16 [Art. 2.

5)
P o w e r E l e c t r o n i c s

eBectrons.

denotes that the holes

and
current flow ofboth e m i t t e r is
indicated

ABJT has three in the device is due to the An

m o v e m e n t

by an arrowheadterminals named col

base
base (B). with
ollector, e m i t t e r (E) and is also.
a s s o c i a t e d

or
collector. Power indicating
the direction
tion of emitt»r rent. No
and a r e
arrow
cheaper

Therefore, use of
transistors of npn type are ea5y m a n u f a c t u r e

and
high-current

power
applications. Hereafter, npn transistors
npn wide n
in
high-voltage
high-vol
sv 18ever y
transistors would only. be onsidered.
consi
Collector Collector

p
Sase O
B Base B

Emitter Emitter

(a) (6)
Fig. 2.5. Bipolar junction transistors (a) npn type and (6) prp type.

2.5.1.1. Steady-state Characteristics. Out of the three possible circuit configurations for
a transistor, common-emitter arrangement is more common in switching applications. So, a common
emitter npn circuit for obtaining its characteristics is considered as shown in Fig. 2.6 (a).
Input characteristics. A graph between base current Iz and base-emitter voltage VBE
gives input characteristics(As the base-emitter junction of a transistor is like a diode, IR versus
VRE gTaph resembles a diode curve.When collector-emitter voltage VCE2 is more than VeP1
base current, for the same VBE. decreases as shown in Fig. 2.6 (6).

VcE2>VcE1
VcE Ig5Ip4>---->I81
IBs
Re -l34
RB Ie3
wT Vcc Satu-
ration
VcE region -IB2
VBE
Ve -IB
VBE Ig=0
Leakage
(a)
circuit characteristics,
(b)
(6) input character
current Cutott VcE
region
2.6. (a) npn
transistor ristics and (c) c)
Fig.
Agraph between collector aCurrent
output
Output
characteristics.

characteristics of a
transistor For characteristics.
nd collector-emitter
output existarozero base
base e orem
voltage
gives
VCE small leakage
tor) current
(collector) current exists sas showp
collector cur.
shown in current,
Tent i.e. for
I
VRis
increased, a
to p1, B2 ete,
rises Fig. 2.6 (c).
= 0, as
0, as
from Ia=0 as As the
currentis
increased shown in Fig. 2.6 base
(c).
Power Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors [Art. 2.5 17

Fig. 2.7 (a) shows two of the output characteristic curves, 1 for Ip =0 and 2 for Ip *0. The
initial part of curve 2,characterised by low VCR is called the saturation region. In this region,
the transistor acts like a switch. The flat part of curve 2, indicated by increasing YCE and almost
Almost
astant Ic, is the active region, In this region, transistor acts like an amplifier.
vertically rising curve is the breakdown region which must be avoided at all costs.

Breakdown Collector

Saturation point Ig+0

Active
A 2

VcES Breakover lB
voltage P Electron
Load linhe Base flow
Saturation
region
Ig-0

cEO
B VcE Emitter
Vcc
(a) (6)
Fig. 2.7. (a) Output characteristics and load line for npn transistor and
(6) electron flow in an npn transistor.

For load resistor Rc, Fig. 2.6 (a), the collector current Iç is given by

Ie=C-VoE

Rc
This is the equation of load line. It is shown as line ABin Fig.2.7 (a). A load lineis the locus
of all possible operating points. Ideally, when transistoris on, Vcs is zero andIe = Vac/Rc)This
collector current is shown by point A on the vertical axis. When the transistor is off, or in the
cut-off region, Vcc appears across collector-emitter terminals and there is no collector curent.
This value is indicated by point B on the horizontal axis. For the resistive load, the line joining
points A and B is the load line.
Relation between a and B. Most ofthe electrons, proportional to I given out by emitter,
reachthecollector as shownin Fig.2.7(6). In other words, collector current Iç though less than
emitter current almost to Ig. is
1E, is equal Asymbol a usedtoindicate how close invalue these
two currents are. Here a, called forward current gain, is defined as

.(2.6)
I
AsIc Ip, value of a varies from 0.95 to 0.99,
In transistor, base current is effectively the input current and collector current is the
a

output current. The ratio of collector (output) current 1c to base (input) current Ig is knowt a
the current gain'p.

