What is SQL

➢ Computer Language used for

• Storing
• Manipulating
• Retrieving Data
➢ Invented by IBM
➢ SQL stands for Structured Query Language
 Why SQL

Controlled access

Data Manipulation

Large Amount of
Data
Business Insights
Who uses SQL

Software Database Business

developers Managers Managers
Database

Database
Data Metadata
 Tables
Attributes

Cells
Records

Student Age Gender Score Rank

Student 1 18 M 89 2
Example Student 2 17 F 90 1
Student 3 19 M 72 3
Student 4 20 F 54 4
 DBMS

➢ It allows creation of new DB and their data structures

➢ Allows modification of data

➢ Allows retrieval of Data

➢ Allows Storage over long period of time

DBMS ➢ Enables recovery in times of failure
Database Management
Systems ➢ Control access to users
SQL Queries

1. DDL – Data Definition Language

CREATE, ALTER, DROP
2. DML – Data Manipulation Language
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
3. DQL – Data Query Language
SELECT, ORDER BY, GROUP BY
4. DCL – Data Control Language
SQL Queries GRANT, REVOKE
5. TCC – Transactional Control Commands
COMMIT, ROLLBACK
 What is PostgreSQL
PostgreSQL is an advanced object-relational database
management system that supports an extended subset of the SQL
standard, including transactions, foreign keys, subqueries, triggers,
user-defined types and functions.
PostgreSQL
Companies using PostgreSQL

Start-Tech Academy
 Why PostgreSQL
➢ Completely Open source
➢ Complete ACID Compliance
➢ Comprehensive documentation and active discussion forums

Why ➢ PostgreSQL performance is utilized best in systems requiring

execution of complex queries

PostgreSQL ➢ PostgreSQL is best suited for Data Warehousing and data analysis
applications that require fast read/write speeds
➢ Supported by all major cloud service providers, including Amazon,
Google, & Microsoft

Start-Tech Academy
Create
Creating a basic table involves naming the table and defining its columns and each column's data type.

CREATE TABLE “table_name”(

“column 1“ "data type for column 1" [column 1 constraint(s)],

Syntax “column 2“ "data type for column 2" [column 2 constraint(s)],
...
“column n “
[table constraint(s)] );

Start-Tech Academy
 Create
Creating a basic table involves naming the table and defining its columns and each column's data type.

➢ NOT NULL Constraint: Ensures that a column cannot have NULL value.
➢ DEFAULT Constraint: Provides a default value for a column when none is
specified.
➢ UNIQUE Constraint: Ensures that all values in a column are different.
Constraints ➢ CHECK Constraint: Makes sure that all values in a column satisfy certain
criteria.
➢ Primary Key Constraint: Used to uniquely identify a row in the table.
➢ Foreign Key Constraint: Used to ensure referential integrity of the data.

Start-Tech Academy
Create
Creating a basic table involves naming the table and defining its columns and each column's data type.

➢ A primary key is used to uniquely identify each row in a table.

➢ A primary key can consist of one or more columns on a table.
➢ When multiple columns are used as a primary key, they are called a
composite key.
Keys ➢ A foreign key is a column (or columns) that references a column (most often
the primary key) of another table.
➢ The purpose of the foreign key is to ensure referential integrity of the data.

Start-Tech Academy
Create
Creating a basic table involves naming the table and defining its columns and each column's data type.

Customer Table Order Table

Column Name Characteristic Column Name Characteristic

Cust_ID Primary Key Order_ID Primary Key
Keys Last_Name Order_Date
First_Name Customer_SID Foreign Key
Amount

Start-Tech Academy
 Create
Creating a basic table involves naming the table and defining its columns and each column's data type.

➢ Numeric - This type of data stores numerical values. Following Data types fall
in this category: Integer, Float, Real, Numeric, or Decimal.
➢ Character String - This type of data stores character values. The two common
Data Types types are CHAR(n) and VARCHAR(n).
➢ Date/Datetime - This type of data allows us to store date or datetime in a
database table.

Start-Tech Academy
 Data Types
Numeric - This type of data stores numerical values.

Storage
Name Description Range
Size
Stores whole numbers,
smallint 2 bytes -32768 to +32767
small range.
Stores whole numbers.Use
-2147483648 to
integer this when you want to store 4 bytes
Numeric typical integers.
+2147483647

Stores whole numbers, -9223372036854775808 to

bigint 8 bytes
large range. 9223372036854775807
up to 131072 digits before
user-specified precision, the decimal point; up to
decimal variable
exact 16383 digits after the
decimal point.

Start-Tech Academy
 Data Types
Character String - This type of data stores character values. The two common types are CHAR(n) and VARCHAR(n).

Name Description
character varying(n), varchar(n) variable-length with limit
Character character(n), char(n) fixed-length, blank padded
text variable unlimited length

Start-Tech Academy
 Data Types
Date/Datetime - This type of data allows us to store binary objects in a database table.

Name Description Storage Size Low Value High Value

both date and time

timestamp 8 bytes 4713 BC 294276 AD
(no time zone)

date date (no time of day) 4 bytes 4713 BC 5874897 AD

Date-Time
time time of day (no date) 8 bytes 00:00:00 24:00:00

interval 12 bytes time interval -178000000 years 178000000 years

Start-Tech Academy
CREATE TYPE
Users can define data types as per requirements also

➢ CREATE TYPE Dollar as DECIMAL(9,2);

SYNTAX ➢ CREATE TYPE days AS ENUM ('Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday', 'Thursday',

'Friday', 'Saturday', 'Sunday');

Start-Tech Academy
 INSERT
The INSERT INTO statement is used to add new records into a database table

INSERT INTO "table_name" ("column1", "column2", ...)

Syntax VALUES ("value1", "value2", ...);

Start-Tech Academy
 INSERT
The INSERT INTO statement is used to add new records into a database table

➢ Single row (without column names specified)

INSERT INTO customer_table
VALUES (1, ‘bee', ’cee’, 32, ‘[email protected]’ );

➢ Single row (with column names specified)

INSERT INTO customer_table ( cust_id, first_name, age, email_id)
VALUES (2, ‘dee', 22, ‘[email protected]’);
Example
➢ Multiple rows
INSERT INTO customer_table
VALUES (1, ‘ee', ’ef’, 35, ‘[email protected]’ ),
(1, ‘gee', ’eh’, 42, ‘[email protected]’ ),
(1, ‘eye', ’jay’, 62, ‘[email protected]’ ),
(1, ‘kay', ’el’, , ‘[email protected]’ );

Start-Tech Academy
COPY
The basic syntax to import data from CSV file into a table using COPY statement is as below

COPY "table_name" ("column1", "column2", ...)

FROM 'C:\tmp\persons.csv' DELIMITER ',' CSV HEADER;
Syntax
Another option is to use PG Admin

Start-Tech Academy
 SELECT
The SELECT statement is used to fetch the data from a database table which returns this data in the form of a result
table. These result tables are called result-sets.

SELECT "column_name1", "column_name2", "column_name3" FROM

"table_name";
Syntax
SELECT * FROM "table_name";

Start-Tech Academy
 SELECT
The SELECT statement is used to fetch the data from a database table

➢ Select one column

SELECT first_name FROM customer_table;

➢ Select multiple columns

Example SELECT first_name, last_name FROM customer_table;

➢ Select all columns

SELECT * FROM customer_table;

Start-Tech Academy
 SELECT DISTINCT
The DISTINCT keyword is used in conjunction with the SELECT statement to eliminate all the duplicate records and
fetching only unique records.

SELECT DISTINCT "column_name"

Syntax FROM "table_name";

Start-Tech Academy
 SELECT DISTINCT
The DISTINCT keyword is used in conjunction with the SELECT statement to eliminate all the duplicate records and
fetching only unique records.

➢ Select one column

SELECT DISTINCT customer_name FROM customer_table;
Example
➢ Select multiple columns
SELECT DISTINCT customer_name, age FROM customer_table;

Start-Tech Academy
 WHERE
The SQL WHERE clause is used to specify a condition while fetching the data from a single table or by joining with
multiple tables. If the given condition is satisfied, then only it returns a specific value from the table.

SELECT "column_name"
FROM "table_name"
Syntax WHERE "condition";

Start-Tech Academy
 WHERE
The SQL WHERE clause is used to specify a condition while fetching the data from a single table or by joining with
multiple tables. If the given condition is satisfied, then only it returns a specific value from the table.

➢ Equals to condition
SELECT first_name FROM customer_table WHERE age = 25;

➢ Less than/ Greater than condition

Example SELECT first_name, age FROM customer_table WHERE age>25;

➢ Matching text condition

SELECT * FROM customer_table WHERE first_name = “John”;

Start-Tech Academy
 AND & OR
The SQL AND & OR operators are used to combine multiple conditions to narrow data in an SQL statement. These two
operators are called as the conjunctive operators.

SELECT "column_name"
FROM "table_name"
Syntax WHERE "simple condition"
{ [AND|OR] "simple condition"}+;

Start-Tech Academy
 AND & OR
The SQL AND & OR operators are used to combine multiple conditions to narrow data in an SQL statement. These two
operators are called as the conjunctive operators.

SELECT first_name, last_name, age

FROM customer_table
WHERE age>20
AND age<30;

Example SELECT first_name, last_name, age

FROM customer_table
WHERE age<20
OR age>30
OR first_name = ‘John’;

Start-Tech Academy
NOT
NOT condition is used to negate a condition in a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement.

SELECT "column_name"
Syntax FROM "table_name"
WHERE NOT "simple condition"

Start-Tech Academy
 NOT
NOT condition is used to negate a condition in a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement.

SELECT first_name,last_name, age

FROM employee
WHERE NOT age=25

Example SELECT first_name,last_name, age

FROM employee
WHERE NOT age=25
AND NOT first_name = ‘JAY’;

Start-Tech Academy
UPDATE
The SQL UPDATE Query is used to modify the existing records in a table.

UPDATE "table_name"
Syntax SET column_1 = [value1], column_2 = [value2], ...
WHERE "condition";

Start-Tech Academy
UPDATE
The SQL UPDATE Query is used to modify the existing records in a table.

➢ Single row (with column names specified)

UPDATE Customer_table
SET Age = 17, Last_name = ‘Pe'
WHERE Cust_id = 2;
Example ➢ Multiple rows
UPDATE Customer_table
SET email_id = ‘[email protected]
WHERE First_name = ‘Gee’ or First_name = ‘gee’;

Start-Tech Academy
DELETE
The DELETE Query is used to delete the existing records from a table.

DELETE FROM "table_name"

Syntax WHERE "condition";

Start-Tech Academy
DELETE
The DELETE Query is used to delete the existing records from a table.

➢ Single row
DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE ID = 6;

➢ Multiple rows
Example DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE age>25;

➢ All rows
DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS;

Start-Tech Academy
ALTER
The ALTER TABLE statement is used to change the definition or structure of an existing table

ALTER TABLE "table_name"

[Specify Actions];

Following actions can be performed

Syntax
• Columns – Add, Delete (Drop), Modify or Rename
• Constraints – Add, Drop
• Index – Add, Drop

Start-Tech Academy
COLUMN – ADD & DROP
The basic syntax of an ALTER TABLE command to add/drop a Column in an existing table is as follows.

