathing tubes. The allele which causes cystic fibrosis is recessive to the normal allele.
FF – normal person
Ff _ carrier
ff – cystic fibrosis
Exercise
Suggest how the buildup of sticky mucus would affect a sufferer of cystic fibrosis
It resists flow of air causing breathing problems.
Also mucus may act as a suitable medium for growth of bacteria resulting different
bacterial diseases
Digestive disorders
Excessive loss of salt through sweating
infertility

Chromosomal mutation

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This occurs when there is a change in the structure of a chromosome or change in the
no of chromosomes.
Eg:-Downs Syndrome:- A condition shown in humans which results from three copies of
chromosome 21.

Selection:- can be of 2 types:- 1. Natural Selection

2. Artificial selection

1. Natural Selection:- Is the process which results in the best adapted organisms in a
population surviving, reproducing, and passing there genes onto their off-springs.
Natural selection is a possible mechanism for evolution.
Eg:- Deer population:- in a deer population there are fast, slow and medium runners.
The fast runners have some advantages, like they can easily run away from their
predators and then reproduce, passing their genes to offspring. After
generations the fast runners will be selected for and the others are selected
against. Then the fast running deer will evolve as a new population.

Eg: antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria

Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial and fungal infections. Continuous exposure
can cause mutations in bacteria, which produce some variation in the
population. This provides the chance for against the used antibiotic and
symptoms of the disease may reappear and the antibiotic cannot affect such
bacteria. As a result bacteria with favourable mutation are likely to be selected
for. This enables a bacterium to resist being killed by antibiotic treatment. This
bacterium survives, reproduces and passes genes to next generation. Therefore
the new population will not be killed by the antibiotic.

 Explain how natural selection is responsible for the distribution of the allele for the
abnormal form of haemoglobin (HbS)
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2. Artificial Selection:- is the process where humans select the best organisms for his
use by breeding them with another organism with good characteristics.
Eg:- 1. Animal breeders will select cows for their high milk yield
2. resistant to diseases.
3. Sheep are selected for their wool quality, high yield.

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Genetic Engineering:- is a technique used to manipulate a DNA of an organism by
putting a gene taken from an organism of another species. This technique has the
following steps. Eg:- Manufacturing of insulin

1. Identification of gene of interest. The gene which is responsible for making

insulin is taken from the DNA from a pancreatic cell.
2. Cut the DNA and remove the gene using a restriction endonuclease enzyme.
3. Vectors (plasmid from a bacterium or phage virus) are used to transfer the gene
of interest into a bacterial cell.
4. When a plasmid is chosen, it is opened by the same restriction endonuclease
enzyme, which was used to cut the DNA.
5. Once the gene of interest is inserted into a plasmid, it is fixed by another enzyme
called DNA ligase.
6. Then the genetically modified vector (plasmid) is inserted into a bacterium then
the bacterium is grown in a fermenter where it will secrete insulin which then
can be extracted, purified and bottled.

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 Ex:

Uses of Genetic Engineering

1. Insulin production.
2. Growth hormone production.
3. Formation of pest resistant plants.

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Relationship of organisms with one another and with their environment

Energy Flow
As far as science is concerned the sun is the principle source of energy input to
biological systems. The energy flow in the system is non-cyclic. This means that the
energy flows in one direction. Out of the energy reaching a plant from the sun, only 1%
is utilized by the plant, the rest is lost to space in various ways.
3. reflection from the surface of leaves
4. penetration through leaves
5. not in the right wave length

Food Chain
A sequence which represents the way in which energy in the form of food flows from
one organism to another in a community.

Eg:- Grass Grasshopper Frog Snake Eagle

Trophic level
This is one of the levels in a food chain where an organism takes their energy. In a
system there may be maximum five trophic levels:-

Trophic level Name

1 Producer
2 Herbivore
3 Primary carnivore
4 Secondary carnivore
5 Tertiary

Energy loss at different trophic levels

As the energy flows through a food chain, energy is lost in various ways in between
trophic levels. These can be listed as follows:-

1. Plants use certain amount of energy for their life process. Eg:-
Respiration.
2. A particular consumer will not eat the entire organisms from the
preceding trophic levels (left over).

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 3. Even though an organism is eaten, it will not be completely digested
inside the body therefore the undigested food is egested out.
4. Through excretion also energy is lost.
5. When animals walk or perform their activities, energy is wasted.

 Explain why in an ecosystem the number of trophic levels is

limited to five.

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DDT and top carnivorous birds: DDT concentration is always the highest in top
carnivores. This is because DDT is fat soluble substance once it is taken in; it remains
there until that particular organism is eaten. As we all know that the animals which are
higher level in the food chain eat more than the level before that organism so as to get
enough energy. As a result the amount of DDT is the highest in the top carnivores.

Food Web

A food web is made up of many interconnected food chains which show the way in
which all the different species of organisms in a community depend on each other for
food.