Ic ..(2.7)
 P o w e r E l e c t r o n i c s

18
Art. 2.5
300. In
to
AS from 50
from
B is much varies
smaller, B is much unity; ;; its
more than unity
value
value
v aries

another system of analysis, called param an 1 c of B.

place
h
ed h
parameters, hpsg
is
use ..(2.7)
c

Use of KCL in
Fig. 2.6 (a) gives
...(2.8)

Kemember that emitter current is the largest of the three currents,alue.

collector
Dividing
current
both
1
aimost equal to, but less than, emitter current. Base current has the least value: D
sides of Eq. (2.8) by we Ic, get

-1+

or
-1*
and
1- ..(2.9)

(2.10)
Transistor Switch. Transistor operation as a switch
means that transistor operates either
in thesaturation region or in the cut-off region and nowhere else on the load line. As an ideal
switch, the transistor operates at point A in the saturated state as closed
V point B in the cut-off state as an open switch with Ic 0, Fig. 2.7 switch with
=0 and at
the large base current will cause the
=
(a). In practice,
transistor to work in the saturation
with small saturation voltage VCEs. Here subscript S is used to region at point A
denote saturated value.voltage
Vops Tepresents on-state voltage drop of the transistor which is of
the order of about 1 V
the control, or base, signal is reduced to whn
hits toE in the cut-off region, Fig. Z.i \G)zero, the transistor turned off and ito a
is en
Bsal 1eakage current Iceo flows in
circuit when thetransistor is off. the collecto
tor
For Fig. 2.6 (a), KVL for the circuit cons1sting of VB, Rg and
emitter. gives
VB-Rglp -VaR=0.
I=-VBE
or IB R
Also, from Fig. 2.6 (a), Vec Vcx +IçR¢ 2.11)
or
VCE Vcc-lcRc= Vcc- BI
Ro
-Voc-e(V-VBE)
Also VCEVCB+VBE
VcB VCE-VBE 2.12)
or
saturation
If VeES is
the
collector-emitter

voltage, then collector

CES current Ics is 2.13)
Rc given by
2.14)
Power Semiconductor Diodes and [Art. 2.5] 19
Transistors
and the
corresponding value ofminimum base çurrent, that produces saturation,is
..(2.15)

It base current is less than 1RS, the transistor operates in the active region, i.e . somewhere
between the saturatiorn and cut-ofT points. If base current is more than Ips, VCEs is almost zero
eurrent from Eq. (2.14) is given by Ics shows that collector current
andcollector Vec/R; This
at saturation remains substantially constant even ifbase current is increased.
With base current more than gs, hard drive of transistor is obtained. With hard saturation,
on-state losses of transistor increase, Normally, the practical circuit is designed for hard-drive
of transistor and therefore, base current I is greater than IBS given by Eq. (2.15). The ratio of
s and Igs is defined as the overdrive factor (ODF).

ODF- ...(2.16)
ODF may be as high as 4 or 5.
The ratio of Ies to Ig is called forced current gain B,where
Ics
B natural current gain ß or hpeE .(2.17)

The total power loss in the two junctions of a transistor is

P VBEl+ Vcedc .. (2.18)

Under saturated state, VBEs is greater than VcEs, this means BEJ is forward biased.
Further Eq. (2.13) shows that Vcn is negative under saturated conditions, therefore, CBJ is also
forward biased. In other words, under saturated conditions, both junctions in a power
transistor are forward biased.
Example 2.1. A bipolar transistor shown in Fig. 2.6 (a) has current gain ß = 40. The load
resistance Rc = 10, de supply voltage Vcc = 130 V and input voltage to base circuit,

Va = 10 V. For VceS 1.0 Vand Vpgs = 1.5 V, caleulate.

