DIRECT-CURRENT INDICATING INSTRUMENTS

1. Permanent Magnet Moving-Coil Mechanism (PMMC)

The basic PMMC movement of figure 1 is often called the d'Arsonval movement, after
its inventor. This design offers the largest magnet in a given space and is used when
maximum flux in the air gap is required. It provided an instrument with very low power
consumption and low current required for full-scale deflection (fsd). Figure 1 shows a
phantom view of the d'Arsonval movement.
The interely moving system is statically balanced for all deflection posisions by three
balance weights, shown in Figure 2.

FIGURE 1. Phantom photograph of the external moving-coil mechanism shows details of

the coil construction, the external horseshoe magnet, and the indicating pointer
(courtessy Weston Instruments, Inc.)

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1.1 Temperature Compensation

The PMMC basic movement movement is not inherently insensitive to temperature, but
it may be temperature-compensated by the appropriate use of series-and shunt-resistors of
copper and manganin. Both the magnetic fieldstrength and spring-tension decrease with an
increase in temperature. The coil resistance increases with an increase in temperature. These
changes tend to make the pointer read low for a given current with respect to magnetic
fieldstrength and coil resistance. The spring change, conversely, tends to cause the pointer to
read high with an increase in temperature. The effects are not identical, however; hence an
uncompensated meter tends to read low by approximately 0.2 % per 0C rise in temperature.
For purposes of instrument specification, the movement is considered to be compensated
when the change in accuracy, due to a 100C-change in temperature, is not more than one-
fourth of the total allowable error [PMMC Data sheets, Weston Instruments, Inc., Newark,
N.J.]

FIGURE 2. Details of a moving coil for PMMC movement, showing the control springs
and the indicator with its counterbalance weights (courtessy Wetson
Instruments, Inc.)

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FIGURE 3 Placement of swamping resistors for temperature compensation of a meter
movement

Compensation may be accomplished by using swamping resistors in series with the

movable coil, as shown in Fig. 3(a). The swamping resistor is made of manganin (which has a
temperature coefficient of practically zero) combined with copper in the ratio 20/1 to 30/1.
The total resistance of coil and swamping resistor increases slightly with a rise in temperature,
but only just enough to counteract the change of springs and magnet, so that the overall
temperature effect is zero.
A more complete cancellation of temperature effects is obtained with the arrangement
of Fig. 3(b) Here the total circuit resistance increases slightly with the rise in temperature,
owing to the presence of the copper coil and the copper shunt resistor. For a fixed applied
voltage, therefore, the total current decreases slightly with a rise in temperature. The
resistance of the copper shunt resistor increases more than the series combination of coil and
manganin resistor; hence a larger fraction of the total current passes through the coil circuit.
By correct proportioning of the copper and manganin parts in the circuit, complete
cancellation of temperature effects may be accomplished. One disadvantage of the use of
swamping resistors is a reduction in the full-scale sensitivity of the movement, because a
higher applied voltage is necessary to sustain the full-scale circuit.

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2. Galvanometer Sensitivity

Three sensitivity definitions are generally used in specifying the sensitivity of a

galvanometer : (a) current sensitivity, (b) voltage sensitivity, (c) megohm sensitivity.
Current sensitivity may be defined as a ratio of the deflection of the galvanometer to the
current producing this deflection. The current is usually expressed in microamperes and the
deflection in millimeters. For galvanometers that do not have a scale calibrated in millimeters,
the deflection may be given in scale divisions. The current sensitivity is
d mm
SI  ..................................................................................................................(1)
I A
where d : deflection of the galvanometer in scale divisions pr in mm
I : galvanometer current in A
Voltage sensitivity may be defined as the ratio of the galvanometer deflection to the
voltage producing this deflection. Therefore
d mm
SV  .................................................................................................................(2)
V mV
where d : deflection of the galvanometer in scale divisions or in mm
V : voltage applied to the galvanometer in mV
Megohm sensitivity may be defined as the number of megohms required in series with
the (CDRX shunted) galvanometer to produce one scale division deflection when 1 V is
applied to the circuit. Since the equivalent resistance of the shunted galvanometer is
negligible compared with the number of megohms in series with it, the applied current

