Republic of the Philippines

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES
Piccio Garden, Villamor, Pasay City

Lesson 3: Thinking of Ethics

This lesson is about appreciating how clarifications on words we use is an

important step in our goal to think properly about ethics, which is ultimately a
matter of finding the best reasons for making our determinations of good and bad,
right or wrong.
THINK
We obviously have already been making ethical judgements before we take
a college level course on ethics. Way before you have started reading this, you
have already formed judgements about what friends owe each other, or how
parents ought to treat children. A course on ethics is not so much about learning
new things completely but spending a time to think carefully of the choices that we
and other people are called on to make on a daily basis. An important step in
thinking carefully is to clarify the ways we think and talk about ethics.
Clarifications
Our first clarifications are on the use of the word’s “ethics” and “morals.”
This discussion of ethics and morals would include cognates such as ethical,
unethical, immoral, amoral, morality, and so on. As we proceed, we should be
careful particularly on the use of the word “not” when applied to the words
“ethical” or “moral” as this can be quite equivocal. One might say that, “cooking is
1|Page
 Republic of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES
Piccio Garden, Villamor, Pasay City

not ethical,” by which one means that the act of cooking does not belong to the
discussion of ethics; on the other hand, one might say that, “stealing is not ethical,”
but this time the meaning is that the act of taking something that is not yours would
indeed be an unethical act (we are saying that stealing is wrong). So when using
negation, one has to carefully discern which of these two meanings is being
expressed.
As a further note to the previous point, the word used to oppose “ethical” is
“unethical”, and the word used to oppose “moral” is “immoral”. The word
“amoral” is sometimes used to describe those situations or contexts that are neither
right or wrong morally speaking but fall outside the domain of ethics, that is to say,
neutral matters, such as cooking or reading a book, or doing your laundry.
You may have noticed that we seem to be going back and forth on our use
od those two main terms. Let us consider them further. According to some, the
term “morals” may be used to refer a specific beliefs or attitudes that people have
or to describe acts that people perform. We also have a term such as “moral
judgements” or “moral reasoning,” which suggests a more rational dimension at
work. Ethics is acknowledged as an intellectual discipline belonging to philosophy.
In addition, we also have a term professional ethics – legal ethics for the proper
comportment of lawyers and other people in the legal profession, medical ethics
for doctors and nurses, and media ethics for writers and reporters.
Another point of clarification is to distinguish between a descriptive and a
normative study of ethics. Descriptive study of ethics reports how people,
particularly groups, make their moral valuations. This kind of study is often the
work of social scientist: either historian—studying different moral standards over
time, sociologist or an anthropologist—studying different moral standards across
cultures. While Normative study of ethics is often done in moral philosophy or
moral theology, engages the question: what could or should be considered as right
way of acting? In other words, a normative discussion prescribes what we ought to
maintain as our standards or bases for moral valuation. When engaging in a
discussion of ethics, it is always advisable to recognize whether one is concerned
with a descriptive view (e.g., noting how filial piety and obedience are pervasive
characteristics of Chinese culture) or with normative perspective (e.g., studying
how Confucian ethics enjoins us to obey our parents and how to show filial piety).

2|Page
 Republic of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES
Piccio Garden, Villamor, Pasay City

A philosophical discussion of ethics engages in a critical consideration of the

strengths and weaknesses of these theories. This will be our primary concern
throughout this work
As our final point of clarification, it may be helpful to recognize that a
situation that calls for moral valuation can be called a moral issue. When one is
placed in a situation and confronted by the choice of what act to perform, it is
called for a moral decision. When a person is an observer making an assessment
on the actions or behavior of someone, it is moral judgement. The more
complicated is that when a person will decide between choosing one of two goods
or choosing between the lesser of two evils—this is referred as moral dilemma.
Reasoning
Why do we suppose that a certain way of acting is right and its opposite
wrong? The study of ethics is interested in questions like these; Why do we decide
to consider this way of acting as acceptable while that way of acting, its opposite is
unacceptable? To put it in another way, what reasons do we give to decide or to
judge that a certain way of acting is either right or wrong?
Moral theory is a systematic attempt to establish the validity of maintaining
certain moral principles. As a theory is a system of thought or ideas, it can also be
referred to as a framework. We can use this term, “framework,” as a theory of
interconnected ideas, and at the same time, a structure through which we can
evaluate our reasons for valuing a certain decision or judgement.
In The Apology of Socrates written by Plato, Socrates make the claim that it
is the greatest good for a person to spend time thinking about and discussing with
others these questions on goodness and virtue, that this is indeed at the heart of
what it means to be truly human.
EXPERIENCE
You certainly have already experienced making moral decisions for yourself
and making moral judgements on others, deciding that this action is right, while the
opposite would be wrong. Can you recall a number of those instances? Now, can
you also recall the reasoning behind your having said this is right and that is
wrong?

