Experiment Title Page .

1 To determine the value of “g” Radius of Gyration and 2

Moment of Inertia by using compound pendulum.

2 To determine the frequency of A. C. Mains by Meld’s 13

Experiment

3 To determine the surface tension of water by capillary 21

rise method

4 To determine the resolving power of diffraction grating. 30

5 To determine the Modulus of rigidity of material of a 39

wire by Maxwell needle.

6 To find the velocity of sound waves in a given rod with 44

Kundt’s tube apparatus.

7 To determine the elastic constant Modulus of rigidity of 51

the material of flat spiral spring

8 To determine the vertical distance between two points by 56

sextant.

1
 Experiment # 1
To Determine the Value of g, Radius of Gyration & Moment of Inertia
by using Compound Pendulum.

Objectives:
➢ To Measure the value of g by compound pendulum.
➢ To determine the moment of inertia of bar about C.G. by means of a compound
pendulum.
➢ To determine the radius of Gyration ‘k’.

Apparatus Required:
A Compound pendulum 1
Knife edge 2
Stop watch 1
Meter scale 1
Support 1
Beam compass 1
Sharp watch 1
Telescope 1
Spirit level 1

Related Concepts
➢ Equivalent simple pendulum.
➢ Moment of inertia.
➢ Radius of gyration.

2
Experimental Setup

(a) (b)

Figure 1.Schematic diagram of Compound Pendulum. (a) Static mode (b) Swinging mode.

Procedure

1. Mark the knife edge of the compound pendulum as A and B with the
piece of chalk.
2. Balance the pendulum on the wedge with one knife edge at the
extreme hole on each side and mark the position of its center of gravity
(C.G).
3. Level the stand with the help of spirit level and suspend the pendulum
on it from the knife edge A. Draw a vertical line by piece of chalk along the
holes of the pendulum for focusing the telescope.
4. Adjust the eye piece of the telescope till the cross wires are seen
clearly. Now focus the telescope on the reference line of a pendulum
5. From a distance of about 3meters, such that the vertical cross-wires
are set in the same vertical plane as the line on the pendulum.
6. Displace the pendulum on one side through small angle of about 5º
7. Release it, so that it vibrates to and fro about the mean position.
8. Find time for a suitable no of vibrations (i.e.20 or 30) by stop watch
looking through the telescope.

3
 (a) (b)

Figure 2 (a) Lab Picture of Compound Pendulum, (b) Telescopic view of the pendulum.

9. Repeat the observation and find the mean position.

10. Measure the distance between the inner edge of the knife edge A and
C.G.
11. Now shift the upper knife edge A to the second hole and shift the
lower edge B to the second hole from below to keep the C.G in its initial
position.
12. Find the time for the same no of vibrations (i.e.20 or 30) and calculate
the time period.
13. Measure the distance from the C.G to the bottom of the second hole.
14. Repeat this process for each hole on one side leaving one or two holes
near C.G and calculate the time period in every time and corresponding
distance.
15. Now turn the pendulum upside down and take a set of observations on
the other half of the length of the pendulum. Proceed the same process
finally leaving one or two holes near C.G.
16. Find the time period and distance of knife edge from the C.G in each
case.
17. Plot the graph:
➢ Take time period T along Y-axis drawn in the middle of the paper and
distance from the C.G along X-axis with suitable scale as shown in
figure1.

4
 ➢ Consider the distance of the hole towards the end A as positive and
the distance of the hole towards the end B as negative with respect to
the C.G ‘G’. Plot the points and draw a graph getting two smooth
curves on both sides of ‘G’. This curve should be symmetrical about
the line.
➢ Draw any line ABCDE parallel to the X-axis so as to cut the two
curves at these points A, B, C, D and E.
➢ Find the length of the line AB, BC, CD and DE.
➢ The length of equivalent simple pendulum from the graph is given by:
L1 = BC + CE = BE = …….. cm. (1)
➢ Also the length of equivalent simple pendulum is:
L2 = DC + AC = AD = …….. cm. (2)
➢ Mean length of equivalent simple pendulum:
L = L1 + L2`
➢ Or L = BE+AD = ……… cm. (3)
2
➢ Draw another line parallel to the X-axis and cutting the graphs at four
points as A´, B´, D´ and E´ to get the second reading for the value of
g.
➢ Record the readings in tabular form.

Observations and Calculations:

Part A:
For the calculation of the value of “g”.
Knife edge A Knife edge B
Time for 10 Time for 10
Time Distance Time Distance
vibrations vibrations
Hole period from Hole period from
Mean
No. 1 2 T=t/10 C.G No. T=t/10 C.G
t
sec sec cm cm cm Cm
sec
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8

5
Calculation of g from Graph:

Figure 3. Graph between distance from Center of gravity and Time Period.

No. Length of equivalent simple Time period g = 4π2L/ T2

of pendulum from graph (T)
Obs. (L) cm sec cm-sec-2
1. L = (AD+BE) /2 = T = GC =

2. L = (A´D´+B´E´) /2 = T = GC´=

Mean value of g = ………………. cm-sec-2

Result:
Value of g found experimentally = ………………. cm-sec-2
Actual value of g = 9.8m/s2
Percentage error = ……………………………….. %

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Part B:
If l1 and l2 are the distances of the point of suspension and the point of
oscillation from the centre of gravity respectively, then
Radius of gyration = 𝑘 = √𝑙1 x 𝑙2 (4)

Method:
Measure the distance AC, CD, BC, CE and A´C´, C´D´, B´C´, C´E´ from the
plotted graph. Thus, 𝑘 = √𝑙1 x 𝑙2 = √𝐴𝐶 x 𝐶𝐷 =

Observation and Calculations:

No. of l1 l2 𝑘 = √𝑙1 x 𝑙2
obs. cm cm cm
1. AC = CD =
2. CE = BC =
3. A´C´ = C´D´ =
4. C´E´ = B´C´ =

Mean value of k (radius of gyration) of compound pendulum =……………..cm.

Result:
Radius of gyration ‘k’ of compound pendulum =……………..m.

Part C:
Find the mass of the pendulum with the help of spring balance along with its
knife edges.
Mass of the pendulum = M = 2.0 kg.
Radius of gyration = k = …………… m.
Moment of inertia = I = Mk2 = …………… kg-m2.

Result:
Moment of inertia of simple pendulum = I = Mk2 = …………… kg-m2.
Precautions
➢ Amplitude should be small.

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 ➢ The knife edges should be horizontal and the bar of pendulum be parallel to the
stand.
➢ Both knife-edges should be shifted to the corresponding holes for each observation
to keep the position of C.G unchanged.
➢ The two knife-edges should always lie symmetrically with respect to C.G.
➢ Distances should always be measured from the C.G to the lower edge of each hole.
➢ A vibration should be counted whenever the line (or cross) on the bar crosses the
vertical cross-wire in the telescope to the right.
➢ Smooth and good –sized curves should be drawn by taking suitable and large
scales.
Sources of error
Slight error is introduced due to
1. Resistance of air.
2. Curvature of knife-edges.
3. Yielding of support.
4. Finite amplitude.

Theory:
Compound pendulum is also called a physical pendulum or a rigid pendulum, a
compound pendulum is just a rigid body, of whatever shape, capable of oscillating about
a horizontal axis passing through it. The point in which the vertical plane passing through
the center of gravity (C.G.) of the pendulum meets the axis of rotation is called its point
or centre of suspension and the distance between the point of suspension and the C.G of
the pendulum measures the length of the pendulum. Thus figure 4 shows a vertical
section of a rigid body or a compound pendulum, free to rotate about a horizontal axis
passing through the point or centre of suspension S. In its normal position of rest, its C.G,
G, naturally lies vertically below S, the distance S and G giving the length l of the
pendulum.

Figure 4. Vertical section of a rigid body or a compound pendulum.

8
Let the pendulum be given a small angular displacement q into the dotted position shown,
so that its C.G. takes up the new position G´ where SG´ = l. The weight of the pendulum,
mg, acting vertically downwards at G´ and its reaction at the point of suspension S
constitute a couple (or a torque), tending to bring the pendulum back into its original
position. Moment of this restoring couple = – mgl sin θ, the negative sign indicating that
the couple is oppositely directed to the displacement θ. If I be the moment of inertia of
the pendulum about the axis of suspension (through S) and d2θ/dt2, its angular
acceleration, the couple is also equal to I d2θ/dt2 . So that, we have
I d2θ/dt2 = – mgl sin θ
Since sin θ ≈ θ, so I d2θ/dt2 = – mgl θ
And d2θ/dt2 = – ( mgl/I) θ
Where mgl / I= µ, the acceleration per unit displacement.
The pendulum thus executes a simple harmonic motion and its time-period is given by

Now, if I0 be the moment of inertia of the pendulum about an axis through its C.G., G is
parallel to the axis through S, from the theorem of parallel axes, I = I0 + ml2. If k be the
radius of gyration of the pendulum about this axis through G, we have I0 = mk2.
So that, I = mk2 + ml2 = m (k2 + l2).

Thus, the time-period of the pendulum is the same as that of a simple pendulum of length

This length L is, therefore, called the length of an equivalent simple pendulum or the
reduced length of the compound pendulum. Since k2 is always greater than zero, the
length of the equivalent simple pendulum (L) is always greater than l, the length of the
compound pendulum.
Centre of oscillation:

9
A point O on the other side of the C.G. (G) of the pendulum in a line with SG and at a
distance k2/l from G is called the centre of oscillation of the pendulum and a horizontal
axis passing through it, parallel to the axis of suspension (through S) is called the axis of
oscillation of the pendulum. Now
GO= k2/l and SG= l. So that, SO=SG+GO=l+ k2/l =L, Then the length of the equivalent
simple pendulum, i.e., the distance between the centers of suspension and oscillation is
equal to the length of the equivalent simple pendulum or the reduced length (L) of the
pendulum and therefore

Applications
➢ The application of compound pendulum is to the practical measurement of the
moment of inertia of farm tractors, and sailing boats. With the help of compound
pendulum theory one can measure the moment of inertia of hockey sticks, golf clubs and
Frisbees.
➢ For 300 years, from its discovery around 1602 until development of the quartz
clock in the 1930s, the pendulum was the world's standard for accurate timekeeping. In
addition to clock pendulums, free swinging seconds pendulums were widely used as
precision timers in scientific experiments in the 17th and 18th centuries.
➢ A pendulum can be used as a gravimeter to measure the local gravity, which
varies by over 0.5% across the surface of the Earth.
➢ Coupled pendulums are used as coupled oscillator. The cause of this behavior is
that the two pendulums affect each other through slight motions of the supporting mantle
piece. Many physical systems can be mathematically described as coupled oscillation.
Under certain conditions these systems can also demonstrate chaotic motion.