practically equals 1 A and produces one division deflection. Numerically, the megohm
R
sensitivity is equal to the current sensitivity and therefore
d mm
SR   SI .......................................................................................................(3)
I A
where d : deflection of the galvanometer in scale divisions or in mm
I : galvanometer current in A
A fourth sensitivity figure is used with ballistic galvanometers. It is called the ballistic
sensitivity and is defined as the ratio of the maximum deflection, dm, of a galvanometer to the
quantity Q of electric charge in a single pulse which produces this deflection. Then
d m mm
SQ  ..............................................................................................................(4)
Q C

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where dm : maximum galvanometer deflection in scale divisions or in mm
Q : quantity of electricity in C

3. DC Ammeters
3.1 Shunt Resistor
The basic movement of a dc ammeter is a PMMC galvanometer. Since the coil
winding of a basic movement is small and light, it can carry only very small currents. When
large currents are to be measured, it is necessary to bypass the major part of the current
through a resistance, called a shunt, as shown in Figure 4.
The resistance of the shunt can be calculated by applying conventional circuit analysis
to Figure 4,
where Rm : internal resistance of the movement (the coil)
Rs : resistance of the shunt
Im : full-scale deflection current of the movement
Is : shunt current
I : full-scale current of the ammeter including the shunt.
Since the shunt resistance is in parellel with the meter movement, the voltage drops across the
shunt and movement must be the same and we can write
Vshunt  Vmovement

I m Rm
or I s Rs  I m Rm and R s  ...................................................................................(5)
Is

Since I s  I  I m , we can write

I m Rm
Rs  ..............................................................................................................(6)
I  Im
Figure 5 shows an external shunt.

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FIGURE 4. Basic dc ammeter circuit

FIGURE 5. High-current shunt for a switchboard instrument (courtessy of Weston

Instruments, Inc)

3.2 Ayrton Shunt

The schematic diagram of a simple multirange ammeter is shown in Figure 6, and the
universal or Ayrton shunt is shown in Figure 7.

FIGURE 6. Schematic diagram of a simple multirange ammeter

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FIGURE 7. Universal or Ayrton shunt

4. DC Voltmeters

The addition of a series resistor, or multiplier, converts the basic d'Arsonval movement
into a dc voltmeter, as shown in Figure 8. The multiplier limits the current through the
movement so as not to exceed the value of the full-scale deflection current (Ifsd).
The value of a multiplier, required to extend the voltage range, is calculated from Figure
8,
where Im : eflection current of the movement (Ifsd)
Rm : internal resistance of the movement
Rs : multiplier resistance
V : full-range voltage of the instrument

FIGURE 8. Basic dc voltmeter circuit

For the circuit of figure 8,

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 V  I m ( R s  Rm )
Solving for Rs gives
V  I m Rm V
Rs    Rm ........................................................................................(7)
Im Im
The multiplier is usually mounted inside the case of the voltmeter for moderate ranges
up to 500 V. For higher voltages, the multiplier may be mounted separately outside the case
on a pair of binding posts to avoid excessive heating inside the case.
The addition of a number of multipliers, together with a range switch, provides the
instrument with a workable number of voltage ranges. Figure 9 shows a multirange voltmeter
using a four-position switch and four multipliers.

FIGURE 9 Multirange voltmeter

5. Voltmeter Sensitivity

For each voltage range, the quotient of the total circuit resistance RT and the range

voltage V is always 1,000  . This figure is often referred to as the sensitivity, or the ohms-
V
per-volt rating, of the voltmeter. Note that the sensitivity, S, is essentially the reciprocal of
the full-scale deflection current of the basic movement, or
1 
S ..................................................................................................................(8)
I fsd V

The sensitivity S of the voltmeter may be used to advantage in the sensitivity method of
calculating the resistance of the multiplier in a dc voltmeter.

