Basic Electronics and Electrical Circuits

SAFETY, POWER SOURCES AND METERING

DISCUSSION
1. Safety
There is no such thing as a 100% safe shop or environment. Sharp edges, power tools, exposed power leads, spilled
liquids and litter are all potential hazards. Safe practices and procedures reduce these hazards but do not
eliminate them. Stress the importance of safe practices and procedures at the beginning and then emphasize it at
every opportunity during the course. It is to be expected that students, early in the course will, through
carelessness and ignorance, create hazardous situations or expose themselves to possible injury. The alert, safety-
minded teacher will be looking for these situations and use them for what they are—dynamic, highly instructive
safety teaching aids. Sound safety habits, developed early, will pay off handsomely throughout the course.
Establish an easily accessible, clearly marked, appropriately stocked, first aid station. As the teacher, you should
have first training and insist on treating all injuries personally. A vital adjunct to the first aid station where
electrical shock is a hazard is a small curved plastic device called is a resuscitube. It is inserted to a shock
victim’s throat and used as an aid in mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Only trained personnel should use this device as
it can cause throat damage if it is used improperly. When making the hand-to-hand and hand-to-ankle resistance
measurements, explain to the students that the current flows through them during the resistance measurements,
but that the value is so small they don’t feel it.
2. Meters and Instruments
The basic difference between ammeters and voltmeters is brought out during this Laboratory
Experiment and will be emphasized several times during later experiments. The point to make is
that the meter selected for making a measurement should have little or no effect on normal
circuit operation. Use of the ammeter should be reviewed during the Laboratory Experiment on
series circuits and the voltmeter during the Laboratory Experiments on parallel circuits and
voltage dividers.

PROCEDURE NOTES

(a) Body resistance varies over a wide range. Resistances were measured during the test when most of the skin surface
was dry, pulse and respiration were slow, and the sebaceous glands closed. Also, electrical contact was made to small areas
of two small meter probes. The surface resistance of the skin becomes much lower when the skin is sweaty and internal
resistance goes down when the sweat glands are open and blood is flowing rapidly. If under these body conditions, a
heavy,live wire is grasped in the hand, or the palm of the hand is placed on a charged plate, or the sweat-covered body
falls against a power switch, distribution frame or other voltage source, a considerably lower voltage could prove fatal.
(b) Many fatalities or serious injuries are caused by non-lethal shocks. Muscles react violently to electrical shock and can
hurt a body up against a wall, workbench, or other obstacle with enough force, to break bones and cause serious internal
injury. Voltages as low as 35 volts have been known to cause secondary injury.
(c) Under the right conditions, low voltage and very high current can be extremely dangerous. The electrical system of
the modern automobile has a 12-volt potential, but hundreds of amperes can flow in it. An accidental short circuit
between two heavy conductors can carry enough current to heat and burn through skin and muscle.

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e) Body resistance will vary widely from student to student with the heavier students generally having less resistance.
It should also be noted that individual resistance will vary from day to day due to a variety of factors. The resistances
given are averages of actual measurements. Students may consider their individual voltage tolerances to be high and
conclude that shock hazard is not really a serious threat. Such a conclusion is not only invalid, but dangerous. Consider
the following.
Assignment:
Resarch and answer the following questions:

1. What is an ohmmeter and what are its application?

2. How does an Ohmmeter operate?
3. What is a Voltmeter?
4. How does a Voltmeter operate?
5. What is an Ammeter?
6. How does an Ammeter operate?
To be submitted Tomorrow September 30
Operation & Application of Ohmmeter
1. Before taking an ohmmeter resistance measurement, the position should be
confirmed to be on zero of the top ohm-scale.
2. With the positive & negative ohm-terminals shorted together the pointer moving
toward zero-ohm is adjusted by the turning the zero-ohm adjustment to the right or
left in order to place it exactly to zero at right.
3. The ohmmeter pointer must be adjusted each time the ohmmeter range is
moved.
4. Since the ohmmeter scale is non linear, it is apparent that the best
measurement accuracy will be realized if a ranged that provides indication on the
right-hand half of the scale is used.
5. When testing polarized resistance like transistor, diodes & electrolytic
capacitors, the V.O.M. polarity of terminals must be reversed.
 6. The V.O.M. uses its resistance range (Rx10) for transistor tests, & the pointer must be exactly
adjusted to zero before connecting a transistor for measurement.
7. The polarity switch can be used to reverse the polarity of the test voltage applied across the
component whose resistance is to be measured.
8. The negative (-) common jack or terminal finishes positive voltage.
9. The positive voltage (+) jack at terminal provides negative voltage.
10. Besides measuring resistance, the four ohm ranges check line continuity, short circuit, dc
resistance of a transformer, front to back resistance ratio of a semiconductor diode or transistor
junction.