Sample Viva Voce

Q. 1. What do you mean by gravity?
Ans. The property of the earth by virtue of which it attracts the bodies towards its centre,
is known as gravity.
Q.2. What is a compound pendulum?

10
Ans. A compound pendulum is a rigid body, capable of oscillating freely about a
horizontal axis passing through it (not through its centre of gravity) in a vertical plane.
Q.3. What is acceleration due to gravity? How is it defined?
Ans. Acceleration due to gravity is numerically equal to the force of attraction with
which a unit mass is attracted by the earth towards its centre.
Q.4 What is meant by G? How are G and g related?
Ans. G is Universal gravitational constant and is equal to the force of attraction between
two unit masses placed unit distance apart. g is the acceleration due to gravity = GM/R2
where M is the mass of the earth and R is its radius.
Q.5. Why does the value of ‘g’ change at the surface of the earth?
Ans. There are two reasons:
(i) the earth is not a perfect sphere its diameter at poles is about 21 km shorter than that at
the equator, which means R will change in the relation g = GM/R2 and
(ii) earth is spinning about its own axis. Therefore bodies on its surface move in circular
path. A part of gravitational force is used up in providing necessary centripetal force and
hence effective force of gravity is decreased, decreasing the value of ‘g’.
Q.6. How does the value of g vary at different places and at different distances
from the surface of the earth?
Ans. (i) The value of g decreases with altitude.
(ii) The value of g decreases as we go below the surface of earth.
(iii) g is greatest at poles and least at equator.
Q.7. What is the value of g at the earth’s centre?
Ans. The value of g at earth’s centre is zero
Q.8. What is the use of the knowledge of the value of ‘g’?
Ans. Its knowledge is quite important in geophysical prospecting of mineral deposits
inside the earth. It is also required in many theoretical calculations.
Q.9. How much should be the amplitude of vibration?
Ans. The amplitude of vibration should not be large because in the deduction of the
theory it has been assumed that sin θ = θ.
Q.10. What are the centres of suspension and oscillation?
Ans. Centre of suspension. It is a point where the horizontal axes of rotation intersects
the vertical section of the pendulum taken through centre of gravity.
Centre of Oscillation. This is another point, on other side of centre of gravity at a
Distance kl2 from it and lying in the plane of oscillation. K being radius of gyration and
l, the distance of centre of suspension from centre of gravity.
Q.11. For how many points in a compound pendulum the time period is the same?
Ans. The time period about centre of suspension and centre of oscillation is the same. By
reversing the pendulum, there are two more points (centre of suspension and oscillation)

11
about which the time period is same. In this way, there are four points collinear with C.G.
about which time period is same. Two points lie on one side of C.G. and two on another
side of C.G.
Q.12. How does the time period of oscillation of a compound pendulum depend
upon the distance of the centre of suspension from the centre of gravity?
Ans. The time period is infinite at centre of gravity. It decreases rapidly and becomes
minimum when the distance is equal to radius of gyration. At still greater distances the
period again increases.
Q.13. What do you mean by an equivalent simple pendulum?
Ans. This is a simple pendulum’s length that its time period is same as that of a
compound pendulum.
Q.14. What is the length of equivalent simple pendulum?
𝑘2
𝐿+𝑙 𝑘2
Ans. We know that T = 2π √ 𝑙 𝑔 = 2𝜋√𝑔 where L = √ 𝑙 + 𝑙 is known as length of

equivalent simple pendulum.

Q.15. What will be the period of oscillation of a compound pendulum if centre of
suspension coincides with the centre of gravity?
Ans. No oscillations are possible. Time period may be taken as infinite in this case.
Q.16. How will you find the values of ‘g’ and k from the graph?
Ans. Slope of the graph will be tan θ = 4π2 /g from which ‘g’ can be calculated. The –ve
intercept on l2 -axis will give the value of k2, square root of which will be the value of k.
Q.17. Why are the knife edges kept horizontal?
Ans. So that bar may oscillate in a vertical plane and may not slip off.
Q.18. When does the minimum period of a compound pendulum occur?
Ans. The time period of a compound pendulum becomes a minimum when the
distance of the centre of suspension from its C.G. equals the radius of gyration of the
pendulum about an axis passing through the C.G., the axis being parallel to the axis of
rotation.
Q.19. What is radius of gyration?
Ans. Radius of gyration of a body is the square root of the mean square distance of the
particle of the body from the axis of rotation.
Q.20. What is moment of inertia?
Ans. The product of mass ‘m’ of the rotating body and the square of radius of
gyration’r2’ is called moment of inertia. Its unit is kg-m2.

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 Experiment # 2

To determine the frequency of A.C. mains

Objective:
Calculate the frequency of A.C. mains by Melde’s experiment through transverse
arrangement.

Equipment Details:
i. Electric vibrator (solenoid, electric bulb, soft iron rod, permanent magnet)
ii. Thread and pulley
iii. Chemical balance
iv. Meter scale
v. Weights

Experimental Setup:

Figure 1: Experimental setup for generating standing wave pattern.

An electric vibrator consists of a solenoid whose coil is connected to A.C. mains. The circuit
includes a high resistance in the form of an electric bulb as shown in Fig1. A soft iron rod AB is
placed along the axis of the solenoid, clamped near the end A with two screws X and Y while the
end B is free to move. The rod is placed between the pole pieces of a permanent magnet NS. One
end of the thread is attached to the end B and the other passes over a frictionless pulley and
carries a weight. When an alternating current is passed in the coil of the solenoid, it produces an
alternating magnetic field along the axis. The rod AB gets magnetized with its polarity changing
13
with the same frequency as that of the alternating current. The rod AB vibrates n times per second
due to interaction of the magnetized rod with the permanent magnet. . The tension in the string
can be varied by placing different weights in the pan, stationary waves are produced due to the
superposition of the direct waves sent by the strip and reflected waves from the pulley.

Procedure:
i. Take a uniform thread of one meter long and attach its one end to the point B of the rod
and the other to a light pan by passing it over a frictionless pulley.
ii. Place an electric vibrator in the transverse position.
iii. Find the mass of one meter long thread through chemical balance and then calculate mass
per unit length. It is denoted by ‘m’.
iv. Connect the A.C. mains to the solenoid of an electric vibrator.
v. Fix the pulley and switch on the A.C current so that it passes through an electric vibrator.
Thus the changing magnetic field produces vibrations in the rod.
vi. Add small weights in the pan such that the string vibrates in one loop with maximum
amplitude under the forced vibrations of the rod.
vii. Note the tension T(=weight of the pan + weights added) and measure the length l of the
loop. By reducing the tension, the string is made to vibrate in two, three, four loops and
so on.
viii. Note the number of loops p formed in the length L of the thread. This gives the value of
a. l as l = L/p.
ix. Calculate the frequency of A.C. mains by using formula.
1
𝑓= √𝑇/𝑚
2𝑙

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Observations and Calculations:
Mass of the empty scale pan m1 =……………………gms
Length of the thread =……………………………..cm
Mass of the thread =………………………………gms
Mass per unit length of thread= m=……………….gms/cm

No. of No. of Distance Length Mass Mass of Tension in Frequency of

obs. loops N between of each added to pan the thread A.C. mains
two loop the pan m1+Mass T=Mx981 1
𝑓= √𝑇/𝑚
extreme l =L/N m2 added m2 2𝑙
nodes L M=m1+m2
(cm) (gms) (gms) (dynes) (Hz)

(cm)
1

Mean frequency f =……………… (Hertz)

Standard result: Frequency of A.C. mains = ...... cycles/sec.
Percentage error = ...... %

Result: The frequency of A.C. mains, using.

Transverse arrangement = ...... cycles/sec.

Applications:

i. Alternating current (AC) electricity is the type of electricity commonly used in homes
and businesses throughout the world. AC electricity alternates its direction in a back-and-

15
 forth motion. The direction alternates between 50 and 60 times per second, depending on
the electrical system of the country.
ii. The AC electricity can be readily transformed to higher or lower voltage levels. High
voltages are more effecient for sending electricity at great distances, high voltages from
the power station can be easily reduced to a safer voltage for use in the house. Changing
voltages is done by the use of a transformer. This device uses properties of AC
electromagnets to change the voltages.
iii. Tuning of instruments like guitar.
iv. Standing waves in air coloumn.

Sources of error and precautions:

i. Pulley should be frictionless.
ii. The loops formed in the thread should appear stationary.
iii. Do not put too much load in the pan.
iv. Pass the current for a short time.
v. Take accurate measurements of length and mass.
vi. Do not apply DC power to this instrument. DC current will NOT cause the rod to
vibrate and a larger than normal current may flow. This could cause excess heat
and eventual damage to the instrument.

Theory:
A wave is the propagation of a disturbance through a medium. The physical properties of that
medium (e.g., density and elasticity) will dictate how the wave travels within it. A wave may be
described by its basic properties of amplitude, wavelength, frequency and period T. Figure 2
displays all of these properties. The amplitude, A, is the height of a crest or the depth of a trough
of that wave. The wavelength λ is the distance between successive crests or successive troughs.
The time required for a wave to travel one wavelength is called the period T. The frequency f is
1/T, and is defined as the number cycles (or crests) that pass a given point per unit time.

