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Even The Natives Have Difficulty Mastering This Peculiar Vocabulary. - The Golden Bough

1. The document discusses various techniques for encoding digital signals, including NRZ-L, NRZI, Manchester encoding, and differential Manchester encoding. It explains how each technique encodes binary data into an analog signal using different voltage levels and transitions. 2. The document also covers modulation techniques for converting digital data into analog signals, including amplitude shift keying, frequency shift keying, phase shift keying, and quadrature amplitude modulation. It analyzes the bandwidth efficiency and error rates of different techniques. 3. Additionally, the document discusses methods for digitizing analog signals, including pulse code modulation and delta modulation. It explains the sampling theorem and how PCM assigns a digital value to sampled analog amplitudes. PCM and

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41 views

Even The Natives Have Difficulty Mastering This Peculiar Vocabulary. - The Golden Bough

1. The document discusses various techniques for encoding digital signals, including NRZ-L, NRZI, Manchester encoding, and differential Manchester encoding. It explains how each technique encodes binary data into an analog signal using different voltage levels and transitions. 2. The document also covers modulation techniques for converting digital data into analog signals, including amplitude shift keying, frequency shift keying, phase shift keying, and quadrature amplitude modulation. It analyzes the bandwidth efficiency and error rates of different techniques. 3. Additionally, the document discusses methods for digitizing analog signals, including pulse code modulation and delta modulation. It explains the sampling theorem and how PCM assigns a digital value to sampled analog amplitudes. PCM and

Uploaded by

[email protected]
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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20/04/2011

1 Data and Computer Communications


Ninth Edition
by William Stallings

2 Signal Encoding Techniques


Even the natives have difficulty mastering this peculiar vocabulary.

—The Golden Bough,


Sir James George Frazer
3 Signal Encoding Techniques
4 Digital Data, Digital Signal
digital signal
discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses
each pulse is a signal element
binary data encoded into signal elements

5 Terminology
unipolar – all signal elements have the same sign
polar – one logic state represented by positive voltage and the other by negative voltage
data rate – rate of data ( R ) transmission in bits per second
duration or length of a bit – time taken for transmitter to emit the bit (1/R)
modulation rate – rate at which the signal level changes, measured in baud = signal elements
per second.
mark and space – binary 1 and binary 0
6 Key Data Transmission Terms
7 Interpreting Signals
8

Digital Signal Encoding Formats


9 Encoding Schemes
10 Nonreturn to Zero-Level
(NRZ-L)
easiest way to transmit digital signals is to use two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits
voltage constant during bit interval
no transition (no return to zero voltage)
absence of voltage for 0, constant positive voltage for 1
more often, a negative voltage represents one value and a positive voltage represents the
other(NRZ-L)
11 Encoding Schemes
12 Non-return to Zero Inverted (NRZI)
Non-return to zero, invert on ones
constant voltage pulse for duration of bit
data encoded as presence or absence of signal transition at beginning of bit time
transition (low to high or high to low) denotes binary 1
no transition denotes binary 0
example of differential encoding
data represented by changes rather than levels
more reliable to detect a transition in the presence of noise than to compare a value to a
threshold
easy to lose sense of polarity



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13 NRZ Pros & Cons
used for magnetic recording


not often used for signal transmission
14 Multilevel Binary
Bipolar-AMI
use more than two signal levels
Bipolar-AMI
binary 0 represented by no line signal
binary 1 represented by positive or negative pulse
binary 1 pulses alternate in polarity
no loss of sync if a long string of 1s occurs
no net dc component
lower bandwidth
easy error detection
15 Multilevel Binary
Pseudoternary
binary 1 represented by absence of line signal
binary 0 represented by alternating positive and negative pulses
no advantage or disadvantage over bipolar-AMI and each is the basis of some applications
16 Multilevel Binary Issues
synchronization with long runs of 0’s or 1’s
can insert additional bits that force transitions
scramble data
not as efficient as NRZ
each signal element only represents one bit
• receiver distinguishes between three levels: +A, -A, 0
a 3 level system could represent log23 = 1.58 bits
requires approximately 3dB more signal power for same probability of bit error
17 Theoretical Bit Error Rate
18 Manchester Encoding
transition in middle of each bit period
midbit transition serves as clock and data
low to high transition represents a 1
high to low transition represents a 0
used by IEEE 802.3
19 Differential Manchester Encoding
midbit transition is only used for clocking
transition at start of bit period representing 0
no transition at start of bit period representing 1
this is a differential encoding scheme
used by IEEE 802.5
20 Biphase Pros and Cons
21 Spectral Density of Various Signal Encoding Schemes
22 Stream of Binary Ones
at 1Mbps
23 Normalized Signal Transition Rate of Various Digital Signal Encoding Schemes