ALTER TABLE "table_name"

ADD "column_name" "Data Type";
Syntax
ALTER TABLE "table_name"
DROP "column_name";

Start-Tech Academy
 COLUMN – MODIFY & RENAME
The basic syntax of an ALTER TABLE command to Modify/Rename a Column in an existing table is as follows.

ALTER TABLE "table_name"

ALTER COLUMN "column_name" TYPE "New Data Type";

Syntax
ALTER TABLE "table_name"
RENAME COLUMN "column 1" TO "column 2";

Start-Tech Academy
CONSTRAINT – ADD & DROP
The basic syntax of an ALTER TABLE command to add/drop a Constraint on a existing table is as follows.

1. ALTER TABLE "table_name“ ALTER COLUMN “column_name” SET NOT NULL;

2. ALTER TABLE "table_name“ ALTER COLUMN “column_name” DROP NOT NULL;

3. ALTER TABLE "table_name" ADD CONSTRAINT “column_name” CHECK

Syntax (“column_name”>=100);

4. ALTER TABLE "table_name" ADD PRIMARY KEY (“column_name”);

5. ALTER TABLE “child_table" ADD CONSTRAINT “child_column”

FOREIGN KEY (“parent column”) REFERENCES “parent table”;

Start-Tech Academy
 Issues while restoration

pg_restore.exe Most probable cause:

not found Location of pg_restore.exe file is different than the location available in
pgAdmin

Possible solution:
Locate the file on your PC and update this address in pgAdmin
 Issues while restoration

1. Create a new DB for restoring the data and avoid using old Database for
restoring.

Failed 2. Try out other TAR files.

(exit code: 1) 3. Try using the “.BACKUP” extension file

4. Refresh DB once and check if tables are created even if it shows failure

5. Last option: Use the CSV files to create each individual

 Issues while restoration
Create customer table

create table customer (

customer_id varchar primary key,
customer_name varchar,
segment varchar,
age int,
CSV files country varchar,
city varchar,
state varchar,
postal_code bigint,
region varchar);

Copy data from the customer CSV file

copy customer from 'C:\Program Files\PostgreSQL\12\data\dataset\Customer.csv'

CSV header ;
 Issues while restoration
Create product table

create table product (

product_id varchar primary key,
category varchar,
sub_category varchar,
CSV files product_name varchar);

Copy data from product CSV file

copy product from 'C:\Program Files\PostgreSQL\12\data\dataset\Product.csv'

CSV header ;
 Issues while restoration
Create Sales table

create table sales (

order_line int primary key,
order_id varchar,
order_date date,
ship_date date,
CSV files ship_mode varchar,
customer_id varchar,
product_id varchar,
sales numeric,
quantity int,
discount numeric,
profit numeric);

Copy data from Sales CSV file

copy sales from 'C:\Program Files\PostgreSQL\12\data\dataset\Sales.csv' CSV header ;

 Filtering

Examples
 Filtering

Examples
 Filtering

Examples
 Sorting
Customer Name Age Customer Name Age Customer Name Age
Brosina Hoffman 20 Alejandro Grove 18 Zuschuss Donatelli 66
Andrew Allen 50 Andrew Allen 50 Sandra Flanagan 41
Irene Maddox 66 Brosina Hoffman 20 Pete Kriz 46
Harold Pawlan 20 Emily Burns 34 Ken Black 67
Pete Kriz 46 Harold Pawlan 20 Irene Maddox 66
Alejandro Grove 18 Irene Maddox 66 Harold Pawlan 20
Zuschuss Donatelli 66 Ken Black 67 Emily Burns 34
Ken Black 67 Pete Kriz 46 Brosina Hoffman 20
Sandra Flanagan 41 Sandra Flanagan 41 Andrew Allen 50

Examples Emily Burns 34 Zuschuss Donatelli 66 Alejandro Grove 18

Customer Name Age Customer Name Age

Alejandro Grove 18 Ken Black 67
Harold Pawlan 20 Zuschuss Donatelli 66
Brosina Hoffman 20 Irene Maddox 66
Emily Burns 34 Andrew Allen 50
Sandra Flanagan 41 Pete Kriz 46
Pete Kriz 46 Sandra Flanagan 41
Andrew Allen 50 Emily Burns 34
Zuschuss Donatelli 66 Harold Pawlan 20
Irene Maddox 66 Brosina Hoffman 20
Ken Black 67 Alejandro Grove 18
 Sorting

Examples
 Aggregation
Order Line Order ID Customer ID Product ID Sales Quantity
1 CA-2016-152156 CG-12520 FUR-BO-10001798 261.96 2
2 CA-2016-152156 CG-12520 FUR-CH-10000454 731.94 3
3 CA-2016-138688 DV-13045 OFF-LA-10000240 14.62 2
4 US-2015-108966 SO-20335 FUR-TA-10000577 957.5775 5
5 US-2015-108966 SO-20335 OFF-ST-10000760 22.368 2
6 CA-2014-115812 BH-11710 FUR-FU-10001487 48.86 7
7 CA-2014-115812 BH-11710 OFF-AR-10002833 7.28 4
8 CA-2014-115812 BH-11710 TEC-PH-10002275 907.152 6
9 CA-2014-115812 BH-11710 OFF-BI-10003910 18.504 3
10 CA-2014-115812 BH-11710 OFF-AP-10002892 114.9 5

Raw Data
Customer ID Customer Name Segment Age Country City State Postal Code Region
CG-12520 Claire Gute Consumer 67 United States Henderson Kentucky 42420 South
DV-13045 Darrin Van Huff Corporate 31 United States Los Angeles California 90036 West
SO-20335 Sean O'Donnell Consumer 65 United States Fort Lauderdale Florida 33311 South
BH-11710 Brosina Hoffman Consumer 20 United States Los Angeles California 90032 West
AA-10480 Andrew Allen Consumer 50 United States Concord North Carolina 28027 South
IM-15070 Irene Maddox Consumer 66 United States Seattle Washington 98103 West
HP-14815 Harold Pawlan Home Office 20 United States Fort Worth Texas 76106 Central
PK-19075 Pete Kriz Consumer 46 United States Madison Wisconsin 53711 Central
AG-10270 Alejandro Grove Consumer 18 United States West Jordan Utah 84084 West
ZD-21925 Zuschuss Donatelli Consumer 66 United States San Francisco California 94109 West
 Aggregation

Product ID Number of Products sold State Name Number of customers

TEC-AC-10003832 75 California 1998
OFF-PA-10001970 70 New York 1110
OFF-BI-10001524 67 Texas 917
OFF-BI-10002026 64 Pennsylvania 641
FUR-CH-10002647 64 Illinois 574
Aggregated Data FUR-TA-10001095 61 Ohio 480
TEC-AC-10002049 60 Washington 460
OFF-BI-10004728 59 North Carolina 343
FUR-CH-10003774 59 Arizona 301
TEC-AC-10003038 57 Florida 290
 IN
IN condition is used to help reduce the need to use multiple OR conditions in a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
statement.

SELECT "column_name"
Syntax FROM "table_name"
WHERE "column_name" IN ('value1', 'value2', ...);

Start-Tech Academy
 IN
IN condition is used to help reduce the need to use multiple OR conditions in a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
statement.

SELECT *
FROM customer
WHERE city IN (‘Philadelphia’, ‘Seattle’)
Example
SELECT *
FROM customer
WHERE city = ‘Philadelphia’ OR city = ’Seattle’;

Start-Tech Academy
 BETWEEN
The BETWEEN condition is used to retrieve values within a range in a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement.

SELECT "column_name"
Syntax FROM "table_name"
WHERE "column_name" BETWEEN 'value1' AND 'value2';

Start-Tech Academy
 BETWEEN
The BETWEEN condition is used to retrieve values within a range in a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement.

SELECT * FROM customer

WHERE age BETWEEN 20 AND 30;

Which is same as
SELECT * FROM customer
WHERE age>= 20 AND age<= 30;
Example
SELECT * FROM customer
WHERE age NOT BETWEEN 20 and 30;

SELECT * FROM sales

WHERE ship_date BETWEEN ‘2015-04-01' AND ‘2016-04-01';

Start-Tech Academy
LIKE
The PostgreSQL LIKE condition allows you to perform pattern matching using Wildcards.

SELECT "column_name"
Syntax FROM "table_name"
WHERE "column_name" LIKE {PATTERN};

{PATTERN} often consists of wildcards

Start-Tech Academy
 WILDCARDS
The PostgreSQL LIKE condition allows you to perform pattern matching using Wildcards.

Wildcard Explanation
% Allows you to match any string of any length (including zero length)
_ Allows you to match on a single character

Example A% means starts with A like ABC or ABCDE

%A means anything that ends with A
A%B means starts with A but ends with B

AB_C means string starts with AB, then there is one character, then there is C

Start-Tech Academy
 LIKE
The PostgreSQL LIKE condition allows you to perform pattern matching using Wildcards.

SELECT * FROM customer_table

WHERE first_name LIKE 'Jo%’;

SELECT * FROM customer_table

WHERE first_name LIKE '%od%’;

SELECT first_name, last_name FROM customer_table

Example WHERE first_name LIKE 'Jas_n’;

SELECT first_name, last_name FROM customer_table

WHERE last_name NOT LIKE 'J%’;

SELECT * FROM customer_table

WHERE last_name LIKE 'G\%';

Start-Tech Academy
ORDER BY
The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the records in result set. It can only be used in SELECT statements.

SELECT "column_name"
FROM "table_name"
[WHERE "condition"]
ORDER BY "column_name" [ASC, DESC];
Syntax It is possible to order by more than one column.

ORDER BY "column_name1" [ASC, DESC], "column_name2" [ASC, DESC]

Start-Tech Academy
 ORDER BY
The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the records in result set. It can only be used in SELECT statements.

SELECT * FROM customer

WHERE state = 'California’ ORDER BY Customer_name;

Same as
SELECT * FROM customer
WHERE state = 'California’ ORDER BY Customer_name ASC;

Example SELECT * FROM customer

ORDER BY 2 DESC;

SELECT * FROM customer

WHERE age>25 ORDER BY City ASC, Customer_name DESC;

SELECT * FROM customer

ORDER BY age;

Start-Tech Academy
LIMIT
LIMIT statement is used to limit the number of records returned based on a limit value.

SELECT “column_names”
FROM “table_name”
Syntax [WHERE conditions]
[ORDER BY expression [ ASC | DESC ]]
LIMIT row_count;

Start-Tech Academy
 LIMIT
LIMIT statement is used to limit the number of records returned based on a limit value.

SELECT * FROM customer

WHERE age >= 25
ORDER BY age DESC
LIMIT 8;
Example
SELECT * FROM customer
WHERE age >=25
ORDER BY age ASC
LIMIT 10;

Start-Tech Academy
 AS
The keyword AS is used to assign an alias to the column or a table. It is inserted between the column name and the
column alias or between the table name and the table alias.