Figure2: Properties of waves

16
Since the wave travels one wavelength in one period, the wave velocity is defined as.
The λ/T wave velocity can then be written as

when a vibrating body produces waves along a tightly stretched string, the waves are reflected at
the end of the string which cause two oppositely traveling waves to exist on the string at the same
time. These two waves interfere with each other, creating both constructive and destructive
interference in the vibrating string. If the two waves have identical amplitudes, wavelengths and
velocities, a standing wave, or stationary wave, is created. The constructive and destructive
interference patterns caused by the superposition of the two waves create points of minimum
displacement called nodes, or nodal points and points of maximum displacement called
antinodes. If we define the distance between two nodes (or between two antinodes) to be L, then
the wavelength of the standing wave is λ=2L. Figure 3 illustrates the case where the length of
string vibrates with 5 nodes and 4 antinodes.

Figure 3. A standing wave is created when an incident and reflected wave have identical
amplitudes, wavelengths and velocities.

It is possible to obtain many discrete vibrational modes in a stretched string. That is, for a string
to vibrate with a specific wavelength, the tension applied to the string must have a certain value.
It is possible for the string to vibrate with another specific wavelength, but the tension must be
adjusted until that particular mode is reached. If the tension is such that it is between vibrational
modes, the string will not exhibit the standing wave phenomenon and we won't see a standing
wave. When the frequency of the vibrating body is the same as that of the particular vibrational
mode of the string, resonance is established.

17
 Speed of transverse wave in stretched string:

A string means a wire or a fibre which has a uniform diameter and is perfectly flexible i.e.which
has no rigidity. In practice, a thin wire fulfills these requirements approximately. The speed of
transverse wave in a flexible stretched string depends upon the tension in the string and the mass
per unit length of the string. Mathematically, the speed v is given by
𝑣 = √𝑇/𝑚
Where T is the tension in the string and m is the mass per unit length of the string. When a wire
clamped to rigid supports at its ends is plucked in the middle, transverse progressive waves
travel towards each end of the wire. These waves are reflected at the ends of the wire. By the
superposition of the incident and the reflected waves, transverse stationary waves are set up in the
wire. Since the ends of the wire are clamped there is a node N at each end and a anti-node A in
the middle.

We know that the distance between two consecutive nodes is λ/2 , where λ is wavelength. Hence
if l be the length of the wire between the clamped ends, then l = λ/2 or λ=2 l. If f be the
frequency of vibration of the wire, then f = v/λ= v/2 l Substituting the value of v, we have 𝑓 =
(1/2𝑙)√𝑇/𝑚.

18
VIVA VOCE

Q. 1. What do you mean by A.C. mains?

Ans. A current which changes its direction of flow i.e. continuously varying from zero to a
maximum value and then again to zero and also reversing its direction at fixed interval of time. If
a graph of the current against time has the form of a sine wave, the current is said to be sinusoidal
Q. 2. What is the frequency of your A.C. mains? What does it represent?
Ans. The number of times the current changes its direction in each second is called the frequency
of A.C. mains. It’s value is 50 cycles per second.
Q. 3. What do you understand by resonance?
Ans. In case of forced or maintained vibrations, when the frequencies of driver and driven are
same then amplitude of vibration of driven becomes large. This phenomenon is called resonance.
Q. 4. Does direct current also have any frequency?
Ans. No, it does not change its direction.
Q. 5. How does the iron rod vibrate?
Ans. When alternating current is passed through the solenoid, the iron rod is magnetized such that
one end is north pole while other end is south pole. When the direction of current is changed, the
polarity of rod is also changed. Due to the interaction of this rod with magnetic field of permanent
magnet, the rod is alternately pulled to right or left and thus begins to vibrate with frequency of
A.C. mains.
Q. 6. What type of vibrations does the rod execute?
Ans. The vibrations are forced vibrations. The rod execute transverse stationary vibrations of the
same frequency as that of A.C.
Q. 7. Can you use a brass rod instead of soft iron rod?
Ans. No, because it is non-magnetic.
Q. 8. How is it that by determining the frequency of the rod, you come to know the
frequency of A.C. mains?
Ans. Here the rod vibrates with the frequency of A.C. mains.
Q. 9. What is the construction of an electric vibrator?
Ans. It consists of a solenoid in which alternating current is passed. To avoid the heating
effect in the coil of solenoid, an electric bulb is connected in series. A rod passes through
the solenoid whose one end is fixed while the other is placed in pole pieces of permanent
horse shoe magnet.
Q. 10. What are resonant vibrations?
Ans. If the natural frequency of a body coincides with the frequency of the driving force, the
19
former vibrates with a large amplitude. Now the vibrations are called as resonant vibrations.
Q. 11. When does resonance occur?
Ans. When the natural frequency of the rod becomes equal to the frequency of AC mains,
resonance occurs.
Q. 12. Define Transverse waves?
Ans. The vibrations in which the particles of the medium vibrate in a direction perpendicular to
the direction of wave motion are called as transverse vibrations or waves.
Q. 13. Define Stationary waves?
Ans. A stationary wave is formed when two identical waves travelling in the same medium but
coming from opposite direction superimpose.
Q. 14. What types of waves are set up on the thread?
Ans. Transverse standing waves are set up on the thread.
Q. 15. What are node and anti-node points?
Ans. When a standing wave is set up in a medium, those points which are at rest and do not
vibrate are called nodes. Those points which vibrate with maximum amplitude are called
antinodes.
Q.16. What is the distance between two consecutive nodes or antinodes?
Ans. It is λ/2.
Q.17. What does Melde’s experiment demonstrate?
Ans. It demonstrates the formation of stationary waves.

20
 EXPERIMENT#3
To determine the surface tension of water by the capillary rise method

Objectives:
1. To determine the diameter of the capillary tube using Travelling Microscope
2. To measure the height of the liquid (water) column
3. To calculate the mean value of surface tension of water

Related concepts:
Van Der Waals forces, Specific surface energy, Surface tension, Minimal surfaces,
Capillarity, Contact angle, Cohesion forces, Adhesion forces, Molecular forces in liquids,
Fluids in capillaries, Wetting angle, Temperature dependence of the surface tension,
Fluid interfaces, Meniscus
Equipment details:
• Travelling Microscope
• Capillary Tubes (having different diameters)
• One Beaker
• Thermometer
• Tripod Stand
• Pointed needle
• Rubber bands
• Glass slides

Experimental Arrangement

Fig.1: Experimental arrangement for capillary rise method to measure surface tension

21
Procedure:
1. Several methods are available for measuring the surface tension of liquids but
the capillary rise method is simple and easy to handle. The capillary rise is the
only primary method at present in use, and it is the one by which all secondary
methods are calibrated. The experimental set-up to determine the surface tension
of water is shown in Fig. 1
2. Select capillary tubes having different diameters and chope off their sealed ends
with file or blade. Cleaned and dried the capillary tubes, glass strip and pettery
dish with water. Check the leveling of table and tripod stand using level meter
3. Using travelling microscope measure internal diameters of the capillary tubes.
Mount the capillary tubes, thermometer and pointed needle on glass strip with
wax or rubber bands.
4. Clamp the whole assembly with glass strip on tripod stand. Also check is
pointed needle mounted parallel to capillary tubes with its lower end slightly
above the lower ends of the capillary tubes? Fill the trough with water to the
edge so that the water surface stands a little above the sides of the trough.
5. Adjust the position of the eye piece of the travelling microscope to get the cross
lines visible and make X (horizontal position) and Y(vertical position) values at
zero reading. Set the microscope first at pointed needle to see the point where
real and inverted image of needle is coinciding. Note the reference height “h” by
setting cross lines at the centre of tips of needle
6. Set the microscope also to view the water meniscus in the capillary tubes which
will appear inverted i.e. convex instead of concave. Focus the eyepiece so that
its horizontal cross wire just touches the lower meniscus of water. Note the
microscope readings against the vertical scale to find differences of height “h”.
7. Repeat the experiment in the similar way with other two tubes of different
diameters. Tabulate observations as given in Table 1.Using the relation for
surface tension in equation (1)

𝒓(𝒉+𝒓/𝟑)𝝆𝒈 𝒉𝒓𝝆𝒈
𝑻= or 𝑻= (1)
𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝟐
𝐫
as 𝟑 is negligible for a tube of fine bore and cos 𝜃 = 1 for water to workout the surface
tension of water because contact angle for water 𝜃=0˚.
r= radius of the tube
ρ=density of water
h= height of the liquid rise in the tube
g = acceleration due to gravity

22
 Observations and Calculations:
Temperature of water at the beginning = t1=…………..˚C
Temperature of water at the end = t2=…………..˚C
Mean Temperature = t =…………...˚C
Density of water (H2O) = ρ= 1.0 gm/cc
Angle of contact for water (H2O) = 𝜃 = …………
Acceleration due to gravity = g= 980.665 cm/sec2

Table 1

Surface Tension
Tube Diameter Radius Microscope reading at 𝒉𝒓𝝆𝒈
𝑻=
No. d(mm) r (mm) Lower tip Lower meniscus of Height 𝟐
Dynes/cm
of needle capillary tubes h (mm)
1

Mean experimental value of surface tension T=………………………..dynes/cm

Theoretical value of surface tension T =……………...………..dynes/cm

Theoratical − Experimental
% Error = 100
Theoratical

23
 Graphical Representation:

Fig.2: The ideal response of surface tension of water at various temperatures

Precautions:
• The capillary tubes should be placed vertically.
• The water level in the dish should be a little above the edge of the dish so that
when we note the position of the tip the edge does not come in the way.
• The surface of the water should be free from grease.
• The crosswire should be focused at the lower meniscus of the liquid column.
• The bore of capillary tubes should be fine.
• Capillary tubes should be neat and clean.