Example:

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  Give two advantages of food web over food chain

1 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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2 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Producer
Is an autotroph that can produce organic food from simple inorganic ones with the aid
of energy.

Consumer
Is a hetrotroph which feed on the organic food produced by the producers.

Herbivore
An animal that feeds on plants. In a food web herbivore is a primary consumer

Carnivore
Is an animal which feeds on another animal.

Decomposer
A micro organism that breaks down the organic compounds in dead material and waste
products into carbon dioxide, water and simple inorganic ions.
Eg: Bacteria and fungus.

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Ecological pyramids
It’s a diagrammatic representation of energy transfer from producers to top carnivores
in an ecosystem.
There are three types of pyramids:- 1) Pyramid of number
2) Pyramid of biomass
3) Pyramid of energy

1) Pyramid of number: - this is the easiest pyramid to make. This is done by

counting the number of organisms in each trophic level. If sufficient information is
provided, it is possible to construct them to scale. But it is sufficient to indicate the
relative proportions. For grassland ecosystems and for aquatic systems the pyramid of
number is upright.
The shape of the pyramid of numbers varies from ecosystem to ecosystem.
Eg: Pyramid of Numbers in a Grassland Ecosystem
Grass Mice Snake Hawk

"Pyramid of numbers is the graphic representation of number of individuals per unit area of various trophic levels
stepwise with producers forming the base and top carnivores the tip".

For an ecosystem where there are large trees, the pyramid of number is inverted.
Eg: Oak tree  Insects  Insect eating birds  Carnivorous birds

Pyramid of number is the least accurate one.

2) Pyramid of Bio-mass
A measure of the amount of living material present in a particular habitat. Ecological
pyramids may also be expressed in terms of the bio-mass. Pyramid of bio-mass is more
accurate than pyramid of number, but for certain extent it is destructive. The greater
the mass of organism, the greater the energy. Pyramid of biomass is mostly upright.
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3.)Pyramid of energy
This is the most accurate pyramid to show how energy is being transferred from one
trophic level to the next. But this is the most accurate pyramid but its very hard to
construct.

List the differences between pyramid of biomass and pyramid of energy

Pyramid of biomass Pyramid of energy

Ecosystem:- consists of living and non living component in a habitat in which living and
non-living parts interact.
Example a pond, a rain forest

Nutrient cycles:-
1. carbon cycle
2. nitrogen cycle

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3. water cycle

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Nitrogen fixation
The process by which nitrogen gas is converted to nitrogenous compounds.

Population
Refers to organisms of a species living in a habitat.

The factors affecting the rate of population growth

3. Diseases

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 4. Predation
5. Competition within the species or between species.
6. Food supply.

Population growth curve

Lag phase:- the

early part of a
population
growth curve.
Organisms may
increase in size
but they do not
increase in
number very much. During this time organisms are adapting to the new environment by
producing new enzymes. Etc.

Log phase :- the part of the population growth curve where there is a rapid increase in
numbers. During this period there is enough food, more space, less competition. All
these factors contribute to the rapid increase in population.

Stationary phase :- part of the population growth curve in which the rate of increase in
the population is more or less balanced by the rate of number of organisms dying. This
is due to competition for food, space. Etc. and also due to the accumulation of toxic
substances. Etc.

Increase in human population

Human population increases rapidly. This is known as population explosion. The main
reason is the absence of limiting factors. Therefore we are still in the log phase.

Factors which cause a greater increase in human population

4. Enough food
5. Hygienic way of handling food.
6. Discovery of vaccines.
7. Unlimited space

Human influences on the ecosystem

Agriculture:- use of modern technology and hence increased food production.
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 a. Genetic engineering:- From this technique we can produce
pest resistant and pesticide resistant plants which would
then increase the yield.
b. Selective breeding:- improving a particular variety of crop
plant or domestic animal by breeding from individuals with
desired characteristics.
Eg:-
1. Sheep can be selectively bred for wool, resistant to
diseases. Etc.
2. A cow can be selectively bred for high yield of milk.
c. Making of green houses & glass houses: - in these places the
environmental conditions can be manipulated to have an
optimum level of factors hence the yield would be high.
E.g.:- Light intensity, temperature and carbon dioxide can be
increased so that the yield would be very high.
d. Introduction of fertilizers:- plants can be given the right
amount of nutrients so that high yield can be obtained.
e. Sophisticated machineries
f. Expansion of land (Deforestation):- cutting down of trees
and clearing of forest is called deforestation. Even though
this helps to increase the food production, on the other hand
it pollutes the environment.