SELECT column_name" AS "column_alias"

Syntax FROM "table_name“;

Start-Tech Academy
 AS
The keyword AS is used to assign an alias to the column or a table. It is inserted between the column name and the
column alias or between the table name and the table alias.

SELECT Cust_id AS “Serial number”, Customer_name as name, Age as

Example Customer_age
FROM Customer ;

Start-Tech Academy
COUNT
Count function returns the count of an expression

SELECT "column_name1", COUNT ("column_name2")

Syntax FROM "table_name"

Start-Tech Academy
 COUNT
Count function returns the count of an expression

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM sales;

Example SELECT COUNT (order_line) as "Number of Products Ordered",

COUNT (DISTINCT order_id) AS "Number of Orders"
FROM sales WHERE customer_id = 'CG-12520';

Start-Tech Academy
SUM
Sum function returns the summed value of an expression

SELECT sum(aggregate_expression)
FROM tables
Syntax [WHERE conditions];

Start-Tech Academy
 SUM
Sum function returns the summed value of an expression

SELECT sum(Profit) AS "Total Profit"

FROM sales;
Example
SELECT sum(quantity) AS “Total Quantity"
FROM orders where product_id = ‘FUR-TA-10000577’;

Start-Tech Academy
AVERAGE
AVG function returns the average value of an expression.

SELECT avg(aggregate_expression)
FROM tables
Syntax [WHERE conditions];

Start-Tech Academy
 AVERAGE
AVG function returns the average value of an expression.

SELECT avg(age) AS "Average Customer Age"

FROM customer;
Example
SELECT avg(sales * 0.10) AS "Average Commission Value"
FROM sales;

Start-Tech Academy
MIN/MAX
MIN/MAX function returns the minimum/maximum value of an expression.

SELECT min(aggregate_expression)
FROM tables
[WHERE conditions];
Syntax
SELECT max(aggregate_expression)
FROM tables
[WHERE conditions];

Start-Tech Academy
 MIN/MAX
MIN/MAX function returns the minimum/maximum value of an expression.

SELECT MIN(sales) AS Min_sales_June15

FROM sales
WHERE order_date BETWEEN '2015-06-01' AND '2015-06-30';
Example
SELECT MAX(sales) AS Min_sales_June15
FROM sales
WHERE order_date BETWEEN '2015-06-01' AND '2015-06-30';

Start-Tech Academy
GROUP BY
GROUP BY clause is used in a SELECT statement to group the results by one or more columns.

SELECT "column_name1", "function type" ("column_name2")

FROM "table_name"
Syntax GROUP BY "column_name1";

Start-Tech Academy
 GROUP BY
GROUP BY clause is used in a SELECT statement to group the results by one or more columns.

SELECT region, COUNT (customer_id) AS customer_count

FROM customer GROUP BY region;

SELECT product_id, SUM (quantity) AS quantity_sold FROM sales

GROUP BY product_id ORDER BY quantity_sold DESC;

SELECT customer_id,
Example MIN(sales) AS min_sales,
MAX(sales) AS max_sales,
AVG(sales) AS Average_sales,
SUM(sales) AS Total_sales
FROM sales
GROUP BY customer_id
ORDER BY total_sales DESC
LIMIT 5;

Start-Tech Academy
 HAVING
HAVING clause is used in combination with the GROUP BY clause to restrict the groups of returned rows to only those
whose the condition is TRUE

SELECT ColumnNames, aggregate_function (expression)

FROM tables
Syntax [WHERE conditions]
GROUP BY column1
HAVING condition;

Start-Tech Academy
 HAVING
HAVING clause is used in combination with the GROUP BY clause to restrict the groups of returned rows to only those
whose the condition is TRUE

SELECT region, COUNT(customer_id) AS customer_count

FROM customer
Example GROUP BY region
HAVING COUNT(customer_id) > 200 ;

Start-Tech Academy
CASE
The CASE expression is a conditional expression, similar to if/else statements

CASE WHEN condition THEN result

[WHEN ...]
[ELSE result]
END

Syntax CASE expression

WHEN value THEN result
[WHEN ...]
[ELSE result]
END

Start-Tech Academy
 CASE
The CASE expression is a conditional expression, similar to if/else statements

SELECT *,
CASE WHEN age<30 THEN ‘Young'
WHEN age>60 THEN ‘Senior Citizen'
Example ELSE ‘Middle aged'
END AS Age_category
FROM customer;

Start-Tech Academy
 Module – Joining Data

Category No. of products sold

Furniture 8028
Office Supplies 22906
We should give
Technology 6939
Agenda offer on
Technology
products
 Subqueries

Query A

Agenda

Query B
Joins

I want to allocate marketing

budget to different regions.
Can you tell me the region-
wise total sales?

Why

Marketing Head
Joins

Sales Table Customer Table

Sales values Region values

Order Line Order ID Order Date Ship Date Ship Mode Customer ID Product ID Sales Quantity Discount Profit
Why 1
2
CA-2016-152156
CA-2016-152156
08-11-2016
08-11-2016
11-11-2016
11-11-2016
Second Class
Second Class
CG-12520
CG-12520
FUR-BO-10001798
FUR-CH-10000454
261.96
731.94
2
3
0
0
41.9136
219.582
3 CA-2016-138688 12-06-2016 16-06-2016 Second Class DV-13045 OFF-LA-10000240 14.62 2 0 6.8714
4 US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 18-10-2015 Standard Class SO-20335 FUR-TA-10000577 957.5775 5 0.45 -383.031
5 US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 18-10-2015 Standard Class SO-20335 OFF-ST-10000760 22.368 2 0.2 2.5164

Customer ID Customer Name Segment Age Country City State Postal Code Region
CG-12520 Claire Gute Consumer 67 United States Henderson Kentucky 42420 South
DV-13045 Darrin Van Huff Corporate 31 United States Los Angeles California 90036 West
SO-20335 Sean O'Donnell Consumer 65 United States Fort Lauderdale Florida 33311 South
BH-11710 Brosina Hoffman Consumer 20 United States Los Angeles California 90032 West
 Joins
To join tables we must know:

1. The names of the tables to be joined

2. The common column based on which we will join them
3. The list of columns from each table

Order Line Order ID Order Date Ship Date Ship Mode Customer ID Product ID Sales Quantity Discount Profit
What’s needed 1
2
CA-2016-152156
CA-2016-152156
08-11-2016
08-11-2016
11-11-2016
11-11-2016
Second Class
Second Class
CG-12520
CG-12520
FUR-BO-10001798
FUR-CH-10000454
261.96
731.94
2
3
0
0
41.9136
219.582
3 CA-2016-138688 12-06-2016 16-06-2016 Second Class DV-13045 OFF-LA-10000240 14.62 2 0 6.8714
4 US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 18-10-2015 Standard Class SO-20335 FUR-TA-10000577 957.5775 5 0.45 -383.031
5 US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 18-10-2015 Standard Class SO-20335 OFF-ST-10000760 22.368 2 0.2 2.5164

Customer ID Customer Name Segment Age Country City State Postal Code Region
CG-12520 Claire Gute Consumer 67 United States Henderson Kentucky 42420 South
DV-13045 Darrin Van Huff Corporate 31 United States Los Angeles California 90036 West
SO-20335 Sean O'Donnell Consumer 65 United States Fort Lauderdale Florida 33311 South
BH-11710 Brosina Hoffman Consumer 20 United States Los Angeles California 90032 West
 Joins
Order Line Order ID Order Date Customer ID Product ID Sales

1 CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-BO-10001798 261.96

88 CA-2017-155558 26-10-2017 PG-18895 OFF-LA-10000134 6.16

3 CA-2016-138688 12-06-2016 DV-13045 OFF-LA-10000240 14.62

5 US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 SO-20335 OFF-ST-10000760 22.368

Sales table

Customer ID Customer Name State Region

CG-12520 Claire Gute Kentucky South
Types of Joins DV-13045 Darrin Van Huff California West
SO-20335 Sean O'Donnell Florida South
BH-11710 Brosina Hoffman California West
Customer table

Following points must be noted about customer ID

1. CG-12520, DV-13045 and SO-20335 are present in both tables

2. PG-18895 is present in sales table but not in customer table
3. BH-11710 is present in customer table and not in sales table
 Joins
Observations

1. CG-12520, DV-13045 and SO-20335 are present in both tables

2. PG-18895 is present in sales table but not in customer table
3. BH-11710 is present in customer table and not in sales table

Sales table Customer table

Types of Joins
Option 1 – Inner Join
• Result contains only those customer IDs which are present in both the tables

Order Line Order ID Order Date Customer ID Product ID Sales Customer Name State Region
1 CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-BO-10001798 261.96 Claire Gute Kentucky South
3 CA-2016-138688 12-06-2016 DV-13045 OFF-LA-10000240 14.62 Darrin Van Huff California West
5 US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 SO-20335 OFF-ST-10000760 22.368 Sean O'Donnell Florida South
 Joins
Observations

1. CG-12520, DV-13045 and SO-20335 are present in both tables

2. PG-18895 is present in sales table but not in customer table
3. BH-11710 is present in customer table and not in sales table

Sales table Customer table

Types of Joins
Option 2 – Left Join
• Result contains all customer IDs which are present in the sales table

Order Line Order ID Order Date Customer ID Product ID Sales Customer Name State Region
1 CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-BO-10001798 261.96 Claire Gute Kentucky South
88 CA-2017-155558 26-10-2017 PG-18895 OFF-LA-10000134 6.16 Null Null Null
3 CA-2016-138688 12-06-2016 DV-13045 OFF-LA-10000240 14.62 Darrin Van Huff California West
5 US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 SO-20335 OFF-ST-10000760 22.368 Sean O'Donnell Florida South
 Joins
Observations

1. CG-12520, DV-13045 and SO-20335 are present in both tables

2. PG-18895 is present in sales table but not in customer table
3. BH-11710 is present in customer table and not in sales table

Sales table Customer table

Types of Joins
Option 3 – Right Join
• Result contains all customer IDs which are present in the customer table

Order Line Order ID Order Date Customer ID Product ID Sales Customer Name State Region
1 CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-BO-10001798 261.96 Claire Gute Kentucky South
3 CA-2016-138688 12-06-2016 DV-13045 OFF-LA-10000240 14.62 Darrin Van Huff California West
5 US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 SO-20335 OFF-ST-10000760 22.368 Sean O'Donnell Florida South
Null Null Null BH-11710 Null Null Brosina Hoffman California West
 Joins
Observations

1. CG-12520, DV-13045 and SO-20335 are present in both tables

2. PG-18895 is present in sales table but not in customer table
3. BH-11710 is present in customer table and not in sales table

Sales table Customer table

Types of Joins
Option 4 – Full Outer Join
• Result contains all the customer IDs

Order Line Order ID Order Date Customer ID Product ID Sales Customer Name State Region
1 CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-BO-10001798 261.96 Claire Gute Kentucky South
88 CA-2017-155558 26-10-2017 PG-18895 OFF-LA-10000134 6.16 Null Null Null
3 CA-2016-138688 12-06-2016 DV-13045 OFF-LA-10000240 14.62 Darrin Van Huff California West
5 US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 SO-20335 OFF-ST-10000760 22.368 Sean O'Donnell Florida South
Null Null Null BH-11710 Null Null Brosina Hoffman California West
 Joins