Related Theory
Surface tension is a property that arises from the mismatch in intermolecular forces
experienced
at a liquid/vapor interface. In the bulk portion of a liquid a molecule experiences
intermolecular forces from all directions around it. In water, these forces are
predominately strong hydrogen

24
bonds. Since the molecule is surrounded from all directions, all of the pair-wise
intermolecular attractive forces cancel each other out and there is no net motion of the
molecules other than random thermal motion. At the surface of the liquid, however, a
very different situation is present. A water molecule at the surface will experience
attractive hydrogen bonds back towards the bulk of the water, but there are no offsetting
forces on the air side of the interface (or more accurately, the liquid-air intermolecular
forces are much weaker than the liquid-liquid forces). This leads to a pulling in of the
surface towards the bulk of the liquid. It also creates a gradient in the Gibbs free energy
at the surface. Because of this mismatch between intermolecular forces, energy in the
form of work is required to expand the surface. This work is described by equation (2):

dw d , = surface tension (2)

where dw = incremental work required to increase the surface area ( ) of the liquid by
an
incremental amount. The surface tension ( ) is the proportionality constant between the
changes
in surface area and work. has units of energy/area. The SI units for surface tension are
N/m
(or J/m2). Surface tension is often listed, however, in cgs units of dynes/cm, but this can
be
translated to SI units according to 1 dyn/cm = 1mN /m. Surface tension affects a number
of the handling and performance characteristics of a liquid. Examples include capillary
action, wetting of surfaces, and drop formation. The latter is the effect that surface
tension has on a liquid’s “desire” to form spherical droplets in air. Why some materials
have a higher surface tension and some have very low surface tension? The forces
interacting with each molecule determine the final surface tension of a system. The
stronger these forces, the higher the value of the surface tension. Thus, these inter
molecular forces play a very important role in the value of the surface tension in a
specific material. The intermolecular forces are generally divided to two main segments:
1) Dispersive Forces(D):
• London Dispersive Forces
2) Polar Forces (P):
• Dipoles forces
• Hydrogen bonding
• Ionic bonds
1) Dispersive Forces
• London Dispersive Forces
London Dispersive forces caused by movement of charges in non-polar molecules
(e.g. hydrocarbons) induction of electromagnetic attractive forces in the electron
clouds of covalent molecules by distortion of charged cloud. Distortion is a result
from the electric field produced by charge distribution in nearby molecule. Size
and shape of the molecules determine the magnitude of the London Dispersive
Forces, the bigger the sizes, the higher the London Dispersive Forces. For
examples, CH4, Methane is in gas form in room temperature but CH3-(CH2)4-CH3,
Hexane, is liquid in room temperature and CH3-(CH2)8-CH3,octadecane, is in
solid form at room temperature. As for the influence of shape, it will also
influence the value of the London Dispersive Forces value.

25
 Fig.3 Example of a helium atom, illustration of London Dispersive forces

2) Polar Forces (P):

• Dipoles forces
Polar covalent molecules sometimes described as "dipoles", meaning that the molecule
has two "poles". One end (pole) of the molecule has a partial positive charge while the
other end has a partial negative charge. Dipole forces are caused by differences in electro
negativity of an atom, where it has the ability to attract electrons. This action results in
unequal sharing of electrons with creation of polar covalent bonding but the net charge
remains the same. Even though the total charge on a molecule is zero, the nature of
chemical bonds is such that the positive and negative charges do not completely overlap
in most molecules. Such molecules said to be polar because they possess a permanent
dipole moment.

Fig.4: The creation of dipole-dipole charges

A good example is the dipole moment of the water molecule. Molecules with mirror
symmetry like oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and carbon tetrachloride have no
permanent dipole moments. Even if there is no permanent dipole moment, it is possible to
induce a dipole moment by the application of an external electric field. This is called
polarization and the magnitude of the dipole moment induced is a measure of the polarity
of the molecular species. The dipole moment, μ, is defined as the product of the total
amount of positive or negative charge and the distance between their centroids (μ= eR).
e= charge on the electron, R= diameter of the two atom that created the dipole moment.

• Hydrogen Bonding

Hydrogen bond has a very strong dipole-dipole interaction (3-10 kcal/mol), typically
happen in O-H and N-H bonds (H-donor). H-atom has strong affinity for non-bonding
electrons (lone-pair electron) of other O- and N-atoms (H-acceptor). These phenomena
will not be observed in C-H bonds. The hydrogen bond has only 5% or so of the strength
26
 of a covalent bond, however, when many hydrogen bonds form between two molecules
(or parts of the same molecule), it can be sufficiently strong as it can be quite stable.

Fig.5: Examples for Hydrogen bonding formation in water

• Ionic Bonding

Ionic bonding is the result from bonding of two ions that carry opposite charges, negative
(-) and positive (+). So, when two or more atoms/molecules meet, the forces can be
attractive, + and -, or repulsion, + and + or – and -. Ionic bonding best described using a
simple electrostatic model. The electrostatic model is an application of the charge
principles that opposite charges attract and similar charges repel. An ionic compound
results from the interaction of a positive and negative ion, such as sodium and chloride in
common salt. The ionic bond results as a balance between the force of attraction between
opposite plus and minus charges of the ions and the force of repulsion between similar
negative charges in the electron clouds. In crystalline compounds, this net balance of
forces is called the LATTICE ENERGY. Lattice energy is the energy released upon the
formation of an ionic compound.

Surface tension is due to an attraction between the molecules in water. Water is a polar
molecule. At different ends of the molecule, it has positive and negative charges. Water
molecules tend to arrange themselves so that the positive end of one is next to the
negative end of another. It is the attraction between polar water molecules that is
responsible for what is called surface tension, which causes the surface to act in an elastic
manner.

Other methods to measure surface tension of liquids are

• Wilhelmy Plate Method
• Ring Method
27
 • Drop Weight Method
• Pendant Drop Method
• Spinning Drop Method

Applications:
Surface Tension has significant impacts on the survival as well as the processes needed
for day to day existence of living beings.

• Water striders are insects, which are dependent on surface tension of water to
move around and capture food. Pollution of the water can impact the organism's
life functions and essential activities. Most household detergents are known to
contain Sodium Docedyl Sulfate (SDS) which is known to reduce the surface
tension of water. Thus at a specific concentration of the detergent, the water
strider will break the surface tension and sink.
• Surface Tension is the reason why rain drops, drops of oil etc tend to be spherical
in shape
• The high surface tension of water allows for the formation of water droplets and
waves. Surface tension is also essential for the transfer of energy from wind to
water to create waves. Waves are necessary for rapid oxygen diffusion in lakes
and seas.
• Surface tension also allows plants to move water (and dissolved nutrients) from
their roots to their leaves, and the movement of blood through tiny vessels in the
bodies of some animals.

Water Strider Spherical shape of rain drops Water droplets

• Surface tension has been utilized in some synthetic microsystems. For instance,
electric-field-induced changes in surface tension (electro-wetting) are used to
transport and manipulate droplets in micro fluidic systems. Microscale surface
tension-based bubble valves and pumps have been developed for commercially
available inkjet printers and lab-on-a-chip implementations.
• Most coating systems need good leveling and flow in order to have a nice
appearance. A flat smooth surface, will also give better glossy appearance and is
very eye catching. Controlling the leveling and flow of a coating is all about
controlling the surface tension of the system. However, some incompatible
ingredients in the formulation will also affect the flow and leveling of the coating.
In coating systems, we also have to deal with interfacial surface tension. The
understanding of interfacial surface tension is also important in paint technology
as it helps to solve many technical problems related to paint defects. In generally
terms, interfacial surface tension is defined as surface tension at the surface
28
 separating two non-miscible materials. In paint, the most important interfacial
surface tension is listed below. In case of polymer/solvent systems typical
measurements range from 0.0001 - 0.1 mN/m, for polymer/polymer-systems this
interval is typically 1-20 mN/m.
• Clinical tests for jaundice: Normal urine has a surface tension of about 66
dynes/cm (a measure of surface tension, water is 72dynes/cm at 25°C) but if bile
is present (a test for jaundice) it drops to about 55. In this test sulfur is sprinkled
on the urine surface if it floats the test is negative but if is sinks it is positive.
• Surface tension modification is desired by many in the medical field. Medical
devices,
which are designed to work with blood or other liquids, may have the problem of
constricting the blood flow or movement due to a high surface tension. This can
be improved dramatically by changing the surface tension and allowing the liquid
to flow more easily or be directed in a certain way. To expose the substrate to a
silane through vapor deposition will cause the surface to become hydrophobic.
Very often the substrate is first plasma cleaned as this gives a consistent clean
surface.

Sample Viva Questions

Q.1. What is surface tension?

A property of liquids such that their surfaces behave like a thin, elastic film. Surface
tension is an effect of intermolecular attraction, in which molecules at or near the surface
undergo a net attraction to the rest of the fluid, while molecules not near the surface are
attracted to other molecules equally in all directions and undergo no net attraction.
Because of surface tension, the surface of a liquid can support light objects (such as water
beetles on the surface of a pond).
Q.2. What is angle of contact?
The angle of contact is defined to be the angle between the surface of the liquid and the
solid
surface at the point of contact.
Q.3. What is the angle of contact of water?
Ans: It is almost zero because water wets the glass
Q.4. How does the surface tension of a liquid vary with temperature?
Ans: The higher the temperature, the smaller the surface tension. This relation is linear
for a small temperature range only.
Q.5. Why should we measure the tube diameter in two perpendicular directions?
Ans: To make correction for the ellipticity of the bore
Q.6. What causes the surface of water concave upward and that of mercury convex
upward?
Ans: As the cohesive force is smaller or greater than the adhesive force
Q.7. Why is the use of distilled water discouraged in this experiment?
Ans: It may contain traces of grease leading to a wrong result.

29
 Experiment 4

To determine the resolving power of diffraction grating

Apparatus:

Spectrometer, sodium lamp, diffraction grating, slit of adjustable width with scale, spirit
level.

Diagram:

Figure 1: Schematic view of a Spectrometer using a diffraction grating.