OHHMETER READING

Note: Before taking a resistance measurement using V.O.M. the meter pointer should be confirmed on
zero at the top ohm scale (with + & - Com test leads shorted together) by tuning the zero-ohm
adjustment to the right or left in order to place it exactly to zero at right. The pointer be adjusted each
time the range is moved.

1. When the V.O.M. is set to its Rx1 position, we read the scale directly.
2. If the instrument is operated on its Rx10 range, we multiply the scale reading by 10.
3. We multiply the scale reading by 1000 if Rx1K range is in use.
4. If the V.O.M. is operated on its Rx10K range, we multiply the scale reading by 10,000.
DC Voltmeter Reading

(Note: Observe correct polarity of the instrument when measuring DC voltage. Use voltmeter range where
you can get the maximum pointer deflection without going off scale. If the voltage is completely unknown,
always get the selector range switch to the highest range & gradually switch to the next lower range, if the
meter pointer moves less than 1/10 of the full scale)

1. When operating on the 0.1 volt range, we utilize the 10 volts scale & move the decimal point two
places to the left.
2. If the instrument is operated on its 0.5 range we utilized the 50 volt scale & move the decimal point
two places to the left.
3. When the V.O.M. is set to its 2.5 volt range, we utilized the 250 volt scale & shift the decimal point two
places to the left.
4. If the dc voltmeter function of the V.O.M. is operated on its 10 volt range, we utilized the 10 volt scale
& read it directly.
5. When the V.O.M. is set to its 50 volt range, use the 50 volt scale & read the scale directly.
6. If the range is operated on its 250 volt range, we read 250 volt scale directly.
7. To read values on the 1000 volt range, we utilized the 10 volt scale & shift the decimal point two
places to the right.
AC Voltmeter -An instrument used for measuring AC voltage.
AC Voltmeter Reading (Note: Use AC voltage range where you can get the full-scale deflection without going off scale. Always
set the selector range switches to the highest range (if the voltage is completely unknown) and gradually switches to the next
lower range, if the meter pointer moves less than 1/10 of full scale.)
1. When operating on the 10 volt range, we utilized the 10 volt scale & read the scale (red) directly.
2. If the instrument is operated on its 50 volt AC range, read the red 0-50 scale directly.
3. When the V.O.M. is set to its 250 volt AC range, use the 0-250 scale & read it directly.
4. To read the voltage in the 1000 volt AC range, read 0-10 scale & move the decimal point two places to the right.

1. When operating on the 10 volt range, we utilized the 10 volt scale & read the scale (red) directly.
2. If the instrument is operated on its 50 volt AC range, read the red 0-50 scale directly.
3. When the V.O.M. is set to its 250 volt AC range, use the 0-250 scale & read it directly.
4. To read the voltage in the 1000 volt AC range, read 0-10 scale & move the decimal point two places to the right.

DC Current Meter (Ammeter) Ammeter- is an instrument used for measuring electric current. Its basic unit of measurement is
milli-ampere & ampere represented by the capital letter A. The most frequently used measure of current in electronics is the milli-
Ampere (mA).
DC Current Meter Reading:
(Note: Observe correct polarity of the instrument when measuring DC current. Be very careful against overloading your meter. If you
are in doubt of approximate reading, always start with the highest range. If the pointer deflects left across zero point just reverse the
connections; no damage to the meter if this occurs).