Sales table Customer table Customer table Sales table

Types of Joins

Q. Are these two same?

A. Yes
Combining queries
Combining similar data using operators like Union, Intersect and Except
Customer ID Customer Name Segment Age Country City State Postal Code Region
EB-13870 Emily Burns Consumer 34 United States Orem Utah 84057 West
EH-13945 Eric Hoffmann Consumer 21 United States Los Angeles California 90049 West
TB-21520 Tracy Blumstein Consumer 48 United States Philadelphia Pennsylvania 19140 East
MA-17560 Matt Abelman Home Office 19 United States Houston Texas 77095 Central

Customer ID Customer Name Segment Age Country City State Postal Code Region

What ON-18715 Odella Nelson

PO-18865 Patrick O'Donnell
LH-16900 Lena Hernandez
Corporate 27 United States
Consumer 64 United States
Consumer 66 United States
Eagan
Westland
Dover
Minnesota
Michigan
Delaware
55122
48185
19901
Central
Central
East

Customer ID Customer Name Segment Age Country City State Postal Code Region
EB-13870 Emily Burns Consumer 34 United States Orem Utah 84057 West
EH-13945 Eric Hoffmann Consumer 21 United States Los Angeles California 90049 West
TB-21520 Tracy Blumstein Consumer 48 United States Philadelphia Pennsylvania 19140 East
MA-17560 Matt Abelman Home Office 19 United States Houston Texas 77095 Central
ON-18715 Odella Nelson Corporate 27 United States Eagan Minnesota 55122 Central
PO-18865 Patrick O'Donnell Consumer 64 United States Westland Michigan 48185 Central
LH-16900 Lena Hernandez Consumer 66 United States Dover Delaware 19901 East
 JOINS
JOINS are used to retrieve data from multiple tables. It is performed whenever two or more tables are joined in a SQL
statement.

• INNER JOIN (or sometimes called simple join)

• LEFT OUTER JOIN (or sometimes called LEFT JOIN)
TYPES • RIGHT OUTER JOIN (or sometimes called RIGHT JOIN)
• FULL OUTER JOIN (or sometimes called FULL JOIN)
• CROSS JOIN (or sometimes called CARTESIAN JOIN)

Start-Tech Academy
 JOINS
/*Creating sales table of year 2015*/

Create table sales_2015 as select * from sales where ship_date between '2015-
01-01' and '2015-12-31';
select count(*) from sales_2015; --2131

Query for select count(distinct customer_id) from sales_2015;--578

creating dataset
/* Customers with age between 20 and 60 */
create table customer_20_60 as select * from customer where age between 20
and 60;
select count (*) from customer_20_60;--597

Start-Tech Academy
 INNER JOIN
INNER JOIN compares each row of table1 with each row of table2 to find all pairs of rows which satisfy the join-
predicate. When satisfied, column values for each matched pair of rows of A and B are combined into a result row.

SELECT columns
FROM table1
Syntax INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;

Start-Tech Academy
 INNER JOIN
INNER JOIN compares each row of table1 with each row of table2 to find all pairs of rows which satisfy the join-
predicate. When satisfied, column values for each matched pair of rows of A and B are combined into a result row.

SELECT
a.order_line ,
a.product_id,
a.customer_id,
a.sales,
Example b.customer_name,
b.age
FROM sales_2015 AS a
INNER JOIN customer_20_60 AS b
ON a.customer_id = b.customer_id
ORDER BY customer_id;

Start-Tech Academy
 JOINS
JOINS are used to retrieve data from multiple tables. It is performed whenever two or more tables are joined in a SQL
statement.

• INNER JOIN (or sometimes called simple join)

• LEFT OUTER JOIN (or sometimes called LEFT JOIN)
TYPES • RIGHT OUTER JOIN (or sometimes called RIGHT JOIN)
• FULL OUTER JOIN (or sometimes called FULL JOIN)
• CROSS JOIN (or sometimes called CARTESIAN JOIN)

Start-Tech Academy
LEFT JOIN
The LEFT JOIN returns all rows from the left table, even if there are no matches in the right table.

SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2...

FROM table1
Syntax LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.common_field = table2.common_field;

Start-Tech Academy
 LEFT JOIN
The LEFT JOIN returns all rows from the left table, even if there are no matches in the right table.

SELECT
a.order_line ,
a.product_id,
a.customer_id,
a.sales,
Example b.customer_name,
b.age
FROM sales_2015 AS a
LEFT JOIN customer_20_60 AS b
ON a.customer_id = b.customer_id
ORDER BY customer_id;

Start-Tech Academy
RIGHT JOIN
The RIGHT JOIN returns all rows from the right table, even if there are no matches in the left table.

SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2...

FROM table1
Syntax RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.common_field = table2.common_field;

Start-Tech Academy
 RIGHT JOIN
The RIGHT JOIN returns all rows from the right table, even if there are no matches in the left table.

SELECT
a.order_line ,
a.product_id,
a.customer_id,
a.sales,
Example b.customer_name,
b.age
FROM sales_2015 AS a
RIGHT JOIN customer_20_60 AS b
ON a.customer_id = b.customer_id
ORDER BY customer_id;

Start-Tech Academy
FULL OUTER JOIN
The FULL JOIN combines the results of both left and right outer joins

SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2...

FROM table1
Syntax FULL JOIN table2
ON table1.common_field = table2.common_field;

Start-Tech Academy
 FULL OUTER JOIN
The FULL JOIN combines the results of both left and right outer joins

SELECT
a.order_line ,
a.product_id,
a.customer_id,
a.sales,
b.customer_name,
Example b.age,
b.customer_id
FROM sales_2015 AS a
FULL JOIN customer_20_60 AS b
ON a.customer_id = b.customer_id
ORDER BY a.customer_id , b.customer_id;

Start-Tech Academy
CROSS JOIN
The Cross Join creates a cartesian product between two sets of data.

SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2...

Syntax FROM table1, table2 [, table3 ]

Start-Tech Academy
 CROSS JOIN
The Cross Join creates a cartesian product between two sets of data.

SELECT a.YYYY, b.MM

Example FROM year_values AS a, month_values AS b
ORDER BY a.YYYY, b.MM;

Start-Tech Academy
Combining queries
Combining similar data using operators like Union, Intersect and Except
Customer ID Customer Name Segment Age Country City State Postal Code Region
EB-13870 Emily Burns Consumer 34 United States Orem Utah 84057 West
EH-13945 Eric Hoffmann Consumer 21 United States Los Angeles California 90049 West
TB-21520 Tracy Blumstein Consumer 48 United States Philadelphia Pennsylvania 19140 East
MA-17560 Matt Abelman Home Office 19 United States Houston Texas 77095 Central

Customer ID Customer Name Segment Age Country City State Postal Code Region

What ON-18715 Odella Nelson

PO-18865 Patrick O'Donnell
LH-16900 Lena Hernandez
Corporate 27 United States
Consumer 64 United States
Consumer 66 United States
Eagan
Westland
Dover
Minnesota
Michigan
Delaware
55122
48185
19901
Central
Central
East

Customer ID Customer Name Segment Age Country City State Postal Code Region
EB-13870 Emily Burns Consumer 34 United States Orem Utah 84057 West
EH-13945 Eric Hoffmann Consumer 21 United States Los Angeles California 90049 West
TB-21520 Tracy Blumstein Consumer 48 United States Philadelphia Pennsylvania 19140 East
MA-17560 Matt Abelman Home Office 19 United States Houston Texas 77095 Central
ON-18715 Odella Nelson Corporate 27 United States Eagan Minnesota 55122 Central
PO-18865 Patrick O'Donnell Consumer 64 United States Westland Michigan 48185 Central
LH-16900 Lena Hernandez Consumer 66 United States Dover Delaware 19901 East
Combining Queries
Combining queries are used to combine the results of two SELECT queries

SELECT column A, column B FROM Table X

What SELECT column A, column B FROM Table Y

Note: Structure of the output from the two queries should be same
 Combining Queries
Combining queries are used to combine the results of two SELECT queries

Customer Name Age Customer Name Age

Claire Gute 67 Harold Pawlan 20
Darrin Van Huff 31 Pete Kriz 46
Sean O'Donnell 65 Sean O'Donnell 65
Brosina Hoffman 20 Brosina Hoffman 20
Andrew Allen 50 Zuschuss Donatelli 66
Example
Customer Name Age Customer Name Age Customer Name Age
Sean O'Donnell 65 Claire Gute 67 Claire Gute 67
Brosina Hoffman 20 Darrin Van Huff 31 Darrin Van Huff 31
Sean O'Donnell 65
Andrew Allen 50
Brosina Hoffman 20
Andrew Allen 50
Harold Pawlan 20
Pete Kriz 46
Zuschuss Donatelli 66
 Intersect
Intersect operator is used to find the common rows from the results of two SELECT queries

SELECT column A, column B… FROM Table X

Syntax INTERSECT

SELECT column A, column B… FROM Table Y

 Intersect
Intersect operator is used to find the common rows from the results of two SELECT queries

SELECT customer_id FROM sales_2015

Example INTERSECT

SELECT customer_id from customer_20_60

 EXCEPT
EXCEPT operator is used to return all rows in the first SELECT statement that are not returned by the second SELECT
statement.

SELECT expression1, expression2, ...

FROM tables
[WHERE conditions]
Syntax EXCEPT
SELECT expression1, expression2, ...
FROM tables
[WHERE conditions];

Start-Tech Academy
 EXCEPT
EXCEPT operator is used to return all rows in the first SELECT statement that are not returned by the second SELECT
statement.

SELECT customer_id
FROM sales_2015
EXCEPT
Example SELECT customer_id
FROM customer_20_60
ORDER BY customer_id;

Start-Tech Academy
 UNION
UNION operator is used to combine the result sets of 2 or more SELECT statements. It removes duplicate rows between
the various SELECT statements.

Each SELECT statement within the UNION operator must have the same number
of fields in the result sets with similar data types

SELECT expression1, expression2, ... expression_n

Syntax FROM tables
[WHERE conditions]
UNION
SELECT expression1, expression2, ... expression_n
FROM tables
[WHERE conditions];

Start-Tech Academy
 UNION
UNION operator is used to combine the result sets of 2 or more SELECT statements. It removes duplicate rows between
the various SELECT statements.

SELECT customer_id
FROM sales_2015
UNION
Example SELECT customer_id
FROM customer_20_60
ORDER BY customer_id;

Start-Tech Academy
 SUBQUERY
Subquery is a query within a query. These subqueries can reside in the WHERE clause, the FROM clause, or the SELECT
clause.

SYNTAX where subquery is in WHERE

SELECT "column_name1"
Syntax FROM "table_name1"
WHERE "column_name2" [Comparison Operator]
(SELECT "column_name3"
FROM "table_name2"
WHERE "condition");

Start-Tech Academy
 SUBQUERY
Subquery is a query within a query. These subqueries can reside in the WHERE clause, the FROM clause, or the SELECT
clause.