Procedure:

1) Look through the telescope at any light-colored surface and push the eyepiece in and
out until the cross-wires can be seen sharply, without straining the eyes.
2) Focus the telescope onto a distant object (may be a wall at far end of lab) by
adjusting knurled knob only, until a sharp image of object is seen and there is no
parallax with the cross-wires. The telescope is now focused for a parallel light – do
not change this focus.
3) Switch on the sodium lamp and place it up against the collimator slit.
4) Position the telescope at the “straight-through” position (see Fig. 1) i.e. where it is
pointing directly at the collimator to observe the image of the slit through the
telescope.
5) Adjust the discharge lamp position in relation to the slit to obtain the brightest
possible image. Focus the collimator by adjusting the knurled knob only, until a
sharp image of the slit is observed on the cross-wires.
6) Reduce the width of the collimator slit using the adjusting screw (see Fig. 1) until a
fine vertical unbroken line is seen. The collimator will now be producing a beam of
parallel light and the telescope is focusing it onto viewer’s eye. Do not make further
adjustments of telescope or collimator.
7) Ensure that the central mounting table is fixed to the main turntable, and is at a
suitable height, by means of the single screw on its shaft. Using a spirit level and the
three screws underneath, adjust the table until it is absolutely level. Check it remains
level as the main turntable is rotated.
The spectrometer should now be in good adjustment.
30
 Determination of resolving power

1) Set up the grating along with the adjustable slit on the central mounting table and fix
it with the screw at appropriate height with respect to collimator and telescope.
2) Open the adjustable slit to its maximum with the help of side screw.
3) Set the telescope for straight through image of collimator’s slit.
4) Move the telescope to right and observe the first order spectrum of sodium light. The
two sodium D-lines will appear separated by a dark line.
5) Reduce the slit width by closing the side screw by observing at the spectrum through
telescope until the two sodium lines appear just to merge into one.
6) Note the width of slit by taking the reading from scale on side screw of the adjustable
slit.
7) Close the slit completely and start opening it until the single sodium line splits into
two D-lines. Note the width of the slit.
8) Repeat the observation for first order at left side and then for second order on both
sides.
9) Record the observations in the table and perform necessary calculations.
10) Determine the resolving power of diffraction grating using the formula
R.P = mN
where m = order of spectrum
N = number of lines in the opened width of adjustable slit

Observations and Calculations:

Groove density Ń = No of lines engraved per mm of diffraction grating = 600

Grating element d = 1/ Ń = 1/600 (mm) = …………. mm

Width of the slit when the D lines

No. of lines in
Order of Just Merge Just Separate Mean Width Resolving
the opened
Spectrum Power
Sr. No. width
w1 w2 w=(w1+w2)/2
m R.P = mN
N=Ń×w
(mm) (mm) (mm)
1. 1(Right)
2. 1(Left)
3. 2(Right)
4. 2(Left)
Mean resolving power =

31
Results:

Determined resolving power of diffraction grating =

Actual Resolving Power = λ/dλ = 5890/6 = 982 for first order

Percentage Error = Actual – Experimental

Actual
Theory/Related Concepts:

a) Spectrometer

Spectrometer is an instrument use to study the spectra. It consists of three major parts.

Collimator: A collimator may consist of a curved mirror or lens and an adjustable slit to
control the amount of light entering the system. Object or light source is placed at the
focus of optical assembly. The purpose is to replicate a target at infinity. The light to be
analyzed enters the collimator through a narrow slit. The light leaving the collimator is
therefore a thin, parallel beam, which ensures that all the light from the slit strikes the
diffracting element at the same angle of incidence. This is necessary if a sharp image is to
be formed.

Turn table: It is served as a platform for diffracting/dispersing medium (a prism or

diffraction grating). The diffracting element bends the beam of light. If the beam is
composed of many different colors, each color is diffracted to a different angle.

Telescope: An astronomical telescope is used to focus the parallel rays coming from the
infinity. This telescope can be rotated to collect the diffracted light at very precisely
measured angles. With the telescope focused at infinity and positioned at an angle to
collect the light of a particular color, a precise image of the collimator slit can be seen
and measurements can be made.

Figure 2: Spectrometer diagram.

32
b) Optical resolution

It describes the ability of an imaging system to resolve detail in the object that is being
imaged. Resolution depends on the distance between two distinguishable radiating points.
Several standards are used to determine, quantitatively, whether or not the points can be
distinguished. The Rayleigh criterion is the generally accepted criterion for the
minimum resolvable detail. The imaging process is said to be resolved when the first
diffraction minimum of the image of one source point coincides with the maximum of
another.

Figure 3 (a) Two sources are far apart, and the patterns are well resolved. (b) The
sources are closer together such that the angular separation just satisfies Rayleigh’s
criterion, and the patterns are just resolved. (c) The sources are so close together
that the patterns are not resolved.

c) Sodium Lamp

The sodium spectrum is dominated by the bright doublet known as the Sodium D-lines at
588.9950 and 589.5924 nanometers. From the energy level diagram it can be seen that
these lines are emitted in a transition from the 3p to the 3s levels. The line at 589.0 has
twice the intensity of the line at 589.6 nm. Taking the range from 400-700nm as the
nominal visible range, the strongest visible line other than the D-lines is the line at
568.8205 which has intensity about 0.7% of that of the strongest line. All other lines are a
factor of two or fainter than that one, so for most practical purposes, all the light from
luminous sodium comes from the D-lines.

d) Diffraction

Diffraction is the slight bending of light as it passes around the edge of an object. The
amount of bending depends on the relative size of the wavelength of light to the size of
the opening. If the opening is much larger than the light's wavelength, the bending will be
almost unnoticeable. However, if the two are closer in size or equal, the amount of
bending is considerable, and easily seen with the naked eye.

33
 Figure 4: Illustration of diffraction of waves from a slit.

e) Diffraction grating

A diffraction grating is made by making many parallel scratches on the surface of a flat
piece of transparent material. It is possible to put a large number of scratches per
centimeter on the material, e.g., the grating to be used has 600 lines/mm on it. The
scratches are opaque but the areas between the scratches can transmit light. Thus, a
diffraction grating becomes a multitude of parallel slit sources when light falls upon it.

When there is a need to separate light of different wavelengths with high resolution, then
a diffraction grating is most often the tool of choice. This "super prism" aspect of the
diffraction grating leads to application for measuring atomic spectra in both laboratory
instruments and telescopes. The condition for maximum intensity is the same as that for
the double slit or multiple slits, but with a large number of slits the intensity maximum is
very sharp and narrow, providing the high resolution for spectroscopic applications. The
peak intensities are also much higher for the grating than for the double slit. Different
wavelengths are diffracted at different angles, according to the grating relationship.
Different wavelengths are diffracted at different angles, according to the grating
relationship d Sinθ = mλ

Figure 5: Dispersion of visible light into its constituent wavelengths using diffraction
grating.

34
The integer m is called the order of the diffraction. The intensity of the pattern on the
screen is the result of the combined effects of interference and diffraction. Each slit
produces diffraction, and the diffracted beams interfere with one another to form the final
pattern.

Bright image

The condition of bright image is represented by a path difference of λ and phase

difference of 2π or their integral multiples.

Dark image

The condition of dark image is represented by a path difference of λ/2 and phase
difference of π/2 or their odd integral multiples.

Types of diffraction gratings

A transmission grating can be made by cutting parallel grooves on a glass plate. The
spaces between the grooves are transparent to the light and so act as separate slits.

A reflection grating can be made by cutting parallel grooves on the surface of a reflective
material. The reflection from the spaces between the grooves is specular. The reflection
from the grooves is diffuse. The spaces between the grooves act as parallel sources of
reflected light, like the slits in a transmission grating.

Resolving power of a diffraction grating is a measure of the smallest separation Δλ

between two wavelengths of a spectrum that is observable using a particular diffraction
grating. In fact it is defined as the ratio

R. P = λ/ Δλ

where λ is the mean wavelength of two lines

For a diffraction grating it can be shown theoretically that a satisfactory equivalent

definition is

R.P = λ/ Δλ = Nm

Where N is the number of lines being illuminated in the experiment – this may be much
less than the total number of lines in the grating and m is the order of the diffraction
pattern that is being used.

Derivation of formula

35
 Figure 6: Resolution of two wavelengths λ and λ+dλ using diffraction grating. XY is
the plane of grating and MN is the field of view of telescope.
Resolving power (R.P) of diffraction grating is:
R.P = λ/dλ
P1 is the nth primary maximum of a spectral line of wavelength λ at an angle of diffraction
θn. P2 is the nth primary maximum of a second spectral line of wavelength λ+dλ at a
diffracting angle θn+dθ. P1 and P2 are the spectral lines in the nth order. These two
spectral lines according to Raleigh will appear just resolved if the position of P 2 also
corresponds to the first minimum of P1.
The direction of the nth primary maximum for a wavelength λ is given by:
(a+b) Sin θn = nλ
The direction of the nth primary maximum for a wavelength λ+dλ is given by:
(a+b) Sin (θn+dθ) = n(λ+dλ) ----------- (1)
These two lines will appear just resolved if the angle of diffraction (θ n+dθ) also
corresponds to the direction of first secondary minimum after the n th primary maximum
at P1 (corresponding to wavelength λ). This is possible if the extra path difference
introduced is λ/N, where N is the total number of lines on the grating surface. Therefore,
(a+b) Sin (θn+dθ) = nλ+λ/N ------------ (2)
Equating the right hand sides of eq. 1 and eq. 2,
n( λ+dλ) = nλ +λ/N
ndλ = λ/N
λ/dλ = nN
R.P = nN
(In this experiment n, the order of spectrum, is represented by m)

From this it may be seen that the greater the values of N and m, the smaller the value of
Δλ that can be resolved. For the gratings used here one has nominally, 600 lines per mm.
If 3 mm of grating is illuminated and one uses the 3rd order of diffraction, the theoretical
least value of Δλ is Δλ ≈ 0.11nm using light with λ = 600 nm.