1. When operating on the 50 μ-A range, we utilized the 0 to 50 (black) scales and read the scale directly.
2. To read current in the 2.5 milli-Ampere range, read the black 0-250 scale and move the decimal point two places to the left.
3. If the instrument is operated on its 25 mA range, read the black 0-250 scale and move the decimal point just once to the left.
4. When the V.O.M is set to its 0.25 A range, read the black 0-250 scale and move the decimal point three places to the left.
II. Resistors Overview
The main purpose & usage of a resistor is to control or limit the amount of current in a circuit.
This lesson provides a simplified study of types of resistors, color code chart, interpretation of color code, metal film, resistor code
number, decoding a carbon resistor, tolerance, coded value, measured value, interpretation of minimum tolerance, potentiometer,
trimmer and rheostat. You will find that the resistance value of a resistor is either imprinted on the body of the resistor or
determined by means of a color code.

Decoding a carbon resistor

1. Assuming that you have a resistor with Brown, Black, Red, and Gold bands arranged in the order shown below:
2. Firstly, turn the resistor so that the band which is nearest to one of the resistor ends is to your left as you decode it.
3. First significant color or the “A” band is Brown and it has numerical value of “1”, the “B” band, the second significant color, is
“Black” and has a numerical value of “10” which must be multiplied by “100” since the “C” band is Red, the ohmic value of the
resistor then will be 1000 ohms.
4. The tolerance is ±5% upon observing that the D band is Gold. This means that the manufacturer assures that the actual
ohmic value does not vary more than ±5% and therefore is somewhere between 950 and 1050 ohms.
(Note: Some Carbon resistors do not have a D band. The absence of a D band indicates that the tolerance is ±20 %.)
Carbon (Composition) Resistor Color Code Chart
Metal Film Resistors
Instead of color code, some resistors, specifically metal film types are marked with a number and/or letter code to indicate the
ohmic resistance and Tolerance value. Always put in mine that the capital letter R, K, and M indicate both the multiplier and
location of the decimal point in the resistance value. The last letter represents the tolerance value.
Examples: Find the exact resistance reading of the resistor using number/letter code.

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 The Resistance of a Resistor
This lesson outlines the basic principle of resistance. When a power supply is applied into a circuit, electrons will begin to flow
throughout the entire circuit, and this flow of electrons is called current. As they flow through a certain circuit, the electrons
which make up the current give up some of their energy to the main solid structure of the material.

Steps in measuring Resistance

1. Set the function switch of the V.O.M. to the ohm range.
2. Adjust the zero-ohm control to set the meter pointer exactly at zero position at the right side of the ohm scale before using the
ohmmeter function of a V.O.M.
(Note: Always set the ohmmeter function switch to the lowest range. If the meter pointer remains motionless, gradually adjust to
higher range)
Resistor and it's Tolerance

Tolerance- is a small but permissible amount of deviation from the color code value. The first three color bands determine the
value of resistor. The fourth color band indicates the tolerance value.

An example of a fixed resistor is a Carbon composition resistor.

Power Wattage Rating How to read Tolerance value on Carbon
1. The power or wattage rating can be identified Resistors
by their physical structure or size. The larger the 1. Determine the coded and tolerance values of a
physical size of the resistor, the larger the power carbon composition resistor.
rating. 2. Solve for the maximum and minimum
2. Ballast or wire-wound resistors are physically tolerance.
larger with higher power ratings than carbon
resistors.
3. High wattage resistor can be operated at
higher temperature.
Example 1: Blue-Gray-Black-Gold= 68 x 10^0= 68 ohms
Maximum= 68+ [0.05x68] =71.4 ohms
Minimum = 68–[0.05x68] = 64.6ohms

Example 2: Yellow-Violet-Gold-Gold= 47 x 0.1= 4.7ohms

Since Gold is equal to ±5%
Maximum= 4.7+ [0.05x4.7] = 4.935 ohms
Minimum = 4.7– [0.05x4.7] = 4.465 ohms
Resistance of a Variable Resistor
In Electronics, variable resistors are use extensively in addition to fixed-value resistors. The
potentiometer and rheostat are two types of resistors. Typical examples of potentiometer are:
the contrast and brightness control of television receivers and the volume control used in radio.
Variable resistors value in ohms can be varied if you wish since they are constructed as such and
much as their name suggest.