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6. Voltmeter-Ammeter Method

A popular type of resistance measurement involves the voltmeter-ammeter method,

since the instruments required are usually available in most laboratories. If the voltage V
across the resistor and the current I through the resistor are measured, the unknown resistance
Rx can be calculated bu Ohm's law :
V
Rx  ...................................................................................................................(9)
I
Equation (9) implies that the ammeter resistance is zero and the voltmeter resistance infinite,
so that the conditions in the circuit are not disturbed.
In Figure 10(a) the true current supplied to the load is measured by the ammeter, but the
voltmeter measures the supply voltage rather than the actual load voltage. To find the true
voltage across the load, the voltage drop across the ammeter must be subtracted from the
voltmeter reading. If the voltmeter is placed directly across the resistor, as in Figure 10(b), it
measures the true load voltage, but the ammeter is in error by the amount of current drawn by
the voltmeter. The connection of Figure 10(a) is therefore the best circuit when measuring
high-resistance values. The connection 2-13(b) therefore is the best circuit when measuring
low-resistance values.
Given an unknown value of Rx , how then can we determine if the voltmeter is
connected in the right place? Consider the circuit of Figure 4-14 in which the voltmeter and
ammeter may be connected in two different ways for simultaneous readings. The procedure is
as follows :
(a) Connect the voltmeter across Rx with the switch in position 1, and observe the ammeter
reading.
(b) Now switch the voltmeter to position 2. If the ammeter reading does not change, restore
the voltmeter to position 1. The symptoms indicate a low-resistance measurement.
Record both current and voltage readings and calculate Rx from equation (9).
(c) If the ammeter reading decreases when the voltmeter is changed from position 1 to
position 2, leave the voltmeter at position 2. The symptoms indicate a high-resistance
measurement. Record both current and voltage readings and calculate Rx from equation
(9).

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FIGURE 10. Effect of voltmeter and ammeter positions in voltmeter-ammeter
measurements

FIGURE 11. Effect of the voltmeter position in a voltmeter-ammeter measurements

7. Series-Type Ohmmeter

Figure 12 shows the elements of a simple single-range series ohmmeter.

FIGURE 12 Series-type ohmmeter

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In Figure 12,
R1 : current limiting resistor
R2 : zero adjust resistor
Rm : internal resistance of the d'Arsonval movement
Rx : unknown resistor
When the terminals A and B shorted, the shunt resistor R2 is adjusted until the movement
indicates full-scale current (Ifsd). It is marked "0  " on the scale. Similarly, when the
terminals A and B open, the current in the circuit drops to zero which is marked "  " on the
scale. The accuracy of the scale markings depends on the repeating accuracy of the movement
and the tolerances of the calibrating resistors.
The series-type ohmmeter has certain disadvantages. Important among these is the
internal battery whose voltage decreases gradually with time and age, so that the full-scale
current drops and the meter does not read "0" when A and B are shorted. The variable shunt
resistor R2 in Figure 12 provides an adjustment to counteract the effect of battery change. The
circuit of Figure 12 does not compensate completely for aging of the battery, but it does a
reasonably good job within the expected limits of accuracy of the instrument.
The design can be approach by recognizing that, if introducing Rh reduces the meter
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current to I fsd , the unknown resistance must be equal to the total internal resistance of the
2
ohmmeter. Therefore
R2 Rm
Rh  R1  ................................................................................................(10)
R2  Rm

The total resistance presented to the battery then equals 2 Rh , and the battery current needed
to supply the half-scale deflection is
E
Ih  ................................................................................................................(11)
2 Rh
To produce full-scale deflection, the battery current must be doubled, and therefore
E
I t  2I h  ........................................................................................................(12)
Rh
The shunt current through R2 is
I 2  I t  I fsd ............................................................................................................(13)

The voltage across the shunt (Esh) is equal to the voltage across the movement and

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 E sh  E m or I 2 R2  I fsd Rm

I fsd Rm
and R2  ............................................................................................................(14)
I2
Substituting Equation (13) into (14), we obtain
I fsd Rm I fsd Rm Rh
R2   .....................................................................................(15)
I t  I fsd E  I fsd Rh

Solving Equation (10) for R1 gives

R2 Rm
R1  Rh  ..................................................................................................(16)
R2  Rm
Substituting Equation (15) into Equation (16) and solving for R1 yields
I fsd Rm Rh
R1  Rh  .................................................................................................(17)
E

8. Shunt-Type Ohmmeter

The circuit diagram of a shunt-type ohmmeter is shown in Figure 13.