Precautions and sources of errors:

1) The light should be incident on the side of the grating which has no rulings.
2) The plane of the adjustable slit should be parallel to the plane of grating.
3) The grating surface should be normal to the incident light from the slit.
4) The slit backed by sodium light should be very narrow so that the D-lines in the first
and second order spectra just appear separate.
5) The light should fall on the whole grating surface.
36
Applications

1. Gratings for instrumental analysis.

The most common use for the diffraction grating is to serve as the wavelength separation device in
an analytical laboratory instrument in which matter is analyzed by studying its interaction with
light. This is called spectroscopy. The spectral separation of the wavelengths is not strictly
required for this interaction; instead its purpose is to provide data that can be interpreted
unambiguously. Grating-based optical systems can be used to identify or to quantify, by using the
properties of light that is absorbed or emitted by a substance.
a. Atomic and molecular spectroscopy
b. Fluorescence spectroscopy
c. Colorimetry
d. Raman spectroscopy
2. Gratings in laser system.
Diffraction gratings are also used in laser systems to perform a number of functions: to tune the
lasing wavelength, to narrow the distribution of wavelengths in the laser, and to control the pulse
shape (vs. time).
a. Laser tuning
b. Pulse stretching and compression
3. Gratings in astronomical applications.
Grating-based spectrometers play a key role in astronomical measurements. For example, the
spectroscopic analysis of starlight allows us to determine the composition of stars as well as their
relative velocities. The analysis of absorption lines in starlight that passes through nebulae allows
us to determine the composition of the nebulae. From the analyses of these emission and
absorption spectra, we can infer ages of stars, distances to galaxies, etc.
a. Ground based spectroscopy
b. Space borne spectroscopy
4. Gratings in synchrotron radiation beamlines.
Synchrotron radiation is generated by electrons traveling in circular orbits at relativistic speeds;
this radiation covers the x-ray through infrared portions of the electromagnetic spectrum and may
be used to investigate the electronic properties of matter. Synchrotron beamlines are optical
systems oriented tangentially to synchrotron rings, and often gratings are used to disperse the
portion of the radiation in the extreme ultraviolet (UV) and vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) spectra.
5. Special uses for gratings.
a. Gratings as filters: Diffraction gratings may be employed as reflectance filters when
working in the far infrared, in order to remove the unwanted second- and higher-
diffraction orders from the light.
b. Gratings in fiber-optic telecommunications: In addition to serving in network
components, gratings are used in optical spectrum analyzers which use a small fraction of
the light in the network to monitor the intensity and stability of each channel. These
systems are essentially spectrographs, and may use plane or concave gratings.
c. Gratings as beam splitters: Gratings can be used as beam splitters in conjunction
with Moiré fringe applications or interferometers. Under normal illumination (a = 0), a
grating with a symmetric groove profile will diffract both first-order beams with equal
intensity. A diffraction grating used as a beam divider provides higher efficiencies when
its groove profile is rectangular, whereas a grating used for spectroscopic purposes
should have a sinusoidal or triangular groove profile.
d. Gratings as optical couplers: Gratings can be used to couple light into and out of
waveguide structures. Generally the groove spacing d is specifically chosen to ensure that
one diffraction order (other than the zero order) propagates.

37
Viva Voce:

1) What do you understand by the resolving power of diffraction grating?

It is the ability of a grating to discriminate between two wavelengths lying very close
to each other.
2) Is sodium lamp a source of monochromatic light?
No. Sodium is not actually monochromatic but has two very close diffused lines
called D-lines at 589 nm and 589.6 nm.
3) How much is the separation of two lines in a sodium light spectrum?
The two lines are separated by a small difference of 6 Å.
4) When a grating is placed in front of sodium light, not only the yellow lines but
pink and green lines are also seen why?
These lines are characteristic colors of neon and glass tube.
5) Define Raleigh criterion.
It states that the two closely spaced wavelengths are considered to be resolved when
the central maxima of the diffraction pattern of one wavelength coincides with the
first order minimum of the diffraction pattern of the second wavelength.
6) How is the resolving power related to the intensity of spectra?
The intensity of spectra is inversely related to resolving power as the intensity
decrease at higher order and resolving power increase at higher order.
7) Why does the separation between two lines increase in higher order diffraction?
As the resolving power of diffraction grating is directly proportional to order of
spectrum, so at higher order the separation between two lines increases.
8) What is the difference between diffraction and refraction?
In diffraction, the rays of light bend from an obstacle while travelling in the same
medium whereas in refraction the light rays bend at the interface of two media with
different optical properties.

38
 Experiment No. 5
To determine the modulus of rigidity of the material of a wire by
Maxwell’ needle.
Apparatus: Maxwell’s needle, Copper wire, Support with torsion head, Stop watch,
Screw gauge, Meter rod, Telescope
Related Concept: Young’s Modulus, Bulk Modulus, Shear Modulus, Tension, stress,
Strain

H S H S

(a) (b)

Figure 1: Maxwell Needle (a) Solid Cylinder at Outer ends (b) Hollow Cylinder at Outer
ends

Observations:
Length of the suspension wire = l =…….cm
Total length of needle (brass tube) = 2a =…….cm
Half length of needle = a =…….cm
Average mass of a solid cylinder = m1 =…….gm
Average mass of a hollow cylinder = m2 =…….gm
Diameter of the wire = (1) =…….cm. (2) =……..cm
Mean diameter of the wire = D =………….cm
Mean radius of the wire = r = D/2=………..cm

39
Arrangement Time for 20 vibration Time Period

1 2 Mean
Solid Cylinders Sec. Sec. Sec. Sec.
outside
T1 =………………….

Hollow T2 =………………….
Cylinder
outside

Calculations:
8𝜋𝑙𝑎2 (𝑚1 −𝑚2 )
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜂 = =………..dynes/cm2
𝑟 4 (𝑇12 −𝑇22 )

Correct value of η =……….. dynes/cm2

Procedure:-
1. Suspend the Maxwell’s needle (hollow brass tube) horizontally from a
rigid support by means of a long wire as long as possible free of kinks
2. Put the solid cylinders S-S on the outside and check that the Maxwell’s
needle is horizontal. Press one end of the needle slightly backwards to
make it vibrate in a horizontal plane. Pause for some time for the motion
to become steady (i.e. pure rotational).
3. Find time for 20 vibrations and repeat it twice. Work out the time period
T1.
4. Proceed in the same manner by putting the hollow cylinders H-H now on
the outside and work out the time period T2.
5. Measure the length of the tube ‘a’ and that of the wire ‘l’ with the help of
meter rod.
6. Measure the diameter of the wire with the help of the screw gauge at about
different places.
7. Determine the average masses m1 and m2 of the solid and hollow
cylinders by using weigh balance
8. Measure the diameter of the solid and hollow cylinders using vernier
caliper.
9. Make a record of your observations as shown. Evaluate modulus of
rigidity by the relation.

40
 8𝜋𝑙𝑎 2 (𝑚1 − 𝑚2 )
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜂 =
𝑟 4 (𝑇12 − 𝑇22 )

Precautions:
1. The experimental wire should be free of kinks.
2. The Maxwell needle should vibrate in a horizontal plane.
3. The amplitude of torsional vibration should be small to keep the wire
within elastic limit under the twisting couple.
4. The needle should be protected from air draughts during actual
performance of the experiment.
5. The vibrations should be counted with reference to the movement of
the image in the same direction (i.e. from left to right) only.
6. The diameter of the wire should be measured at different point
extended along entire length of the wire.

Theory
This is particularly convenient oscillator used for measuring the modulus of rigidity of
wires. It consists of tube into which four equal short pieces can be inserted. Each of short
piece is one-fourth of total length of the long tube.
Two of short pieces of are hollow and two are solid. By placing the tubes as shown in
figure 1a and figure 1b, the moment of inertia can have two values given to it, I1 and I2 of
which I1 is considerably larger. To express the change in moment of inertia or I 1-I2, let a
be the half length of long tube, m1 the mass of the each of the two short tubes that are
filled with solid material just like lead etc, and m2 the mass of each of the empty short
tubes.
Then the system is changed by shifting two masses each equal to m 1-m2, so that the
system of the center of gravity of each from the axis changes from 3/4 a to 1/4 a.

Tension

In physics, tension is the pulling force exerted by a string, cable, chain, or

similar solid object on another object. It results from the net electrostatic attraction
between the particles in a solid when it is deformed so that the particles are further apart
from each other than when at equilibrium, where this force is balanced by repulsion due
41
to electron shells; as such, it is the pull exerted by a solid trying to restore its original,
more compressed shape. Tension is the opposite of compression. Slackening is the
reduction of tension.
As tension is the magnitude of a force, it is measured in newtons (or sometimes pounds-
force) and is always measured parallel to the string on which it applies.

Young’s Modulus
Young's modulus, also known as the tensile modulus or elastic modulus, is a measure of
the stiffness of an elastic material and is a quantity used to characterize materials. It is
defined as the ratio of the stress along an axis over the strain along that axis in the range of
stress in which Hooke's law holds. In solid mechanics, the slope of the stress-strain curve at
any point is called the tangent modulus. The tangent modulus of the initial, linear portion
of a stress-strain curve is called Young's modulus. It can be experimentally determined
from the slope of a stress-strain curve created during tensile tests conducted on a sample of
the material. In anisotropic materials, Young's modulus may have different values
depending on the direction of the applied force with respect to the material's structure.
Bulk Modulus
The bulk modulus describes the material's response to uniform pressure (like the pressure
at the bottom of the ocean or a deep swimming pool).

Shear’s Modulus
The shear modulus is concerned with the deformation of a solid when it experiences a
force parallel to one of its surfaces while its opposite face experiences an opposing force
(such as friction). In the case of an object that's shaped like a rectangular prism, it will
deform into a parallelepiped. Anisotropic materials such as wood, paper and also
essentially all single crystals exhibit differing material response to stress or strain when
tested in different directions. In this case one may need to use the full tensor-
expression of the elastic constants, rather than a single scalar value.
One possible definition of a fluid is material with zero shear modulus.
Shear Modulus of Metals
The shear modulus of metals is usually observed to decrease with increasing temperature.
At high pressures, the shear modulus also appears to increase with the applied pressure.
Correlations between the melting temperature, vacancy formation energy, and the shear
modulus have been observed in many metals.
Several models exist that attempt to predict the shear modulus of metals (and possibly
that of alloys). Shear modulus models that have been used in plastic flow computations
include:
42
 1. The MTS shear modulus model developed by and used in conjunction with the
Mechanical Threshold Stress (MTS) plastic flow stress model.
2. The Steinberg-Cochran-Guinan (SCG) shear modulus model developed by and
used in conjunction with the Steinberg-Cochran-Guinan-Lund (SCGL) flow
stress model.
3. The Nadal and LePoac (NP) shear modulus model that uses Lindemann theory to
determine the temperature dependence and the SCG model for pressure
dependence of the shear modulus.

Applications
Material scientists and applied physicists use this concept in special ways. Understanding
the modulus of rigidity will help select the correct material to use for construction under
many circumstances. The smaller the force is, the easier the material will bend. It is
calculated and publicly recorded for most materials. A rod made of gold will bend more
easily than one of the same thickness made of steel, for example, and the shearing
modulus displays this clearly for most comparisons.