Rheostat- is a two-terminal device whose circuit symbol is shown below.

Potentiometer- is a three-terminal device. Its circuit symbol is shown below.

 Potentiometer

The resistance between points A and B is fixed. The

variable arm of the potentiometer is point C. The arm
is a metal contactor which moves along the uninsulated Rheostat
surface of the resistance element, selecting different
length of resistive surface. The longer the surface It has a peak value of ohmic resistance as
between points A and C, the greater the resistance in
ohms between this two points. Similarly, the ohmic
specified by the manufacturer. Also as specified
resistance value between points B and C varies as the by the manufacturer, a rheostat has a minimum
length of element inch led between those points. If
the center arm of one of the end terminals are value of resistance and it is usually zero ohms. The
connected into the circuit and the other end terminal
Trimmer Resistor arrow head pt.C indicates a mechanical means of
is left disconnected, this variable resistor
(potentiometer) may be used as a rheostat. Connecting adjusting the rheostat so that ohmic resistance
one piece of hook-up wire between the arm and one of
the end terminals is another method of converting a measured between A and B can be set to any
potentiometer into a rheostat. intermediate value within the range of variation.
Set Up
III. Capacitors-is an electronic device which can hold and accumulate electrical energy in an electrostatic field.
Capacitor Terms:
1. Dielectric- the insulating material which separates the two electrodes of a capacitor.
2. Capacitance- is the quantity of electrical energy that the capacitor will store when a certain value of voltage is applied
to it.
3. Capacitor is dependent upon: a. Constant of dielectric material. b. Thickness of the dielectric. c. Area of the plates.
 Ceramic raw
material

Ceramic Capacitor

Mylar capacitor
Raw material of
polyester Mylar
Electrolytic Capacitors

aluminum foil
Notes:
• The higher the dielectric constant, the thinner the dielectric (the closer the plates are to each other.
• If the plate area is larger, the capacitance of the capacitor will be larger; the capacitance of the capacitor will be
greater.
• The ability of a capacitor to store electrical energy (namely the capacitance) is measurable, and it is expressed by the
unit called the Farad.
• Microfarad is more commonly used in practical radio, TV and other electronic circuits.
• microF- microfarad, pF- Pico farad
• A series connected capacitor with an AC circuit will function very much, allowing current to flow throughout the circuit
in controlled amounts.
Capacitor Color Code
1. To determine the capacitance value (in Pico farads) of molded mica, tubular ceramic, and molded paper capacitors use
a capacitor color code.
2. Colored dots is noted (for molded mica), colored dashes (for tubular ceramics) and the colored bands (for molded
paper). The same numerical values are assigned for the First and Second significant figures as given in the resistor
color code.
3. Molded Mica: The A and the B dots indicates the significant figures, the C dot the multiplier, and the D dot, the
tolerance value, the E dot the voltage rating and the F dot the standard under which it is coded.
4. White (F dot) represents that the unit is made according to the EIA (Electronic Industries Association)
specifications.
5. Black (F dot) shows that the unit is made according to the JAN (Joint Army-Navy) specifications.
6. Tubular Ceramic: The A, B and C bands are interpreted the same as the molded mica. The D band is the tolerance, and
the E band indicates the voltage rating.
 7. Molded Paper

Obviously there are two color bands (E and F) to the extreme right and an “outer foil indicator” G
to the extreme left. The E and the F bands indicate the voltage rating and are read from right to
left. The E and the F bands indicate the voltage rating and are read from right to left. Hence,
the F is the first significant voltage figure and the E is the 2nd significant voltage figure.
Note: In order to properly decode the capacitors, they must be positioned exactly as shown in the
drawings.
Decoding a Molded Mica
1. Position the capacitor so that the arrow points from left to right are visible.
2. From left to right are the second and third dots on the upper row.
3. Row of dots below the arrow is read from right to left, and we must multiply the 2nd and 3rd
digit by the C dot which gives us a capacitive value in Pico farad.
4. Dot in the middle of the bottom row or the D dot indicates the tolerance value.
5. The bottom row, the dot at the extreme left is E. The E dot represents the voltage rating.
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4. Some Capacitors like Polyester, Mylar, Ceramics and tantalum manufactured in Asian countries may have
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codes with different meaning.