FIGURE 13 Shunt-type ohmmeter

In this circuit it is necessary to have an off-on switch to disconnect the battery from the circuit
when the instrument is not used. When A and B shorted, the meter current is zero. If A and B
open, the current finds a path only through the meter, and by appropriate selection of the
value of R1, the pointer can be made to read full scale.
The shunt-type ohmmeter is particularly suited to the measurement of low-value
resistors. It is not commonly used to test instrument, but it is found in laboratories or for

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special low-resistance applications. In Figure 13, when R x   the full-scale meter current
will be
E
I fsd  ............................................................................................................(18)
R1  Rm
where E : internal battery voltage
R1 : current-limiting resistor
Rm : internal resistance of the movement
Solving for R1, we find
E
R1   Rm ..........................................................................................................(19)
I fsd

For any value Rx connected across the meter terminals, the meter current decreases and it
given by
 E  Rx
Im   
 R1  Rm R x / Rm  R x  Rm  R x
ER x
or Im  .......................................................................................(20)
R1 Rm  R x R1  Rm 
The meter current for any value of Rx , expressed as a fraction of the full-scale current, is
Im R x ( R1  Rm )
s 
I fsd R1 ( Rm  R x )  Rm R x

R x R1  Rm 
or s ......................................................................................(21)
R x R1  Rm   R1 Rm
Defining
R1 Rm
 R p .........................................................................................................(22)
R1  Rm
and substituting Equation (22) into (21), we obtain
Rx
s ...........................................................................................................(23)
Rx  R p

If Equation (23) is used, the meter can be calibrated by calculating s in terms of Rx and Rp.
At half-scale reading of the meter ( I m  0.5I fsd ), Equation (20) reduces to

ER h
0.5I fsd  ...............................................................................(24)
R1 Rm  Rh R1  Rm 

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where Rh is the external resistance causing half-scale deflection. To determine the relative
scale values for a given value of R1, the half-scale reading may be found by dividing Equation
(19) by (24) and solving for Rh,
R1 Rm
Rh  ........................................................................................................(25)
R1  Rm
The analysis shows that the half-scale resistance is determined by limiting resistors R1 and the
interval resistance of the movement, Rm. The limiting resistance, is in turn determined by the
meter resistance and the full-scale deflection current. Ifsd.

9. Multimeter or VOM

The anmmeter, the voltmeter, and the ohmmeter all use a d'Arsonval movement. The
difference between these instruments is the circuit in which the basic movement is used. It is
therefore obvious that a single instrument can be designed to perform the three measurement
functions. This instrument, which contains a function of switch to connect the appropriate
circuits to the d'Arsonval movement, is often called a multimeter or volt-ohm-milliammeter
(VOM). A representative example of a commercial multimeter is shown in Figure 14. The
circuit diagram of this meter is given in Figure 15. The circuit for the dc voltmeter section is
given in Figure 16. The circuit for measuring dc milliamperes and amperes is given in Figure
17. Details for ohmmeter section of the VOM are shown in Figure 18.

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FIGURE 14 General-purpose multimeter : Simpson Model 260 (courtessy Simpson
Electric Company)

15
FIGURE 15 Schematic diagram of the Simpson Model 260 multimeter (courtessy Simpson
Electric Company)

FIGURE 16 DC voltmeter section of the Simpson Model 260 multimeter (courtessy

Simpson Electric Company)

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FIGURE 17 dc ammeter section of the Simpson Model 260 multimeter (courtessy Simpson
Electric Company)

FIGURE 18 Ohmmeter section of the Simpson Model 260 multimeter (courtessy Simpson
Electric Company)

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