43
 Experiment # 6
To find the velocity of sound waves in a given rod with Kundt’s tube
apparatus.
Objectives:
• Measure the velocity of stationary waves using a copper or a brass rod as the
vibration generator. The longitudinal velocity of sound in the material of the
vibration generator is determined, given the velocity of sound in air.
• Find the Young’s modulus of the material of the rod.
Apparatus:
Powdered cork
Ruler
Digital frequency generator
LF amplifier
Sound head
Universal Clamps
Kundt’s Apparatus
A long glass tube
Piston/ Rubber stopper
Metal Rod
Related Concepts
Longitudinal waves, sound velocity in gases, frequency, wavelength, stationary waves,
natural frequency
Experimental Setup

Experimental arrangement for Kund’s tube.

44
 Schematic diagram for Kund’s tube.

Procedure:
• Take the glass tube and put some powdered cork dust in it.
• By fast rotatory movement, distribute the powder uniformly inside the tube.
• Fix the tube tightly with the holder.
• Tightly clamp the metal rod at the centre.
• The frequency generator is introduced to the other end of the glass tube.
• Move the piston in and out of the tube till the resonance is obtained.
• Now the cork dust inside the tube becomes deposited as heaps.
• Select the position of the extreme nodes very carefully and measure the distance between
them. Find the number of heaps and calculate the average distance between two
consecutive peaks.
• Note the length of the rod and repeat the experiment.
• Measure the room temperature during the experiment.
• The velocity of sound through air equals 343m /s.
• Using equation Vr=Va lr/la the velocity of sound through the rod can be calculated.
• The Young’s modulus of the rod can be calculated from equation Vr = √Y/ρ

Precautions:
• The glass tube must be perfectly dry as moisture affects sound velocity.
• The metallic rod should be clamped exactly at the middle.
• Distance should always be measured from the middle point of the one heap to the middle
point of the last heap.
• The powder must be evenly spread.
• The disc should not touch the glass tube, since it causes the tube to break.

Observations and Calculation

Length of the rod, lr= …………… m.
Velocity of sound in air, Va = 343 m s-1.
Room temperature, t=………………..Co
Density of the material of the rod, ρ…………………gm-m-3

45
Sr.# Distance Number of Average distance Velocity of sound
between extreme Heaps n between two consecutive in rod
nodes L (m) heaps la=L/(n-1) (m) Vr=Va lr/la

Vr =Va lr/la
Mean Vr = ……………. m s-1.
Velocity of sound wave through the rod at room temperature = ……………… m s-1.
Velocity of sound wave at 0Co, Vo=Va√ (273/273 + t)
Vo=………………………… m s-1.
Young’s modulus of the material of the rod Y = ………………. N m-2.
Theory:
Sound Waves
Sound waves are longitudinal waves traveling through an elastic medium. The source of sound
waves is a vibrating object such as loud speaker, a tuning fork, or a metal rod. The elastic
medium in the path of the sound waves becomes alternately denser and rarer. When the molecules
are forced closer together than normal, the region of higher density and pressure is called a
compression or condensation. When the molecules are spread farther apart than normal, the
region of lower density is called a rarefaction.
Sound waves also obey the fundamental equation of wave propagation. Thus the speed V of a
sound wave is given by V=f
Where f is the frequency and  is the wavelength of the wave.
Sound waves travel through solids, liquids, and gases at different speeds. The speed of sound in a
material depends on the compressibility (elasticity) and density of the material through which it is
passing. In general, the stiffer a material is, the faster sound travels through it. This seems
reasonable because the molecules in an elastic material are tightly coupled. Therefore, they
respond to each other's motions and are able to transmit a wave disturbance through the materials.

46
Theoretical Speed of Sound in a Metal

The speed of sound Vr through a metal rod is given by

Vr = √Y/ρ
Where Y is the Young's modulus for the substance through which the sound is passing and ρ is the
density of the substance.
Experimental Determination of the Speed of Sound in a Metal
Sound waves sent through frequency generator. Standing waves are set up in the rod and if the
rod is clamped at its center, the midpoint of the rod is a node of the standing wave and each end
of the rod is an antinode of the standing wave. Thus, the wavelength λrod of the sound waves in the
metal rod is twice the length of the rod, that is
λrod=2L
Where L is the length of the metal rod.
The sound waves passing through the metal rod can be transmitted to a gas such as air by means
of an apparatus that is known as Kundt's tube.
Kundt’s tube is an acoustical apparatus, invented by German Physicist, August Kundt
(1866). Knowing the speed of sound in air, the speed of sound V in a solid rod can be calculated
based on the measurement of sound wavelength, λ.
Part of the frequency generator is inside a glass tube filled with air, forming an air column. The
far end of the air column is closed. The other end of the air column is a disk, which is attached to
one end of the vibrating metal rod. The vibrations are transmitted to the disk so that the disk
moves back and forth with the end of the rod. The vibrating disk, in turn, causes the air inside the
glass tube to vibrate with the same frequency. When the sound waves enter the air column from
the disk, they travel along the length of the glass column, strike the end of the tube, and are
reflected back up the tube. The air in the glass tube is simultaneously acted upon by two sets of
waves traveling in opposite directions. If the length of the air column is correct, then a standing
wave pattern is set up inside the air column. The antinodes of the standing wave pattern are the
points in which the air molecules have a maximum displacement, whereas the nodes are the
points in which the air molecules are not displaced. These standing waves can be observed by
lightly coating the inside of the glass tube with a very dry powder (cork dust). The nodes are
labeled N in the above figure and the antinodes are labeled A.
The Antinode is located at the center of each striation (grooves) formed by the maximum

47
displacement of the powder. The wavelength λair of the sound waves in the air can be obtained
by measuring the distance between consecutive Antinodes (the distance is equal to 1/2 of
wavelength).
Let lr be the length of the rod and r be the wave length of the longitudinal waves set up
in the rod, then
r=2lr (1)
and velocity of sound in rod will be
Vr=fr (2)
Similarly let la be the average distance between two consecutive heaps and a be the
wave length of the longitudinal waves set up in the air, then
a=2la (3)
and velocity of sound in air will be
Va=fa (4)
Comparing equations (2) and (4)
Vr/Va = fr/fa
Vr/Va = lr/la
Vr =Va lr/la
The speed of sound in air can be determined by measuring the air temperature TC in
Celsius degree:
Va = (331.45 + 0.61 TC) m/s.

Applications:
• The sound heard after reflection from a rigid obstacle (such as cliff, wall) is called
echo. The sensation of sound lasts or persists in our brain for 0.1 sec., even after
the sources of sound has stopped vibrating. One of the most important
applications of the reflection of sound is oceanographic studies. For this purpose,
we use a system called the SONAR. The SONAR is abbreviated form of Sound
Navigation and Ranging. The SONAR system is used for detecting the presence
of unseen under water object, such as submerged submarine, a sunken ship,
iceberg and locating them. In Sonar ultrasonic waves are sent in all directions
from the ship and are then received on their return after reflection.
• Curved surfaces can reflect sound waves. This reflection of sound waves is used
in auditorium to spread the waves uniformly throughout the hall. Reflection of
48
 sound waves is done by using Sound Boards. The speaker is located at the focus
of the sound board.
• Hearing aid is a device used by the people who are hard of hearing. Here the sound
waves, which are received by the hearing aid are reflected into a narrower area leading
to the ear.
• Megaphone is a horn-shaped tube. The sound waves are prevented from spreading out
by successive reflections and are confined to the air in the tube
Applications of ultrasound
• It is used for medical diagnosis and therapy and also as a surgical tool.
• Bats use ultrasound for navigation and to locate food in darkness.
• It is used to detect defective foetus.
• It is used as a tool in the treatment of muscular pain.
• Sonogram (is a technique of 3-dimensional photographs with the help of
ultrasonic waves) is used to locate the exact position of an eye tumor.

Sample Viva Questions

Q1: What are the sound waves?

Sound waves in air are longitudinal waves and propagate in the form of compressions and
rarefactions. When two or more sound waves travel together, the superposition principle states
that the resultant wave at any point in the medium is the algebraic sum of the individual waves at
that point.
Q2: what are standing waves?
When two identical waves, travelling in opposite directions in the same medium, then the
resulting wave will be standing wave.
Q3:Define nodes and antinodes?
The displacement of a particle in the medium has a minimum value of zero; these points of zero
displacements are called nodes. Similarly, the positions with maximum displacements are called
antinodes. It should be noted that the distance between adjacent
nodes or antinodes will be λ/2 and the distance between a node and adjacent antinode will be λ/4.
Q4: How the standing waves are produced in air?
Standing waves can be set up in a glass tube as the result of interference between longitudinal
sound waves travelling in opposite directions. The phase relationship between the incident wave
and the wave reflected from one end of the tube depends on whether that end of the tube is closed
or open. If the tube is closed at one end, the closed end is a displacement node, because the wall
at this end does not allow longitudinal motion of the air molecules.
As a result, at the closed end the reflected wave will be π out of phase with the incident wave.
Since the pressure wave is π/2 out of phase with the displacement wave, the closed

49
end will be pressure antinode. The open end of the air column is a displacement antinode
and pressure node.
Q5: How the frequency is calculated in a tube?
The frequencies at which standing waves can be set up in an air column enclosed by a
tube that is open at both ends can be easily calculated. Because both ends are open, they
should be pressure nodes and displacement antinodes. So the length, L of the air column
must be equal to an exact number of half wavelengths:
L=n λ/2
Where n is an integer number and λ is the wave length.
Q6:How the speed of sound can be changed?
The speed of sound in a material depends on the compressibility (elasticity) and density
of the material through which it is passing. The speed of a sound wave depends on the
properties of the medium through which it moves and the only way to change the speed is
to change the properties of the material.
Q7: Define resonant frequency?
Resonance is the tendency of a system to oscillate with greater amplitude at
some frequencies than at others. Frequencies at which the response amplitude is a relative
maximum are known as the system's resonant frequencies, or resonance frequencies. At
these frequencies, even small periodic driving forces can produce large amplitude
oscillations, because the system stores vibrational energy.
Q8: What is the difference between musical sound and noise?
A musical sound can be defined as a pleasant continuous and uniform sound produced by
regular and periodic vibrations.
Example: The pleasant sound produced by a guitar, piano, tuning fork etc.
Noise can be defined as an irregular succession of disturbances, which are discordant and
unpleasant to the ear.