Subquery in WHERE

SELECT * FROM sales

Example WHERE customer_ID IN
(SELECT DISTINCT customer_id
FROM customer WHERE age >60);

Start-Tech Academy
 SUBQUERY
Subquery is a query within a query. These subqueries can reside in the WHERE clause, the FROM clause, or the SELECT
clause.

Subquery in FROM

SELECT
a.product_id ,
a.product_name ,
a.category,
Example b.quantity
FROM product AS a
LEFT JOIN (SELECT product_id,
SUM(quantity) AS quantity
FROM sales GROUP BY product_id) AS b
ON a.product_id = b.product_id
ORDER BY b.quantity desc;

Start-Tech Academy
 SUBQUERY
Subquery is a query within a query. These subqueries can reside in the WHERE clause, the FROM clause, or the SELECT
clause.

SELECT customer_id,
order_line,
(SELECT customer_name
Example FROM customer
WHERE sales.customer_id = customer.customer_id)
FROM sales
ORDER BY customer_id;

Start-Tech Academy
 SUBQUERY
Subquery is a query within a query. These subqueries can reside in the WHERE clause, the FROM clause, or the SELECT
clause.
There are a few rules that subqueries must follow −
• Subqueries must be enclosed within parentheses.
• A subquery can have only one column in the SELECT clause, unless multiple
columns are in the main query for the subquery to compare its selected
columns.
• An ORDER BY command cannot be used in a subquery, although the main
query can use an ORDER BY. The GROUP BY command can be used to
RULES perform the same function as the ORDER BY in a subquery.
• Subqueries that return more than one row can only be used with multiple
value operators such as the IN operator.
• The SELECT list cannot include any references to values that evaluate to a
BLOB, ARRAY, CLOB, or NCLOB.
• A subquery cannot be immediately enclosed in a set function.
• The BETWEEN operator cannot be used with a subquery. However, the
BETWEEN operator can be used within the subquery.
Start-Tech Academy
VIEW
VIEW is not a physical table, it is a virtual table created by a query joining one or more tables.

CREATE [OR REPLACE] VIEW view_name AS

SELECT columns
FROM tables
Syntax [WHERE conditions];

Start-Tech Academy
CREATE VIEW
VIEW is not a physical table, it is a virtual table created by a query joining one or more tables.

CREATE VIEW logistics AS

SELECT a.order_line,
a.order_id,
b.customer_name,
b.city,
b. state,
Example b. country
FROM sales AS a
LEFT JOIN customer as b
ON a.customer_id = b.customer_id
ORDER BY a.order_line;

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW can be used instead of just CREATE VIEW

Start-Tech Academy
 DROP or UPDATE VIEW
VIEW is not a physical table, it is a virtual table created by a query joining one or more tables.

DROP VIEW logistics;

Example UPDATE logistics

SET Country = US
WHERE Country = ‘United States’;

Start-Tech Academy
VIEW
A view is a virtual table. A view consists of rows and columns just like a table. The
difference between a view and a table is that views are definitions built on top of
other tables (or views), and do not hold data themselves. If data is changing in the
underlying table, the same change is reflected in the view. A view can be built on top
of a single table or multiple tables. It can also be built on top of another view. In the
SQL Create View page, we will see how a view can be built.
Views offer the following advantages:
1. Ease of use: A view hides the complexity of the database tables from end users.
Essentially we can think of views as a layer of abstraction on top of the database
NOTES tables.
2. Space savings: Views takes very little space to store, since they do not store actual
data.
3. Additional data security: Views can include only certain columns in the table so
that only the non-sensitive columns are included and exposed to the end user. In
addition, some databases allow views to have different security settings, thus hiding
sensitive data from prying eyes.

Start-Tech Academy
VIEW
VIEW can be updated under certain conditions which are given below −

• The SELECT clause may not contain the keyword DISTINCT.

• The SELECT clause may not contain summary functions.
• The SELECT clause may not contain set functions.
• The SELECT clause may not contain set operators.
• The SELECT clause may not contain an ORDER BY clause.
• The FROM clause may not contain multiple tables.
NOTES • The WHERE clause may not contain subqueries.
• The query may not contain GROUP BY or HAVING.
• Calculated columns may not be updated.
• All NOT NULL columns from the base table must be included in the view in
order for the INSERT query to function.

Start-Tech Academy
 INDEX
An index is a performance-tuning method of allowing faster retrieval of records. An index creates an entry for each
value that appears in the indexed columns.

CREATE [UNIQUE] INDEX index_name

ON table_name
(index_col1 [ASC | DESC],
Syntax index_col2 [ASC | DESC],
...
index_col_n [ASC | DESC]);

A simple index is an index on a single column, while a composite index is an

index on two or more columns.

Start-Tech Academy
 CREATE INDEX
An index is a performance-tuning method of allowing faster retrieval of records. An index creates an entry for each
value that appears in the indexed columns.

CREATE INDEX mon_idx

Example ON month_values(MM);

Start-Tech Academy
 DROP or RENAME INDEX
An index is a performance-tuning method of allowing faster retrieval of records. An index creates an entry for each
value that appears in the indexed columns.

DROP INDEX [IF EXISTS] index_name

[ CASCADE | RESTRICT ];

Syntax ALTER INDEX [IF EXISTS] index_name,

RENAME TO new_index_name;

Start-Tech Academy
 DROP INDEX
An index is a performance-tuning method of allowing faster retrieval of records. An index creates an entry for each
value that appears in the indexed columns.

Example DROP INDEX mon_idx;

Start-Tech Academy
 INDEX
An index is a performance-tuning method of allowing faster retrieval of records. An index creates an entry for each
value that appears in the indexed columns.

1. Build index on columns of integer type

2. Keep index as narrow as possible

GOOD 3. Column order is important

PRACTICES 4. Make sure the column you are building an index for is declared NOT NULL

5. Build an index only when necessary

Start-Tech Academy
 INDEX
An index is a performance-tuning method of allowing faster retrieval of records. An index creates an entry for each
value that appears in the indexed columns.

The following guidelines indicate when the use of an index should be

reconsidered.

• Indexes should not be used on small tables.

GOOD • Tables that have frequent, large batch updates or insert operations.

PRACTICES • Indexes should not be used on columns that contain a high number of NULL
values.

• Columns that are frequently manipulated should not be indexed.

Start-Tech Academy
 SQL functions
Functions are used to process data and improve its quality

Examples:

• Communication managers in companies want to find out the

length of message they are sending to the customers

Agenda Length of “Hello There” = 11

• Supply chain manager is interested in the order processing time

Order processing time = Age between Order date and Ship

Date
 SQL functions
Textual Data Numeric Data Date-Time data

String Functions Mathematical Functions Date-Time Functions

Classification
Pattern Matching Data type conversion User access control
LENGTH
LENGTH function returns the length of the specified string, expressed as the number of characters.

Syntax length( string )

Start-Tech Academy
LENGTH
LENGTH function returns the length of the specified string, expressed as the number of characters.

SELECT Customer_name, Length (Customer_name) as characters

Example FROM customer
WHERE age >30 ;

Start-Tech Academy
UPPER & LOWER
UPPER/ LOWER function converts all characters in the specified string to uppercase/ lowercase.

upper( string )
Syntax
lower( string )

Start-Tech Academy
UPPER & LOWER
UPPER/ LOWER function converts all characters in the specified string to uppercase/ lowercase.

SELECT upper('Start-Tech Academy');

Example
SELECT lower('Start-Tech Academy');

Start-Tech Academy
REPLACE
REPLACE function replaces all occurrences of a specified string

replace( string, from_substring, to_substring )

Syntax Replace function is case sensitive.

Start-Tech Academy
REPLACE
REPLACE function replaces all occurrences of a specified string

SELECT
Customer_name,
Example country,
Replace (country,’United States’,’US’) AS country new
FROM customer;

Start-Tech Academy
TRIM,LTRIM & RTRIM
TRIM function removes all specified characters either from the beginning or the end of a string
RTRIM function removes all specified characters from the right-hand side of a string
LTRIM function removes all specified characters from the left-hand side of a string

trim( [ leading | trailing | both ] [ trim_character ] from string )

Syntax rtrim( string, trim_character )

ltrim( string, trim_character )

Start-Tech Academy
TRIM,LTRIM & RTRIM
TRIM function removes all specified characters either from the beginning or the end of a string
RTRIM function removes all specified characters from the right-hand side of a string
LTRIM function removes all specified characters from the left-hand side of a string

SELECT trim(leading ' ' from ' Start-Tech Academy ');

SELECT trim(trailing ' ' from ' Start-Tech Academy ');

Example SELECT trim(both ' ' from ' Start-Tech Academy ');

SELECT trim(' Start-Tech Academy ');

SELECT rtrim(' Start-Tech Academy ', ' ');

SELECT ltrim(' Start-Tech Academy ', ' ');

Start-Tech Academy
CONCAT
|| operator allows you to concatenate 2 or more strings together

string1 || string2 || string_n

Syntax

Start-Tech Academy
CONCAT
|| operator allows you to concatenate 2 or more strings together

SELECT
Customer_name,
Example city|| ' , '||state|| ' , '||country AS address
FROM customer;

Start-Tech Academy
SUBSTRING
SUBSTRING function allows you to extract a substring from a string

substring( string [from start_position] [for length] )

Syntax

Start-Tech Academy
SUBSTRING
SUBSTRING function allows you to extract a substring from a string

SELECT
Customer_id,
Customer_name,
SUBSTRING (Customer_id FOR 2) AS cust_group
FROM customer
WHERE SUBSTRING(Customer_id FOR 2) = ‘AB’;
Example SELECT
Customer_id,
Customer_name,
SUBSTRING (Customer_id FROM 4 FOR 5) AS cust_number
FROM customer
WHERE SUBSTRING(Customer_id FOR 2) = ‘AB’;

Start-Tech Academy
STRING AGGREGATOR
STRING_AGG concatenates input values into a string, separated by delimiter

string_agg (expression, delimiter)

Syntax

Start-Tech Academy
STRING AGGREGATOR
STRING_AGG concatenates input values into a string, separated by delimiter

SELECT
order_id ,
Example STRING_AGG (product_id,‘, ')
FROM sales
GROUP BY order_id;

Start-Tech Academy
CEIL & FLOOR
CEIL function returns the smallest integer value that is greater than or equal to a number
FLOOR function returns the largest integer value that is equal to or less than a number.

CEIL (number)
Syntax FLOOR (number)

Start-Tech Academy
CEIL & FLOOR
CEIL function returns the smallest integer value that is greater than or equal to a number
FLOOR function returns the largest integer value that is equal to or less than a number.

SELECT order_line,
sales,
Example CEIL (sales),
FLOOR (sales) FROM sales
WHERE discount>0;

Start-Tech Academy
RANDOM
RANDOM function can be used to return a random number between 0 and 1

RANDOM( )

Syntax The random function will return a value between 0 (inclusive) and 1 (exclusive),
so value >= 0 and value < 1.

Start-Tech Academy
RANDOM
RANDOM function can be used to return a random number between 0 and 1

Random decimal between a range (a included and b excluded)

SELECT RANDOM()*(b-a)+a
Example
Random Integer between a range (both boundaries included)
SELECT FLOOR(RANDOM()*(b-a+1))+a;

Start-Tech Academy
 SETSEED
If we set the seed by calling the setseed function, then the random function will return a repeatable sequence of
random numbers that is derived from the seed.