Example:
Checking good Capacitor with an Ohmmeter
1. The condition of a good electrolytic capacitor can be checked by connecting the ohmmeter test
leads across the capacitor.
2. The meter pointer moves quickly toward the low resistance side of the scale and then gradually
recedes towards infinity as shown in the figure below
3. Reverse the ohmmeter test leads for the opposite polarity. The meter pointer deflects towards
the low resistance and then gradually returns toward infinity.
Checking shorted Capacitor with an Ohmmeter
1. If an ohmmeter reading immediately goes practically to zero and stays there, the capacitor is
shorted. This effect is more common with paper and electrolytic capacitors.
2. Reverse the ohmmeter test leads for the opposite polarity. A shorted electrolytic capacitor has
practically zero resistance in the reverse direction.
3. Again reverse the ohmmeter test leads for the opposite polarity. If the capacitor shows
charging but the final resistance reading is appreciably less than normal, hence the capacitor is
leaky.

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IV. Diode- a solid state semiconductor device (consisting of two electrodes), that permits the
flow of current in only one direction.
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V. Transistor- an electronic device which provides oscillation, amplification, switching and rectification of electrical
current. The principal semiconductor materials used are Germanium and Silicon.
2 kinds of Transistor
1. PNP
2. NPN

Identifying the Base

1. Set the ohmmeter to Rx10.
2. If you are using an Asian made multi-tester like SANWA or SUNWA interchange the test leads of your meter and rely to the color code of your
test leads.

3. For PNP transistor

a. Collector-base- Low but not zero.
(Note: The negative test lead is connected to the base and the positive test lead to the collector).
 b. Emitter-base- Low but not zero. (Note: The negative test lead is connected to the base and the positive test lead to the
emitter).

* Note: Emitter-Base resistance is greater than collector-base resistance.

 Checking good Transistor
1. Collector-Base- Low but not zero for forward bias and very high resistance when connected in reverse-bias.

2. Emitter-Base- Same as in step number 1, but resistance is greater.

3. Collector-Emitter- very high resistance.

4. Emitter-Collector- very high resistance.
Checking open Transistor
1. Collector-Base- very high resistance for both forward and reverse biasing. 3. Collector-Emitter- very high resistance.
4. Emitter-Collector- very high resistance.

2. Emitter-Base- Same as in step number 1.

Checking shorted Transistor
3. Collector-Emitter- very low resistance.
1. Collector-Base- very low resistance for both forward and reverse biasing.
4. Emitter-Collector- very low resistance

Checking leaky Transistor

1. Collector-Base- Low but not zero for both forward
and reverse biasing.

2. Emitter-Base- Same as in step number 1.

2. Emitter-Base- Same as in step number 1.

3. Collector-Emitter- Low but not zero.

4. Emitter-Collector- Low but not zero.
VI. Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) - is a special diode that can be switch
on by applying a signal voltage to the gate electrode. In an SCR, large
current can be turned “ON” and “OFF” by the application of small amount
of power and with no moving parts. It is a unidirectional electronic device
that permits the flow of electric current in only one direction. Basically, SCR is used as an electronic switch.
 Checking good SCR with an Ohmmeter

1. Set the range to R x 1.

2. Apply the positive test lead to the anode and the negative test lead to the cathode.

3. The reading must be infinite (∞) and the biasing is forward.

4. To make sure if the gate junction is operating properly, short the
gate terminal to the anode and the ohmmeter resistance reading should be zero ohm (forward bias).
* Note: Releasing the gate from the anode while test lead is connected to anode and cathode will not change the condition of the
reading in the meter.

Checking open SCR with an Ohmmeter

1. When checking the SCR with an ohmmeter, connect the negative test lead to the cathode and the positive test lead to the
anode. An open SCR will indicate an infinite (∞) resistance reading.
2. The SCR is defective or probably open, if the device cannot be triggered or turn “ON”

Checking shorted SCR with an Ohmmeter

1. When checking SCR with an ohmmeter, simply connect the negative test lead to the cathode and the positive test lead to
the anode. A shorted SCR will indicate a zero resistance reading.
2. The anode-cathode junction is possibly shorted if the SCR is possibly in the “ON” condition without a trigger voltage applied
to the gate terminal. To confirm this defect, the procedure may be repeated with the anode-cathode voltage polarity reversed.