(a) the value of Rg for operation in the saturated state,
(6) the value of Rg for an over drive factor 6,
(c) forced-current gain and
d) power loss in the transistor for both parts (a) and (b).
Solution. Here p =40, R¢= 10 2, Vcc 130 V, Vs= 10 V, Vces= 1.0 V and VBEs = 1.5V
(a) From Eq. (2.14), for operation in the saturated state,

Ics Vcc-VCEs 130-1.0 12.90 A =

Rc 10
From Eq. (2.15), base current that produces saturation,

ps
Is Ics 400.3225
12.90

Value
of Rg for Igs= 0.3225 A is given by Eq. (2.11) as,
R Vp-BES 10-1.5 26.357 2n
0.3226 26,357 Q
Ips
 20 [Art. 2.5 Power Electronies

(b) Base current with overd rive, from Eq. (2.16), is

In ODFx Ins= 5 x
0.3225= 1.6125A
R 10-1.5
1.6125 5.27 2
(c) Forced current gain, from Eq.
(2.17), is
12.90
1.61258 which is less than the natural
current gain ß =
40.
(d) Power loss in transistor, from Eq. (2.18), is
For normal base
Pr-Vpsla+ VCRs les
drive, Pr= 1.5 0.3225 + 1.0x 12.9
x

With =13.384 w
overdrive, Pr =1.5 x 1.6125+ 1.0x 12.9 15.32
W
It is seen from
above that power loss with
hard drive of transistor is
2.5.1.2. BJT Switching more.
not turn on instantly
Performance. When base current
because of the presence of internal is applied, a transistor does
capacitances. Fig. 2.9 shows the
waveforms of an npn power transistorvarious switching c
between collector and
with resistive load
emitter, Fig. 2.8. RS
When input voltage vg to RB
base
circuit is made
-V2 at
to» junction EB
or EBJ is reverse biased,
vgE=- V2, the vs,
Vcc
transistor is off, ig =l¢ =
0 and vCE =
Vcc, Fig. 2.9. At time F VBE VcE
t1, input voltage Ug is made + VBE
shown in Fig. 2.9. After t1,
V1 and iz rises to Ig1 as
base-emitter voltage UBg
torise gradually from V2 and collector
-
begins
to rise from
current i begins, Fig. 2.8. npn transistor with
zero (actually a small leakage current lCEQ resistive load.
exists as shown in Fig. 2.7 (a)) and collector-
value Vcc. After some time delay td called emitter voltagethevCg starts falling from its initial
cs. UCE falls from Vec to 0.9 Vec and UBE reaches delay time, collector current rises
to 0.1
charge the base-emitter capacitance to VBES 0.7 V. VBES 0.7 V This delay time is =
required to
Thus,
during which the collector current rises from zero to 0.1 delay time t is defined as the time
from Vcc to 0.9 Ics and collector-emitter voltage falls
Vec
After delay time t, collector current rises from 0.1
Vec to 0.1 Vcc in time t. This time t, is known as rise timeIcs to 0.9 1cs and vCE falls from 0.9
which depends upon
junction capacitances, Rise time t, is defined as the time transistor
during which collector current rises
from 0.1Ics to 0.9 Vcc and collector-emitter voltage falls from 0.9 Vcc to 0.1
that total turn-on time ton= ta +. Value Vcc: This
of ron is of the order of 30 to 300 nano seconds.shows
transistor remains in the on, or saturated, state so long as input The
(a).
voltage stays at Vi, Fig. 2.9
transistor is to be turned ofi, then input voltage Ug and input base
In c a s e
current i are
OSed At time t2, input voltage Up to base circuit is reversed from Vi to
V2. At the same -

time, base current changes irom dg1 o-is2 as shown in Fig. 2.9 (b). Negative base c
rent B2
excess
c a ri
riaerrs from the base. The time
s from time t, required to remove these
removes excess carriers is
Power Semiconductor Diodes [Art. 2.5] 21
and Transistors