Syntax SETSEED ( seed )

Seed can have a value between 1.0 and -1.0, inclusive.

Start-Tech Academy
 SETSEED
If we set the seed by calling the setseed function, then the random function will return a repeatable sequence of
random numbers that is derived from the seed.

SELECT SETSEED(0.5);
Example SELECT RANDOM();
SELECT RANDOM();

Start-Tech Academy
ROUND
ROUND function returns a number rounded to a certain number of decimal places

ROUND ( number)
Syntax

Start-Tech Academy
ROUND
ROUND function returns a number rounded to a certain number of decimal places

SELECT order_line,
sales,
ROUND (sales)
Example FROM sales

Start-Tech Academy
POWER
POWER function returns m raised to the nth power

POWER ( m, n )
Syntax
This will be equivalent to m raised to the power n.

Start-Tech Academy
POWER
POWER function returns m raised to the nth power

SELECT POWER(6, 2);

Example
SELECT age, power(age,2) FROM customer OrDER BY age;

Start-Tech Academy
CURRENT DATE & TIME
CURRENT_DATE function returns the current date.
CURRENT_TIME function returns the current time with the time zone.
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP function returns the current date and time with the time zone.

CURRENT_DATE

CURRENT_TIME ( [ precision ] )

CURRENT_TIMESTAMP ( [ precision ] )
Syntax
• The CURRENT_DATE function will return the current date as a 'YYYY-MM-DD'
format.
• CURRENT_TIME function will return the current time of day as a
'HH:MM:SS.GMT+TZ' format.
• The CURRENT_TIMESTAMP function will return the current date as a 'YYYY-
MM-DD HH:MM:SS.GMT+TZ' format.

Start-Tech Academy
CURRENT DATE & TIME
CURRENT_DATE function returns the current date.
CURRENT_TIME function returns the current time with the time zone.
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP function returns the current date and time with the time zone.

SELECT CURRENT_DATE;

SELECT CURRENT_TIME;
Example SELECT CURRENT_TIME(1);

SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP;

Start-Tech Academy
AGE
AGE function returns the number of years, months, and days between two dates.

age( [date1,] date2 )

Syntax If date1 is NOT provided, current date will be used

Start-Tech Academy
AGE
AGE function returns the number of years, months, and days between two dates.

SELECT age('2014-04-25', '2014-01-01’);

SELECT order_line, order_date, ship_date,

Example age(ship_date, order_date) as time_taken
FROM sales
ORDER BY time_taken DESC;

Start-Tech Academy
EXTRACT
EXTRACT function extracts parts from a date

Syntax EXTRACT ( ‘unit’ from ‘date’ )

Start-Tech Academy
EXTRACT
EXTRACT function extracts parts from a date

Unit Explanation
day Day of the month (1 to 31)
decade Year divided by 10
Day of the year (1=first day of year, 365/366=last day of the year,
doy
depending if it is a leap year)
Number of seconds since '1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC', if date value.
epoch
Units Number of seconds in an interval, if interval value
hour Hour (0 to 23)
minute Minute (0 to 59)
Number for the month (1 to 12), if date value. Number of months
month
(0 to 11), if interval value
second Seconds (and fractional seconds)
year Year as 4-digits

Start-Tech Academy
EXTRACT
EXTRACT function extracts parts from a date

SELECT EXTRACT(day from '2014-04-25’);

SELECT EXTRACT(day from '2014-04-25 08:44:21’);

Example SELECT EXTRACT(minute from '08:44:21’);

SELECT order_line, EXTRACT(EPOCH FROM (ship_date - order_date))

FROM sales;

Start-Tech Academy
 Pattern Matching

1. LIKE statements

Methods 2. SIMILAR TO statements

3. ~ (Regular Expressions)

Start-Tech Academy
 LIKE WILDCARDS
The PostgreSQL LIKE condition allows you to perform pattern matching using Wildcards.

Wildcard Explanation
% Allows you to match any string of any length (including zero length)
_ Allows you to match on a single character

LIKE Wildcards A% means starts with A like ABC or ABCDE

%A means anything that ends with A
A%B means starts with A but ends with B

AB_C means string starts with AB, then there is one character, then there is C

Start-Tech Academy
 LIKE
The PostgreSQL LIKE condition allows you to perform pattern matching using Wildcards.

SELECT * FROM customer_table

WHERE first_name LIKE 'Jo%’;

SELECT * FROM customer_table

WHERE first_name LIKE '%od%’;

SELECT first_name, last_name FROM customer_table

Example WHERE first_name LIKE 'Jas_n’;

SELECT first_name, last_name FROM customer_table

WHERE last_name NOT LIKE 'J%’;

SELECT * FROM customer_table

WHERE last_name LIKE 'G\%';

Start-Tech Academy
 WILDCARDS
Wildcard Explanation
| Denotes alternation (either of two alternatives).
* Denotes repetition of the previous item zero or more times
+ Denotes repetition of the previous item one or more times.
? Denotes repetition of the previous item zero or one time.

REG-EX {m} denotes repetition of the previous item exactly m times.

Wildcards {m,} denotes repetition of the previous item m or more times.

denotes repetition of the previous item at least m and not more
{m,n}
than n times
^,$ ^ denotes start of the string, $ denotes start of the string
[chars] a bracket expression, matching any one of the chars
~* ~ means case sensitive and ~* means case insensitive
Start-Tech Academy
 ~ OPERATOR

SELECT * FROM customer

WHERE customer_name ~* '^a+[a-z\s]+$'

SELECT * FROM customer

WHERE customer_name ~* '^(a|b|c|d)+[a-z\s]+$'
Example SELECT * FROM customer
WHERE customer_name ~* '^(a|b|c|d)[a-z]{3}\s[a-z]{4}$‘ ;

SELECT * FROM users

WHERE name ~* '[a-z0-9\.\-\_]+@[a-z0-9\-]+\.[a-z]{2,5}';

Start-Tech Academy
CONVERSION TO STRING
TO_CHAR function converts a number or date to a string

Syntax TO_CHAR ( value, format_mask )

Start-Tech Academy
 CONVERSION TO STRING
TO_CHAR function converts a number or date to a string

Parameter Explanation
9 Value (with no leading zeros)
0 Value (with leading zeros)
. Decimal
, Group separator
PR Negative value in angle brackets
Format Mask S Sign
L Currency symbol
MI Minus sign (for negative numbers)
PL Plus sign (for positive numbers)
SG Plus/minus sign (for positive and negative numbers)
EEEE Scientific notation

Start-Tech Academy
 CONVERSION TO STRING
TO_CHAR function converts a number or date to a string

Parameter Explanation
YYYY 4-digit year
MM Month (01-12; JAN = 01).
Mon Abbreviated name of month capitalized
Month Name of month capitalized, padded with blanks to length of 9 characters
DAY Name of day in all uppercase, padded with blanks to length of 9 characters
Day Name of day capitalized, padded with blanks to length of 9 characters
Format Mask DDD
DD
Day of year (1-366)
Day of month (01-31)
HH Hour of day (01-12)
HH12 Hour of day (01-12)
HH24 Hour of day (00-23)
MI Minute (00-59)
SS Second (00-59)
am, AM, pm,
Meridian indicator
or PM

Start-Tech Academy
CONVERSION TO STRING
TO_CHAR function converts a number or date to a string

SELECT sales, TO_CHAR(sales, '9999.99’)

FROM sales;

SELECT sales, TO_CHAR(sales, ‘L9,999.99’)

FROM sales;
Example SELECT order_date, TO_CHAR(order_date, 'MMDDYY’)
FROM sales;

SELECT order_date, TO_CHAR(order_date, 'Month DD, YYYY’)

FROM sales;

Start-Tech Academy
CONVERSION TO DATE
TO_DATE function converts a string to a date.

Syntax TO_DATE( string1, format_mask )

Start-Tech Academy
 CONVERSION TO DATE
TO_DATE function converts a string to a date.

Parameter Explanation
YYYY 4-digit year
MM Month (01-12; JAN = 01).
Mon Abbreviated name of month capitalized
Month Name of month capitalized, padded with blanks to length of 9 characters
DAY Name of day in all uppercase, padded with blanks to length of 9 characters
Day Name of day capitalized, padded with blanks to length of 9 characters
Format Mask DDD
DD
Day of year (1-366)
Day of month (01-31)
HH Hour of day (01-12)
HH12 Hour of day (01-12)
HH24 Hour of day (00-23)
MI Minute (00-59)
SS Second (00-59)
am, AM, pm,
Meridian indicator
or PM

Start-Tech Academy
CONVERSION TO DATE
TO_DATE function converts a string to a date.

SELECT TO_DATE('2014/04/25', 'YYYY/MM/DD’);

Example
SELECT TO_DATE('033114', 'MMDDYY');

Start-Tech Academy
CONVERSION TO NUMBER
TO_NUMBER function converts a string to a number

Syntax TO_NUMBER( string1, format_mask )

Start-Tech Academy
 CONVERSION TO NUMBER
TO_NUMBER function converts a string to a number

Parameter Explanation
9 Value (with no leading zeros)
0 Value (with leading zeros)
. Decimal
, Group separator
PR Negative value in angle brackets
Format Mask S Sign
L Currency symbol
MI Minus sign (for negative numbers)
PL Plus sign (for positive numbers)
SG Plus/minus sign (for positive and negative numbers)
EEEE Scientific notation

Start-Tech Academy
CONVERSION TO NUMBER
TO_NUMBER function converts a string to a number

SELECT TO_NUMBER ('1210.73', '9999.99’);

Example
SELECT TO_NUMBER ('$1,210.73', ‘L9,999.99');

Start-Tech Academy
CREATE USER
CREATE USER statement creates a database account that allows you to log into the database

CREATE USER user_name

Syntax [WITH PASSWORD 'password_value’ | VALID UNTIL 'expiration' ];

Start-Tech Academy
CREATE USER
CREATE USER statement creates a database account that allows you to log into the database

CREATE USER starttech

WITH PASSWORD ‘academy’;

CREATE USER starttech

WITH PASSWORD academy '
VALID UNTIL 'Jan 1, 2020’;
Example
CREATE USER starttech
WITH PASSWORD academy '
VALID UNTIL 'infinity';

Start-Tech Academy
 GRANT & REVOKE
Privileges to tables can controlled using GRANT & REVOKE. These permissions can be any combination of SELECT,
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, INDEX, CREATE, ALTER, DROP, GRANT OPTION or ALL.

GRANT privileges ON object TO user;

Syntax
REVOKE privileges ON object FROM user;

Start-Tech Academy
 GRANT & REVOKE
Privileges to tables can controlled using GRANT & REVOKE. These permissions can be any combination of SELECT,
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, INDEX, CREATE, ALTER, DROP, GRANT OPTION or ALL.