3|Page
 Republic of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES
Piccio Garden, Villamor, Pasay City

ASSESS
Identify the following:
1. Distinguish among the following: moral issue, moral judgement, moral
decision, moral dilemma.
2. Distinguish between descriptive and normative study of ethics.
3. Explain: what is the importance of abstraction in ethical thinking?
CHALLENGE
Does your school have a “Code of Ethics” or something that students are
expected to follow? Read it closely and assess whether or not you agree to the
provisions stated there, and then consider your reasons for agreeing or disagreeing.
HARNESS
Look for a newspaper article that tackles an ethical issue. Consider the
following questions:
1. What makes this matter of ethics?
2. What is your own ethical judgement on this case?
3. What are your reasons for this judgement?

4|Page
 Republic of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES
Piccio Garden, Villamor, Pasay City

Lesson 4: Sources of Authority

Thinking about ethics, as you can probably imagine, is not easy. Trying to
figure out the best reasons for maintaining that this is good and that is bad, this is
right and that is wrong, and sometimes, even with the mightiest effort, one is still
left unsure, undecided. In this lesson, we will explore several instances wherein it
is supposed there is a higher authority of one’s religion, and the authority of one’s
own culture.
THINK
Various institutions have such a strong influence in the way that we think
and we act, including how we make moral valuations. We are constrained by the
law from acting in a certain way; for instances, I cannot drive a vehicle beyond a
certain speed limit on a certain road. Our religious tradition often both prevents us
from some actions while encouraging us towards others; in the Islamic faith,
Muslims are prohibited from drinking intoxicating beverages, and are enjoined to
give charity to those who are in need or less fortunate. Finally, we often look to our
culture as a basis for actions, we proudly proclaim that a strong sense of
hospitality, cheerfulness and respect for elders are prime Filipino values. So we
can understand how it might be tempting to suppose that since we see ourselves
already guided by these institutions, perhaps they are themselves the very
authorities we should turn to in order to direct our ethics. We will discuss each of
three in turn.

5|Page
 Republic of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES
Piccio Garden, Villamor, Pasay City

Law
Sometimes the law is one’s guide to ethical behavior. In the Philippines,
Filipinos are constrained to obey the laws of the land as stated in the country’s
criminal and civil codes. Making this even more particular, in a given province or
city. The term positive law refers to all the different rules and regulations that are
posited or put forward by an authority figure which requires one’s compliance.
The law is enforced by a way of a system of sanctions that are administered
through various persons and institutions, which all help in compelling us to obey.
Taking the law to be the basis of ethics has the benefit of providing us with an
objective standard that is obligatory and applicable to all. So, we would not be
surprised if we were to hear someone say, “Ethics? That simple, just follow
whatever the law says”
Religion
“Love the Lord, Your God, therefore, and always heed his charge; his
statutes, decrees, and commandments.” (New American Bible)
This verse is the first line of Chapter 11 of the book of Deuteronomy. It
expresses a claim that many people of a religious sensibility find appealing and
immediately valid; the idea that one is obliged to obey her God in all things. As a
foundation for ethical values, this is referred to as a divine command theory.
Taking religion to be the basis of ethics has the advantage of providing us
with not only a set of commands but also a Supreme Authority that can inspire and
compel our obedience of a person, as the implications of her/his actions, as good or
bad. Thus, we may not be surprised of someone say, “Ethics? That’s simple. Just
follow whatever your religion says.”
Culture
Our exposure to different societies and their cultures makes us aware that
there are ways of thinking and valuing that are different from our own, the there is
in fact a wide diversity in how different people believe it is proper to act. There are
aesthetic differences (Japanese Art vs. Indian Art), religious differences (Buddhism
vs. Christianity), differences on etiquette (conflicting behaviors regarding dining
practices)

6|Page
 Republic of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES
Piccio Garden, Villamor, Pasay City