Adverse effects of deforestation

1. Animals lose shelter and food. This can lead to extinction of many different
species.
2. Soil erosion. Since the soil is exposed to sun, heat & wind, the top soil can be
easily taken away causing soil erosion as a result the soil will become in fertile.
3. Hydrological cycle would be affected. Plants are the main agents which could
take water from the deep soil and give it to the atmosphere. In addition, mineral
ions are also not taken to the surface of the soil.
4. The oxygen, carbon dioxide ‘equilibrium’ will be disturbed. This can lead to
high carbon dioxide concentration.
5

Adverse effects of the over use of fertilizers

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 1. Soil micro organisms which are useful in decomposition would die due to exo-
osmosis from micro organisms.
2. Due to high concentrated salt, plants would wilt due to the loss of water into the
soil from plant by osmosis.
3. The over use of fertilizers can damage the fine root. This will reduce the uptake
of mineral ions.
4. eutrophication

Pollution

1. Air Pollution

Pollutant Source Effect

1. Carbon monoxide Incomplete combustion of It will combine with
fossil fuels. haemoglobin, depriving
oxygen from binding to
haemoglobin causing death
at high concentrations.
2. Sulphur dioxide Burning of coal. Acid rain & global warming
3. Nitrogen dioxide Burning of fossil fuels in car Acid rain& global warming
engines

Acid Rain:- is a rain which contains the pH less than 5. The main gases which are
responsible for this are SO2 and NO2.

SO2 + H2O -------- H2SO3

NO2 + H2O--------- HNO3 + HNO2

Effects of acid rain

1. Limestone buildings get damaged.

2. Plants die.
3. Aquatic animals die due to the low pH and accumulation of some metal ions. Eg:-
Aluminum ions. This will stick to the gills of fish; as a result the fish die.
4. When acid rain falls on soil, large no. of mineral ions will be leeched to the water
bodies as a result the soil would become infertile.

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 2. Water pollution

Ways through which water gets polluted

1. Domestic waste. Detergents such as phosphate ions, organic substances.

2. Fertilizers. This contains mainly nitrates and phosphates.
3. Industrial wastes. Effluent and oil spills.
4. Pesticides.

Eutrophication:- is the enrichment of water bodies with nitrates and phosphates.

Effects of eutrophication:-

Nitrates and phosphates are very essential for the growth of algae and plants. As the
algae grow, it multiplies & covers the surface of water body causing less light to enter
the water body. As there would be less light there would be less photosynthesis and the
plants would die. Then, aerobic decomposers decompose the dead matter to a certain
extent but due to lack of oxygen, they would also die. Lastly, the anaerobic
decomposers would decompose the dead matter & release noxious gases.

Eutrophication can be caused by addition of fertilizers, detergents. Etc.

Effect of organic sewage:-

When sewage is allowed to enter water bodies, the water becomes cloudy resulting
less light penetration. Then the effects are same like eutrophication.

Effects of pesticides:-

There are pesticides which are fat soluble. Once they get into an organism, they are not
removed from the body; instead they will be passed on to subsequent trophic levels.
Eventually, the top carnivore will be having the highest concentration. This will reduce
their population drastically. Eg:- DDT. When DDT is sprayed the top carnivores(example
eagle) population decreases.
Effect of DDT
1. Kills indiscriminately (useful insects die)
2. Non-biodegradable
3. Pollutes soil, water (river and lake)
4. Accumulates in fat hence bioaccumulation in food chains so top carnivores will
be affected more, especially top carnivorous birds such as eagle. This leads to
disruption of food chains.

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Effects of non biodegradable plastics:-

These substances are not decomposed by micro organisms.

1. It gets piled up; as a result the movements of animals would be affected.

2. When these plastics are burnt toxic gases will be released.

Conservation of organisms
Conservation of organisms is very important as far as biodiversity is concerned. The
greater the number of species the higher the biodiversity. But now there are many
species which are under threat. If we do not protect them, in the near future they will
disappear from the earth.
Why is conservation important?
1. To avoid their extinction which may disturb balance of the environment

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 2. To maintain biodiversity

The following defined species should be protected otherwise they will get extinct in the
near future.

1. Endangered species:- The species which are on the verge of extinction.

2. Rare species:- Is the species which contain a few members in that particular
population.
3. Endemic species:- is the species which are confined to a particular area. It is not
found else where.

Ways of conserving species:-

1. Making national parks

2. Making botanical gardens
3. Captive breeding
4. Seed bank
5. Sperm bank
6. Hatcheries for sea turtles

Recycling of materials:-

1. Sewage treatment ( activated sludge process)

a) Screening :- large solid are trapped. Eg:- plastics, rags. Etc.

b) Grit:- The sewage next flows slowly through long channels. As it flows,
grit & sand are removed.
c) First settling tank:- The liquid continues slowly through another series of
tanks. Here about 40% of the organic matter settles out.
d) Aeration tanks:- oxygen is added to sewage liquid by bubbling. The
aerobic bacteria present here digest the organic matter forming clumps.
e) Second settling tank: In these tanks, they microorganisms settle out.
They form a fine sludge, which is returned to the aeration tanks to keep a
high population of microorganisms there.
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END
Wish you a good luck in IGCSE examination

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