Privilege Description
SELECT Ability to perform SELECT statements on the table.
INSERT Ability to perform INSERT statements on the table.
UPDATE Ability to perform UPDATE statements on the table.
DELETE Ability to perform DELETE statements on the table.
Privileges TRUNCATE Ability to perform TRUNCATE statements on the table.
Ability to create foreign keys (requires privileges on both
REFERENCES
parent and child tables).
TRIGGER Ability to create triggers on the table.
CREATE Ability to perform CREATE TABLE statements.
ALL Grants all permissions.

Start-Tech Academy
 GRANT & REVOKE
Privileges to tables can controlled using GRANT & REVOKE. These permissions can be any combination of SELECT,
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, INDEX, CREATE, ALTER, DROP, GRANT OPTION or ALL.

GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON products TO starttech;

GRANT ALL ON products TO starttech;

Example
GRANT SELECT ON products TO PUBLIC;

REVOKE ALL ON products FROM starttech;

Start-Tech Academy
DROP USER
DROP USER statement is used to remove a user from the database.

DROP USER user_name;

Syntax
If the user that you wish to delete owns a database, be sure to drop the
database first and then drop the user.

Start-Tech Academy
DROP USER
DROP USER statement is used to remove a user from the database.

Example DROP USER techonthenet;

Start-Tech Academy
RENAME USER
ALTER USER statement is used to rename a user in the database

ALTER USER user_name

Syntax RENAME TO new_name;

Start-Tech Academy
RENAME USER
ALTER USER statement is used to rename a user in the database

ALTER USER starttech

Example RENAME TO ST;

Start-Tech Academy
FIND ALL USERS
Run a query against pg_user table to retrieve information about Users

SELECT usename
Syntax FROM pg_user;

Start-Tech Academy
FIND LOGGED-IN USERS
Run a query against pg_stat_activity table to retrieve information about Logged-in Users

SELECT DISTINCT usename

Syntax FROM pg_stat_activity;

Start-Tech Academy
 Interview & performance tuning tips

Part 1
Theoretical concepts for interview preparation

Agenda Part 2
Performance tuning tips which help in faster data retrieval and
maintains database integrity
 TABLESPACES
Tablespaces allow database administrators to define locations in the file system where the files representing database
objects can be stored

CREATE TABLESPACE <tablespace name>

LOCATION <location on drive>;
Syntax
• Creation of the tablespace can only be done by database superuser
• Ordinary database users can be allowed to use it by granting them the
CREATE privilege on the new tablespace

Start-Tech Academy
 TABLESPACES
Tablespaces allow database administrators to define locations in the file system where the files representing database
objects can be stored

CREATE TABLESPACE newspace LOCATION '/mnt/sda1/postgresql/data’;

CREATE TABLE first_table (test_column int) TABLESPACE newspace;

Example
SET default_tablespace = newspace;
CREATE TABLE second_table(test_column int);

SELECT newspace FROM pg_tablespace;

Start-Tech Academy
 TABLESPACES
Tablespaces allow database administrators to define locations in the file system where the files representing database
objects can be stored

• If the partition or volume on which the cluster was initialized runs out of
space and cannot be extended, a tablespace can be created on a different
partition and used until the system can be reconfigured.

USES • Tablespaces allow an administrator to use knowledge of the usage pattern of

database objects to optimize performance. For example, an index which is
very heavily used can be placed on a very fast, highly available disk, such as
an expensive solid state device. At the same time a table storing archived
data which is rarely used or not performance critical could be stored on a
less expensive, slower disk system.

Start-Tech Academy
Primary Key

➢ Primary key consists of one or more columns

Primary ➢ Used to uniquely identify each row in the table

Key ➢ No value in the columns can be blank or NULL

Start-Tech Academy
Primary Key

Customer Table
Customer ID First Name Last Name Age
V_001 Jay Pee 23
V_002 Kay Qu 23
V_003 Ell Ao 13
V_004 Emm Qu 24
V_005 Emm Es 67

Start-Tech Academy
Primary Key

Order Table
Order ID Customer_ID Product_key Value
O_001 V_001 P_001_01 65
O_002 V_001 P_001_02 23
O_003 V_001 P_002_01 13
O_004 V_003 P_003_01 41
O_005 V_005 P_002_01 67

Start-Tech Academy
Primary Key

Product Table
Product ID Variant Combine_column Name
P_001 01 P_001_01 Cola 500 ml
P_001 02 P_001_02 Coal 1 l
P_002 01 P_002_01 Coffee beans
P_003 01 P_003_01 Surf
P_004 01 P_002_01 Cookies

Start-Tech Academy
 Primary Key
➢ City Name
➢ Country Name
➢ State
➢ Population
City Data ➢ Mean Temperature
➢ Pin Code
➢ Longitude
➢ Latitude

Start-Tech Academy
 Foreign Key
Order ID Customer_ID Product_key Value
O_001 V_001 P_001_01 65
Order Table O_002 V_001 P_001_02 23
O_003 V_001 P_002_01 13

Customer ID First Name Last Name Age

V_001 Jay Pee 23
Customer Table V_002 Kay Qu 23
V_003 Ell Ao 13

Product ID Variant Combine_column Name

P_001 01 P_001_01 Cola 500 ml
Product Table P_001 02 P_001_02 Coal 1 l
P_002 01 P_002_01 Coffee beans
Start-Tech Academy
 ACID
ACID (an acronym for Atomicity, Consistency Isolation, Durability) is a concept that Database Professionals generally look for
when evaluating databases and application architectures. For a reliable database all these four attributes should be achieved.

➢ ATOMICITY
Atomicity is an all-or-none proposition
➢ CONSISTENCY
Consistency ensures that a transaction can only bring the database from one valid
state to another
ACID ➢ ISOLATION
Isolation keeps transactions separated from each other until they’re finished.
➢ DURABILITY
Durability guarantees that the database will keep track of pending changes in such a
way that the server can recover from an abnormal termination
 TRUNCATE
The TRUNCATE TABLE statement is used to remove all records from a table or set of tables in PostgreSQL. It performs
the same function as a DELETE statement without a WHERE clause.

TRUNCATE [ONLY] table_name

Syntax [ CASCADE | RESTRICT] ;

Start-Tech Academy
 TRUNCATE
The TRUNCATE TABLE statement is used to remove all records from a table or set of tables in PostgreSQL. It performs
the same function as a DELETE statement without a WHERE clause.

TRUNCATE TABLE Customer_20_60;

Example
Same as
DELETE FROM Customer_20_60;

Start-Tech Academy
Normalization

Organizing the data to reduce data redundancy

Redundancy in table leads to three Anomalies:

What 1. Insert Anomaly
2. Update Anomaly
3. Delete Anomaly
 Normalization
While inserting new data:

• If category value is not available, we cannot insert that sales transaction

If we have a separate product table and category values are not noted in sales
table, then we can insert the sales transaction.

Insert Anomaly Order Line Order ID Order Date Customer ID Product ID Sales Category Product Name
Bush Somerset Collection
1 CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-BO-10001798 261.96 Furniture
Bookcase
Hon Deluxe Fabric
2 CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-CH-10000454 731.94 Furniture Upholstered Stacking Chairs
Rounded Back
Self-Adhesive Address Labels
3 CA-2016-138688 12-06-2016 DV-13045 OFF-LA-10000240 14.62 Office Supplies
for Typewriters by Universal
Bretford CR4500 Series Slim
4 US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 SO-20335 FUR-TA-10000577 957.5775 Furniture
Rectangular Table
 Normalization
While updating data:

• If category of one product changes, we need to update several rows

• If the person updating the table is not aware of the redundancy, this may
lead to inconsistency in data

If we have a separate product table, we need to update only one row of data.

Update Anomaly
Order Line Order ID Order Date Customer ID Product ID Sales Category Product Name
1595 CA-2015-118423 24-03-2015 DP-13390 FUR-BO-10000362 359.058 Furniture Sauder Inglewood Library Bookcases
1611 CA-2014-156349 26-05-2014 ML-17395 FUR-BO-10000362 290.666 Furniture Sauder Inglewood Library Bookcases
2604 CA-2016-165848 04-06-2016 EN-13780 FUR-BO-10000362 136.784 Furniture Sauder Inglewood Library Bookcases
5395 US-2014-123183 19-11-2014 GR-14560 FUR-BO-10000362 1025.88 Furniture Sauder Inglewood Library Bookcases
7681 CA-2014-133592 31-12-2014 KM-16375 FUR-BO-10000362 341.96 Furniture Sauder Inglewood Library Bookcases
 Normalization
While deleting data:

• We may want to delete a particular sales transaction, but in doing so, we

may unintentionally lose product data

If we have a separate product table, we can delete sales transactions without

losing product data.

Deletion
Anomaly Order Line Order ID Order Date Customer ID Product ID Sales Category Product Name
FUR-BO- Bush Birmingham Collection
3513 CA-2017-140326 04-09-2017 HW-14935 825.174 Furniture
10000112 Bookcase Dark Cherry
 Normalization

• First Normal Form or 1NF

• Second Normal Form or 2NF

• Third Normal Form or 3NF

Forms of • Boyle-Codd Normal Form or BCNF

Normalization • Fourth Normal Form or 4NF

• Fifth Normal Form or 5NF

First Normal Form

1. Each attribute should contain a single value in each row

Rules 2. Maintain datatypes in a column

3. Each column should have unique column name

First Normal Form
1. Each attribute should contain a single value in each row

Order_ID Order_Date Ship_Date Customer_ID Product _ID

CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 11-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-BO-10001798, FUR-CH-10000454
CA-2016-138688 12-06-2016 16-06-2016 DV-13045 OFF-LA-10000240
US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 18-10-2015 SO-20335 FUR-TA-10000577, OFF-ST-10000760
CA-2014-115812 09-06-2014 14-06-2014 BH-11710 FUR-FU-10001487

Rules
Order_ID Order_Date Ship_Date Customer_ID Product _ID
CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 11-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-BO-10001798
CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 11-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-CH-10000454
CA-2016-138688 12-06-2016 16-06-2016 DV-13045 OFF-LA-10000240
US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 18-10-2015 SO-20335 FUR-TA-10000577
US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 18-10-2015 SO-20335 OFF-ST-10000760
CA-2014-115812 09-06-2014 14-06-2014 BH-11710 FUR-FU-10001487
First Normal Form
• Maintain datatypes in a column

Order_ID Order_Date Ship_Date Customer_ID Product _ID

CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 morning 11-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-BO-10001798
CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 11-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-CH-10000454
CA-2016-138688 12-06-2016 16-06-2016 DV-13045 OFF-LA-10000240
US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 evening 18-10-2015 SO-20335 FUR-TA-10000577
US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 18-10-2015 SO-20335 OFF-ST-10000760
CA-2014-115812 09-06-2014 14-06-2014 BH-11710 FUR-FU-10001487

Rules
Order_ID Order_Date Ship_Date Customer_ID Product _ID
CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 11-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-BO-10001798
CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 11-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-CH-10000454
CA-2016-138688 12-06-2016 16-06-2016 DV-13045 OFF-LA-10000240
US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 18-10-2015 SO-20335 FUR-TA-10000577
US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 18-10-2015 SO-20335 OFF-ST-10000760
CA-2014-115812 09-06-2014 14-06-2014 BH-11710 FUR-FU-10001487
First Normal Form
• Each column should have unique column name