(a) -V2
-1

(b). oL

VBE t2 3
0.7V VBES
(c)
O

ic 0.9lcst

(d) Ics
0.1cs-

VCE
-0.9 Vcc
(e) Vcc
o 0.1Vcc
0.1Vcc VCES
on
t t2 3
Fig. 2.9. Switching waveforms for npn power transistor of Fig. 2.8.
called storage time and only after , base current Ipa begins to decrease towards zero.
Transistor comes outof saturation only after, Storagetimet, is usuallydefined as the time
during which collector current falls from Ics to 0.9 Ics and collector-emitter voltage ucE rises
from VCEs to 0.1 Vcc, Fig. 2.9 (d) and (e). Negative input voltage enhances the process of
removal of excess carriers from base and hence reduces the storage time and therefore, the
turn-off time.
After
Time,
t, collector current begins to
fall and collector-emitter voltage starts building up.
called fall time, is defined as the time during which collector current drops from
0.9Tcs to 0.1 Ies and collector-emitter voltage rises from 0.I Vcc to 0.9 Vcc. Fig. 2.9 (d) and (e).
Sum of storage time and fall time gives the transistor turn-off time tor i.e. toft=t, +tp The
various waveforms during transistor switching are shown in Fig. 2.9. In this figure,
conduction period of transistor, t, off period, T= 17fis the periodic time and fis the switching
=

frequency.
2.5.1.3. Safe Operating Area. The safe operating area (SOA or
SOAR) of a power tran-
sistor specifies the safe operating limits of collector current
Ic versus collector-emitter voltage
VE For reliable operation of the transistor, the collector current and voltage must always ne
within this area. Actually, two types of safe operating areas are specified by the manufacturers,
FBSOA and RBSOA.
 22 Power Electronics
Art. 2.51

The forward-base safe

operating area (FBSOA) nertains
the to transistor
operauon
base-emitter junction is forward biased to Fig.
2.10 shows typical FBSOA for its turn-on the transistor. For a power
translso
dc as
Ic and VcE are logarnthmic. Boundary AB is well as single-pulse operation TTent
the maximum limit for dc and
for Vex less than about 80 V. For contin
Vcs for more than 80 V, collector current has to De
to boundary BC so as to
limit the junction
temperature to safe values. For still higner C
current this
should further be reduced so as
to avoid secondary breakdown limit.
defines secondary breakdown Boundary D
for this particular transistor. limit. Boundary DE gives the maximum voltag
For
pulsed operation, power transistor
can dissipate more peak
power loss is within safe limits of junction power so long as avera
pulse widths for which transistor is on. Ittemperature,
is
In Fig. 2.10 ; 5 ms, 500 us etc.
indicae
decreased. seen that FBSOA increases as Puise * *

It
should be noted that FBSOA
temperature of 25°C and for dc and curves, as given by the manufacturers, are for a case
the actual
working temperature andsingle-pulse operation. In order to take into
repetitive nature of the pulses, these curves must De consideration
modified with the help of thermal
impedance of the device.
100
A 120
5 us
100

100 s 80 -Ig =-2A

Ig-5
10 Tj 25°c 500 us Iç(A)60
Ic(A)
5 ms
40
D
20

E
10 100 1000 100 200 300 400 500 600
VcE (V)- cE (V)
Fig. 2.10. Typical forward biased safe Fig. 2.11. Typical reverse-block safe operating
operating area (FBSOA) for a power area (RBSOA) for a power transistor.
transistor (logarithmic scale)
During turn-off, a
transistor is subjected to high current and high voltage with
base-emitter
junction reverse biased. Safe operating area for transistor during
blocking safe operating area (RBSOA). This RBSOA is a plotturn-off is specified as reverse
of collector current versus
collector-emitter voltage as shown in Fig. 2.11. RBSOA specifies the limits of
operation at turn-off when the base current is zero or when the base-emitter transistor
biased (i.e. with base current junction is reverse
in size as shown in
negative). With increased reverse bias, area RBSOA
decreases
Fig. 2.11.
Example 2.2. For a
power transistor, typical switching
2.12(a). The vartous parameters of the transistor circuit are as waveforms
are shown in
under: Fig.
Vcc=220 V, VcEs2 V, Ies 80 A, t 0.4 us, t, =l js, t, =50 us,
=

t, 3 us, t2 us, t, 40 us, fa5 kHz. Collector to emitter leakage current

=

itlaic=2 mA.
Determine average pouer loss due to collector current during t and Find also the
inntantaneous power (oss aue to collector current during turn-on time.
t,. peak