Table 5.3

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20/04/2011

24 Scrambling
use scrambling to replace sequences that would produce constant voltage
these filling sequences must:
produce enough transitions to sync
be recognized by receiver & replaced with original
be same length as original
design goals
have no dc component
have no long sequences of zero level line signal
have no reduction in data rate
give error detection capability
25 HDB3 Substitution Rules

Table 5.4

26 B8ZS and HDB3


27 Digital Data, Analog Signal
main use is public telephone system
has frequency range
of 300Hz to 3400Hz
uses modem (modulator-demodulator)

28 Modulation Techniques
29 Amplitude Shift Keying
encode 0/1 by different carrier amplitudes
usually have one amplitude zero
susceptible to sudden gain changes
inefficient
used for:
up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
very high speeds over optical fiber

30 Binary Frequency Shift Keying

two binary values represented by two different frequencies (near carrier)


less susceptible to error than ASK
used for:
up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
high frequency radio
even higher frequency on LANs using coaxial cable
31 Multiple FSK
each signalling element represents more than one bit
more than two frequencies used
more bandwidth efficient
more prone to error

32 FSK Transmission
33 Phase Shift Keying
phase of carrier signal is shifted to represent data
binary PSK
two phases represent two binary digits
differential PSK

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20/04/2011


phase shifted relative to previous transmission rather than some reference signal
34 DPSK
35 Bandwidth Efficiency for Digital-to-Analog Encoding Schemes
36 Quadrature PSK
more efficient use if each signal element represents more than one bit
uses phase shifts separated by multiples of π/2 (90o)
each element represents two bits
split input data stream in two and modulate onto carrier and phase shifted carrier
can use 8 phase angles and more than one amplitude
9600bps modem uses 12 angles, four of which have two amplitudes

37 QPSK and OQPSK Modulators
38 QPSK
39 Performance of Digital to Analog Modulation Schemes
40 Bit Error Rates for Multilevel FSK and PSK
41 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
QAM used on asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) and some wireless
combination of ASK and PSK
logical extension of QPSK
send two different signals simultaneously on same carrier frequency
use two copies of carrier, one shifted 90°
each carrier is ASK modulated
two independent signals over same medium
demodulate and combine for original binary output
42 QAM Modulator
43 QAM Variants
two level ASK
each of two streams in one of two states
four state system
essentially QPSK
four level ASK
combined stream in one of 16 states
have 64 and 256 state systems
improved data rate for given bandwidth
increased potential error rate
44 Analog Data, Digital Signal
digitization is conversion of analog data into digital data which can then:
be transmitted using NRZ-L
be transmitted using code other than NRZ-L
be converted to analog signal
analog to digital conversion done using a codec
pulse code modulation
delta modulation
45 Digitizing Analog Data
46 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
sampling theorem:
“If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a rate higher than twice the highest signal
frequency, the samples contain all information in original signal”
eg. 4000Hz voice data, requires 8000 sample per second
strictly have analog samples
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
assign each a digital value
47 PCM Example
48 PCM Block Diagram
49 Non-Linear Coding
50 Typical Companding Functions
51
52

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20/04/2011

53 Delta Modulation (DM)


analog input is approximated by a staircase function
can move up or down one level (δ) at each sample interval
has binary behavior
function only moves up or down at each sample interval
hence can encode each sample as single bit
1 for up or 0 for down
54 Delta Modulation Example
55 Delta Modulation Operation
56 PCM verses Delta Modulation
DM has simplicity compared to PCM but has worse SNR
issue of bandwidth used
for good voice reproduction with PCM:
• want 128 levels (7 bit) & voice bandwidth 4khz
• need 8000 x 7 = 56kbps
data compression can improve on this
still growing demand for digital signals
use of repeaters, TDM, efficient switching
PCM preferred to DM for analog signals
57 Analog Data, Analog Signals
modulate carrier frequency with analog data
why modulate analog signals?
higher frequency can give more efficient transmission
permits frequency division multiplexing
types of modulation:
Amplitude
Frequency
Phase
58 Analog
Modulation
Techniques
Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Modulation
Phase Modulation
59 Summary
Signal encoding techniques
digital data, digital signal
• NRZ, multilevel binary, biphase, modulation rate, scrambling techniques
analog data, digital signal
• PCM, DM
digital data, analog signal
• ASK, FSK, BFSK, PSK
analog data, analog signal
• AM, FM, PM


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