Order_ID Date Date Customer_ID Product _ID

CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 11-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-BO-10001798
CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 11-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-CH-10000454
CA-2016-138688 12-06-2016 16-06-2016 DV-13045 OFF-LA-10000240
US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 18-10-2015 SO-20335 FUR-TA-10000577
US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 18-10-2015 SO-20335 OFF-ST-10000760
CA-2014-115812 09-06-2014 14-06-2014 BH-11710 FUR-FU-10001487

Rules
Order_ID Order_Date Ship_Date Customer_ID Product _ID
CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 11-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-BO-10001798
CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 11-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-CH-10000454
CA-2016-138688 12-06-2016 16-06-2016 DV-13045 OFF-LA-10000240
US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 18-10-2015 SO-20335 FUR-TA-10000577
US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 18-10-2015 SO-20335 OFF-ST-10000760
CA-2014-115812 09-06-2014 14-06-2014 BH-11710 FUR-FU-10001487
Second Normal Form

1. Table should be in first normal form

Rules
2. There should not be any partial dependency
Second Normal Form
• There should not be any partial dependency
Order_ID Order_Date Ship_Date Customer_ID Product _ID Category Product Name Sales
CA-2016- FUR-BO-
08-11-2016 11-11-2016 CG-12520 Furniture Bush Somerset Collection Bookcase 261.96
152156 10001798
CA-2016- FUR-CH- Hon Deluxe Fabric Upholstered
08-11-2016 11-11-2016 CG-12520 Furniture 731.94
152156 10000454 Stacking Chairs Rounded Back
CA-2016- OFF-LA- Office Self-Adhesive Address Labels for
12-06-2016 16-06-2016 DV-13045 14.62
138688 10000240 Supplies Typewriters by Universal
US-2015- FUR-TA- Bretford CR4500 Series Slim
11-10-2015 18-10-2015 SO-20335 Furniture 957.58
108966 10000577 Rectangular Table
CA-2017- FUR-FU- Eldon Expressions Wood and Plastic
Rules 125913
CA-2014-
16-01-2017 16-01-2017 JO-15145
10001487
FUR-FU-
Furniture
Desk Accessories Cherry Wood
Eldon Expressions Wood and Plastic
27.92

09-06-2014 14-06-2014 BH-11710 Furniture 48.86

115812 10001487 Desk Accessories Cherry Wood

• Order_ID and Product_ID together form the composite primary key for this table
• Product name and Category only depend on product_ID and not on Order_ID

• This is partial dependency

Second Normal Form
• To remove partial dependency, split the table

Order_ID Order_Date Ship_Date Customer_ID Product _ID Sales

CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 11-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-BO-10001798 261.96
CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 11-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-CH-10000454 731.94
CA-2016-138688 12-06-2016 16-06-2016 DV-13045 OFF-LA-10000240 14.62
US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 18-10-2015 SO-20335 FUR-TA-10000577 957.58
CA-2017-125913 16-01-2017 16-01-2017 JO-15145 FUR-FU-10001487 27.92
CA-2014-115812 09-06-2014 14-06-2014 BH-11710 FUR-FU-10001487 48.86
Rules
Product _ID Category Product Name
FUR-BO-10001798 Furniture Bush Somerset Collection Bookcase
FUR-CH-10000454 Furniture Hon Deluxe Fabric Upholstered Stacking Chairs Rounded Back
OFF-LA-10000240 Office Supplies Self-Adhesive Address Labels for Typewriters by Universal
FUR-TA-10000577 Furniture Bretford CR4500 Series Slim Rectangular Table
FUR-FU-10001487 Furniture Eldon Expressions Wood and Plastic Desk Accessories Cherry Wood
Third Normal Form

1. Table should be in second normal form

Rules
2. There should not be any transitive dependency
Third Normal Form
• There should not be any transitive dependency

Order ID Order Date Customer ID Sales Customer Name Age

CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 CG-12520 261.96 Claire Gute 67
CA-2016-138688 12-06-2016 DV-13045 14.62 Darrin Van Huff 31
US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 SO-20335 957.5775 Sean O'Donnell 65

Rules • Customer name and Age depend on Customer ID

• Customer ID depends on Order ID (primary key)

• This is transitive dependency

Third Normal Form
• To remove transitive dependency also, split the table

Order ID Order Date Customer ID Sales

CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 CG-12520 261.96
CA-2016-138688 12-06-2016 DV-13045 14.62
US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 SO-20335 957.5775

Rules
Customer ID Customer Name Age
CG-12520 Claire Gute 67
DV-13045 Darrin Van Huff 31
SO-20335 Sean O'Donnell 65
Boyce-Codd Normal Form

1. Table should be in third normal form

2. If B depends on A, A should be a superkey

Superkey is any such column or group of columns which can uniquely
identify each row i.e. it can become a primary key
Rules
Order Line Order ID Order Date Ship Date Customer ID Product ID Sales
1 CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 11-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-BO-10001798 261.96
2 CA-2016-152156 08-11-2016 11-11-2016 CG-12520 FUR-CH-10000454 731.94
3 CA-2016-138688 12-06-2016 16-06-2016 DV-13045 OFF-LA-10000240 14.62
4 US-2015-108966 11-10-2015 18-10-2015 SO-20335 FUR-TA-10000577 957.5775
4th Normal Form

1. Table should be in Boyce-Codd normal form

Rules
2. There should not be any multivalued dependency
4th Normal Form
• There should not be any multivalued dependency

Scenario: John bought a Football and a baseball bat and received two coupons as a reward

Customer Product coupon

John Football 10% off on next purchase
John Baseball Bat Free home delivery

Rules
Customer Product coupon
John Football Free home delivery
John Baseball Bat 10% off on next purchase

• Product and coupon are not related

4th Normal Form
• There should not be any multivalued dependency

Scenario: John bought a Football and a baseball bat and received two coupons as a reward

Customer Product coupon

John Football 10% off on next purchase
John Baseball Bat Free home delivery
John Football Free home delivery
Rules John Baseball Bat 10% off on next purchase

• For unrelated data we have to store all combinations of data

Customer Product coupon

John Football 10% off on next purchase
John Baseball Bat Free home delivery

• This table suggests that the purchaser of football did not get the free delivery coupon
4th Normal Form

How to find multivalued dependency?

1. There should be three or more columns in the table

Rules
2. There should be no relation between values of two or more columns
4th Normal Form
• To remove multivalued dependency also, split the table

Separate product information and coupon information into separate tables

Customer Product Customer coupon

John Football John 10% off on next purchase
Rules John Baseball Bat John Free home delivery
5th Normal Form

1. Table should be in 4th normal form

Rules
2. There should not be any join dependency
5th Normal Form
• There should not be any join dependency

Shop No. Brand Product

1 Nike Sport shoes
1 Nike Track suit
2 Nike Sport shoes
2 Adidas Track suit

Rules Shop No. Brand Brand Product Shop No.

1
Product
Sport shoes
1 Nike Nike Sport shoes
2 Nike Nike Track suit 1 Track suit
Adidas Track suit 2 Sport shoes
2 Adidas
2 Track suit

• Does shop 2 sell Nike Track suit?

• Shop 2 sells Nike products, Nike has Track suit product, Shop 2 sells track suit
• But NO, Shop 2 does not sell Nike track suit
• This implies information was lost during the split
5th Normal Form
• There is join dependency if the shops are selling all the combinations of
brand and product

• Take shop 2 brands and products -> cross join them

• Out of the result, whichever combination is actually offered, the shop has
to sell it
• If this condition holds, the table is not in 5th Normal form and we can split
Rules the table

Brand Product
Shop No. Brand Shop No. Product Nike Sport shoes
2 Nike 2 Sport shoes Nike Track suit
2 Adidas 2 Track suit Adidas Track suit
Adidas Sport shoes
 Best Practices
Displays the execution plan for a query statement without running the query.

EXPLAIN [ VERBOSE ] query;

EXPLAIN VERBOSE
(Syntax) Displays the full query plan instead of just a summary.
query
Query statement to explain.

Start-Tech Academy
 Best Practices

SOFT DELETE
Soft deletion means you don’t actually delete the record instead you are
SOFT DELETE marking the record as deleted
vs
HARD DELETE
HARD DELETE
Hard deletion means data is physically deleted from the database table.

Start-Tech Academy
Best Practices

UPDATE
Update customer set customer_name = (trim(upper(customer_name))
where (trim(upper(customer_name)) <> customer_name
UPDATE Every updated row is actually a soft delete and an insert. So updating every
vs row will increase the storage size of the table

CASE
CASE STATEMENT
Instead you can use the case statements while creating such tables

Start-Tech Academy
 Best Practices

SYNTAX

VACUUM [ table ]

VACCUM USE
➢ Reclaims disk space occupied by rows that were marked for deletion by
previous UPDATE and DELETE operations.
➢ Compacts the table to free up the consumed space
➢ Use it on tables which you are updating and deleting on a regular basis

Start-Tech Academy
 Best Practices

➢ The TRUNCATE statement is typically far more efficient than using the
DELETE statement with no WHERE clause to empty the table
TRUNCATE ➢ TRUNCATE requires fewer resources and less logging overhead
VS
➢ Instead of creating table each time try to use truncate as it will keep the
DELETE
table structure and properties intact

➢ Truncate frees up space and impossible to rollback

Start-Tech Academy
 Best Practices
Pattern Matching
➢ Whenever possible use LIKE statements in place of REGEX expressions
➢ Do not use ‘Similar To’ statements, instead use Like and Regex
STRING ➢ Avoid unnecessary string operations such as replace, upper, lower etc
FUNCTIONS
String Operations
➢ Use trim instead of replace whenever possible
➢ Avoid unnecessary String columns. For eg. Use date formats instead of
string for dates

Start-Tech Academy
Best Practices
Syntax
SELECT a.order_line , a.product_id, b.customer_name, b.age
FROM sales_2015 AS a LEFT JOIN customer_20_60 AS b
ON a.customer_id = b.customer_id
JOINS ORDER BY customer_id;

Best Practices
➢ Use subqueries to select only the required fields from the tables
➢ Avoid one to many joins by mentioning Group by clause on the matching
fields

Start-Tech Academy
 Best Practices
A schema is a collection of database objects associated with one particular database.
You may have one or multiple schemas in a database.

1. To allow many users to use one database without interfering

with each other.
SCHEMAS 2. To organize database objects into logical groups to make
them more manageable.
3. Third-party applications can be put into separate schemas
so they do not collide with the names of other objects.

Start-Tech Academy
 Best Practices
A schema is a collection of database objects associated with one particular database.
You may have one or multiple schemas in a database.

SCHEMAS CREATE SCHEMA testschema;

(Syntax)

Start-Tech Academy
Final Project

Congratulations on reaching to the end of the Course.

In this Project, you will be using all the skills that you have acquired
About throughout this course.

Another application – Sports Analytics

Final Project
 Final Project

• Two sets of data:

• Ball-by-ball data
• Match-wise data

IPL dataset • Create an SQL based database and perform the given tasks

• The queries and results of this project will help to answer questions in the
final assessment