* Note: Anode is positive (+) and cathode is (-)

Experiment number 1: Ohm's Law
 I. Objectives:
a) To study the application of Ohm’s Law in calculating voltage, resistance and current values.
b) To verify, experimentally, the calculations using simple circuits.
c) To compare measurement accuracies.
II. INSTRUMENRTS AND COMPONENTS
a. Power Source 0-15Vdc or any regulated power supply
b. V.O.M
c. Trimmer Resistor (1 KΩ)- 3 pieces
d. Experiment Board or Bread Board
e. Miniature Light Bulb and Socket 1.5V/3.8V f.
Jumper Wire Leads or hook up solid wire (no. 18)
III. Procedure:
1. Adjust the first Trimmer Resistor to 150Ω while monitoring it in your V.O.M, this will be your resistance for R1.
2. Adjust the second Trimmer Resistor to 330Ω while monitoring it in your V.O.M, this will be your resistance for R2.
3. Adjust the Third Trimmer Resistor to 560Ω while monitoring it in your V.O.M, this will be your resistance for R3.
4. Using your VOM as an Ohmmeter, measure and record in Table 1 under MEASURED VALUE, the resistance of each of the
listed Trimmer resistors.
5. Record in table 1, the adjusted measured resistance value for each of the listed resistors.
 5. Record in table 1, the adjusted measured resistance value for each of the listed resistors.
IV. Table 1 Measured and Rated value of the Resistors.
I. Objectives:
a) To prove that the total resistance of a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual resistances in the
circuit.
b) To demonstrate that the current is the same in all parts of a series circuit.
c) To demonstrate that there is only one current path in a series circuit.

II. INSTRUMENRTS AND COMPONENTS

a. Power Source 0-15Vdc or any regulated power supply/Rechargeable Batteries ( 6-1.5Volts and 1-9
volts)
b. V.O.M
c. Trimmer Resistor (1 KΩ)- 3 pieces
d. Experiment Board or Bread Board
e. LP1 – LP4(9 volts) , Miniature Lamps
f. Jumper Wire Leads or hook up solid wire (no. 22)
g. 1 Pc. S1 switch SPST.
III. Procedure:
1. Adjust the first Trimmer Resistor to 1KΩ while monitoring it in your V.O.M, this will be your resistance for
R1.
2. Adjust the second Trimmer Resistor to 1KΩ while monitoring it in your V.O.M this will be your resistance
for R2.
3. Adjust the Third Trimmer Resistor to 1.5Ω while monitoring it in your V.O.M, this will be your resistance for
R3.
4. Using your VOM as an Ohmmeter, measure and record in Table 1 under MEASURED VALUE, the
resistance of each of the listed Trimmer resistors. 5. Record in table 1, the adjusted measured resistance
value for each of the listed resistors.
Figure 3
Figure 2
Off State
On State
 I. Objectives:
a) To prove experimentally the relationship of Delta to Wye and Wye to Delta Transformation.
b) Compare the results of measured value and calculated value of the Equivalent Resistances.
c) Understand why Resistances have different values measured on different openings.

II. INSTRUMENRTS AND COMPONENTS

a. V.O.M (Volt-Ohmmeter)
b. Trimmer Resistor (3 KΩ)- 3 pieces
c. Experiment Board or Bread Board
d. Jumper Wire Leads or hook up solid wire (no. 22)

III. Procedure:
1. Adjust the first Trimmer Resistor to 50Ω while monitoring it in your V.O.M, this will be your resistance for RAB.
2. Adjust the second Trimmer Resistor to 30Ω while monitoring it in your V.O.M, this will be your resistance for RBC.
3. Adjust the Third Trimmer Resistor to 560Ω while monitoring it in your V.O.M, this will be your resistance for RAC.
4. Using your VOM as an Ohmmeter, measure and record in Table 1 under MEASURED VALUE, the resistance of each of the
listed Trimmer resistors.
5. Record in table 1, the adjusted measured resistance value for each of the listed resistors.