Cultural Relativism what is ethically acceptable or unacceptable is relative

to, or that is to say, dependent on one’s culture. For instance, we will not be
surprised when we hear someone say, “Ethics? Just follow whatever your culture
says.”
EXPERIENCE
In your own experience, which three—law, religion, culture—do you think
has been the most influential, in terms of directing you to act in certain ways rather
than others?
ASSESS
Consider the following question:
1. Give one of the problems with taking the (law, religion and culture) as one’s
sole basis for ethics.
CHALLENGE
Brainstorm and come up with a list of what may be called common Filipino
values. Consider the strengths and weaknesses of maintaining these.
HARNESS
Our discussion of these three institutions (law, religion and culture) in order
to asses their status as determinants of our ethical thinking discloses an ever-
thornier problem. Generally, everything is fine as long as this three are telling us
the same thing, but what happens when they disagree? What do we do when the
clerics of a religious traditions object to a law being proposed? What do we do
when the law disadvantages certain cultures? What do we do when emerging
cultures claiming legitimacy stands at odds with certain religious communities?
Try to do some research on one such actual conflict.

7|Page
 Republic of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES
Piccio Garden, Villamor, Pasay City

Lesson 5: Senses of the Self

Noting once again the difficulty in
thinking about ethics, in trying to figure
out for ourselves why we maintain that
this is good and that is bad, this is right
and that is wrong, while also not
allowing ourselves to simply be blindly
obedient to some authority figure dictating to use what to think, it is possible for
some to take a different approach. It is sometimes supposed that all the difficulty
and complexity will be simplified if one just had a better understanding of the
dynamic that exists between ethics and the person trying to thing it. In other words,
all we would need to do is to recognize a better understanding of the self in relation
to ethics. Under this general statement, we can identify three theories:
subjectivism, psychological egoism and ethical egoism.
THINK
It is sometimes thought that we should not rely on any external authority to
tell oneself what the standards of moral valuation are, but one should instead turn
inward. In this lesson, we will look into these three theories about ethics that center
on the self: subjectivism, psychological egoism and ethical egoism. While all the
focus of these theories is a sense of the self, they offer radically different ways of
thinking about that self, and that self’s relation to ethics. We will discuss each of
these three in turn.
Subjectivism
It is the recognition that the individual thinking person (the subject) is at the
heart of all moral valuations. We are the one who is confronted with the situation
and is burdened with the need to make radical claim that the individual is the sole
determinant of what is morally good or bad, right or wrong.
Psychological Egoism
A theory that tries to describes the underlying dynamic behind all human
actions as a matter of a pursuit to of self-interests. As a descriptive theory, it points

8|Page
 Republic of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES
Piccio Garden, Villamor, Pasay City

out that there is a basis for how one acts. The ego or self has its desires and
interests, and all our actions are geared toward satisfying these interests.
Ethical Egoism
It differs from psychological egoism in that it does not suppose that all our
actions are already inevitably self-serving. Instead, ethical egoism prescribes that
we should make our own ends, our own interest as our single overriding concern.
We may act in a way that is beneficial to others, but we should do that only it is
ultimately benefits us. Actions are right ones in order as they would ultimately
result in what is best for our own selves.
EXPERIENCE
We have all struggled, at one time or another, with the question: why should
I bother being good? Why should I care for others, beyond my own self? Recount
the circumstances surrounding your own experience of feeling this question most
acutely.
ASSES
Consider the following questions:
1. Asses the pros and cons of the theories subjectivism and psychological
egoism.
2. Explain how the story of the ring of Gyges is a warning on the possibilities
of ethical egoism.
CHALLENGE
Comment on this, “What I believe must be true if I feel very strongly about
it.”
HARNESS
Corruption is the form of nepotism and cronyism have long been recognized
as one of the most pernicious social and political problems in this country. We are
so accustomed to it, some even go so far as to find ways to justify it, more or less
saying that it is only right for a person in power to protect those around him or her.
Could it be said that looking after the benefit of one’s own—one’s family and

9|Page
 Republic of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES
Piccio Garden, Villamor, Pasay City

one’s friend—without regard to the welfare of others is basically another form of

egoism? Discuss this.
Module 1 Keywords
Ethics
Morality
Aesthetics
Etiquette
Technique
Descriptive
Normative
Positive Law
Divine Command Theory
Cultural Relativism
Subjectivism
Psychological Egoism
Ethical Egoism

10 | P a g e
 Republic of the Philippines
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES
Piccio Garden, Villamor, Pasay City

Honesty Clause

You are hereby to adhere to the rules and regulations

stipulated in the Student Handbook and the guidelines set
by your instructor. Following academic integrity and
honesty are an integral part of student formation
holistically.

_________________________________________
Student’s E-signature over Printed Name

11 | P a g e