50
 Experiment No. 7
To determine the elastic constant(Modulus of rigidity) of the flat spiral
spring
.Apparatus:
A flat spiral spring of radius large compared with the radius of the wire,
heavy retort stand, hanger to carry slotted weights, screw gauge, sensitive
spring balance an d vernier calipers.

Observations and Calculations:

Mass of the spiral spring = (1) …………gm. (2)…………gm.
Mean value of mass = m = ………..gm.
Diameter of the wire = d = …………cm.
Radius of the wire = r = d/2 = …………cm.
Mean outside diameter of the spiral spring = D = …………cm
Outside radius of spiral spring = R = D/2………….cm.
Effective value of radius= Outside radius of spiral spring – radius of wire
Number of turns in the spiral spring = N =……………cm

51
 Table
Sr. Mass Time of 30 vibs. Time T2
No. suspended Period
/
(M + m/3) T2
M 1 2 3 Mean T
gm. sec.

Mean value of (M + m/3)/T2 =……………………….

16𝜋𝑅3 𝑁 × (𝑀 + 𝑚/3)
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜂 =
𝑟4 𝑇2
=………….dynes/cm2

Procedure:
1. Make a flat spiral spring by closely winding a wire on a wooden cylinder
of fairly-large radius R as compared with the radius of the wire and
remove the wooden cylinder.
2. Clamp its one end firmly in a heavy retort stand and attach a mass M to its
lower end.
3. Give a slight downward pull to the mass M and release it. It starts
vibrating up and down.
4. When the mass crosses the mean position downward start your stop-watch
and count zero. Count one when the mass once again crosses the mean
position in the downward direction. In this way record time for 30-40
vibrations with stop watch. Repeat this process by suspending different
known loads and work out mean time period T.

52
 5. Measure the diameter of the wire with a screw gauge at different points
along the length of the spring and take its mean value. Now determine the
outer radius of the spiral spring with vernier calipers and subtract from it
the radius of the wire to get the average radius R of the spiral spring. Take
mean value after getting a number of observations.
6. Weigh the spring accurately.
7. Plot a graph between T2 and M to get m/3 (i.e. one third mass of the
spring). The intercept along the axis of M gives you the value of (m/3)
from the graph. Use the relation.

16𝜋𝑅3 𝑁 × (𝑀 + 𝑚/3)
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜂 =
𝑟4 𝑇2

Precautions:
1. The radius of the wire constituting the spiral spring should be sufficiently
small compared with the radius of the spiral spring itself.
2. The spring should not be heavily loaded.
3. Radius of the wire should be determined with special care.
4. Mean radius of the spiral should be used.
5. Number of turns in the spiral should be carefully counted
6. The angle of twist should be small and radius of spiral large.
7. Determination of (m/3) may be made by plotting a graph between T2 and
M.

Theory
Hook’s Law

Hooke's law is a principle of physics that states that the force needed to extend or
compress a spring by some distance is proportional to that distance. That is,

where is a constant factor characteristic of the spring, its stiffness.

Hooke's equation in fact holds (to some extent) in many other situations where
an elastic body is deformed, such as wind blowing on a tall building, a musician plucking
a string of a violin, or the filling of a party balloon. An elastic body or material for which
this equation can be assumed is said to belinear-elastic or Hookean.
Hookes's law is only a first order linear approximation to the real response of springs and
other elastic bodies to applied forces. It must eventually fail once the forces exceed some
limit, since no material can be compressed beyond a certain minimum size, or stretched
53
beyond a maximum size, without some permanent deformation or change of state. In fact,
many materials will noticeably deviate from Hooke's law well before those elastic
limitsare reached.
On the other hand, Hooke's law is an accurate approximation for most solid bodies, as
long as the forces and deformations are small enough. For this reason, Hooke's law is
extensively used in all branches of science and engineering, and is the foundation of
many disciplines such as seismology,molecular mechanics and acoustics. It is also the
fundamental principle behind the spring scale, the manometer, and the balance wheel of
themechanical clock.
The modern theory of elasticity generalizes Hooke's law to say that
the strain (deformation) of an elastic object or material is proportional to the stress
applied to it.
In this general form, Hooke's law and Newton's laws of static equilibrium make it
possible to deduce the relation between strain and stress for complex objects in terms of
intrinsic properties of the materials it is made of. For example, one can deduce that
a homogeneous rod with uniform cross-section will behave like a simple spring when
stretched, with a stiffness directly proportional to its cross-section area and inversely
proportional to its length.

In materials science, shear modulus or modulus of rigidity, is defined as the ratio of shear
stress to the shear strain.

The shear modulus is one of several quantities for measuring the stiffness of materials.
All of them arise in the generalized Hooke's law:

• Young's modulus describes the material's response to linear strain (like pulling on the
ends of a wire or putting a weight on top of a column),
• the bulk modulus describes the material's response to uniform pressure (like the
pressure at the bottom of the ocean or a deep swimming pool)
• the shear modulus describes the material's response to shear strain (like cutting it with
dull scissors).
The shear modulus is concerned with the deformation of a solid when it experiences a
force parallel to one of its surfaces while its opposite face experiences an opposing force
(such as friction). In the case of an object that's shaped like a rectangular prism, it will
deform into a parallelepiped. Anisotropic materials such as wood, paper and also
essentially all single crystals exhibit differing material response to stress or strain when
tested in different directions. In this case one may need to use the full tensor-
expression of the elastic constants, rather than a single scalar value.
One possible definition of a fluid is material with zero shear modulus.
Shear Modulus of Metals
The shear modulus of metals is usually observed to decrease with increasing temperature.
At high pressures, the shear modulus also appears to increase with the applied pressure.

54
Correlations between the melting temperature, vacancy formation energy, and the shear
modulus have been observed in many metals.
Several models exist that attempt to predict the shear modulus of metals (and possibly
that of alloys). Shear modulus models that have been used in plastic flow computations
include:

4. The MTS shear modulus model developed by and used in conjunction with the
Mechanical Threshold Stress (MTS) plastic flow stress model.
5. The Steinberg-Cochran-Guinan (SCG) shear modulus model developed by and
used in conjunction with the Steinberg-Cochran-Guinan-Lund (SCGL) flow
stress model.
6. The Nadal and LePoac (NP) shear modulus model that uses Lindemann theory to
determine the temperature dependence and the SCG model for pressure
dependence of the shear modulus.

Applications
Material scientists and applied physicists use this concept in special ways. Understanding
the modulus of rigidity will help select the correct material to use for construction under
many circumstances. The smaller the force is, the easier the material will bend. It is
calculated and publicly recorded for most materials. A rod made of gold will bend more
easily than one of the same thickness made of steel, for example, and the shearing
modulus displays this clearly for most comparisons.

55
 Experiment No. 8

To determine the vertical distance between two points by sextant.

Apparatus: Sextant, stand with clamp, measuring tape, spirit level, plumb line.

Figure 1: The Davis Mark 15 sextant

56
 Figure 2: Ray diagram of image formation using sextant

θ1 θ2

Figure 3: Finding vertical distance between X and Y points

Procedure:
i. The Davis Mark 15 sextant is shown in figure 1. Find the vernier constant of the
sextant. It is calculated by the value of smallest main scale division by total
57
 number of divisions of the vernier scale. This sextant has a micrometer scale is
provided in place of vernier. The least count is calculated by pitch of the
micrometer divided by the number of divisions on the circular scale.
ii. Figure 2 shows the ray diagram of image formation using sextant.
iii. Mark two points ‘X’ and ‘Y’ vertically above each other on a wall. Mark point
‘X’ vertically above the point ‘Y’ as shown in figure 3.
iv. Place the sextant at a distance of about 10 meters from the wall.
v. Clamp the sextant vertically with its telescope pointing horizontally towards the
lower mark ‘Y’. Telescope should be in level with the mark ‘Y’. It can be
checked with a spirit level.
vi. Focus the telescope directly on the mark ‘Y’ and adjust the position of the sextant
so that the image of the point ‘Y’ is in the center of the field of view. This is the
direct stationary image of ‘Y’ as seen in the telescope. This direct image is
formed by the ray coming straight into the telescope through the clear half of the
horizon glass M2.
vii. Adjust the index arm at zero degree and then slowly rotate it by tangent screw ‘S’.
Now in addition to the stationary image, a moving image of the same mark ‘Y’
will also be visible in the telescope after reflection from the two mirrors M 1 and
M2.
viii. Rotate the index arm further till the two images (stationary image and moving
image) of ‘Y’ overlap on each other by adjusting the tangent screw ‘S’.
ix. If the two images do not overlap, set them along the same line (side by side) and
adjust the screw fitted at the back of the index glass for complete overlapping. In
this position, two mirrors M1 and M2 are parallel to each other. Note down the
reading of the index arm on the main circular scale. This is the initial reading.
x. Rotate the index arm slowly till the moving image of ‘X’ reflected by M 1 and M2
coincides with the stationary image of ‘Y’. Again note down the reading of the
index arm on the main circular scale. This is the final reading. The difference of
initial and final readings will give the angle ‘θ1’.
xi. Now displace the sextant in the backward direction through a known distance ‘d’.
Measure this distance by measuring tape. Repeat steps vii to x to get ‘θ2’.
xii. Calculate the vertical distance ‘h’ between ‘Y’ and ‘X’ by the following relation
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 d
h=
cot  2 − cot 1

‘d’ is the distance between the points P and Q placed on the horizontal axis.
xiii. Repeat the experiment for a different distance of the sextant from the lower point.

Observations and Calculations:

Vernier constant of the sextant = Value of the smallest division on main scale/No. of
divisions on the circular scale

No Sextant reading at point ‘P’ Sextant reading at point ‘Q’ d

Displacement h=
of cot  2 − cot 1
Initial Final Difference Initial Final Difference d (cm)
Obs. cm
reading reading θ1o
reading reading θ2 o

Mean value of h = ______________ cm

______________ m

Percentage error =Actual value- calculated value/Actual value x 100 =______________

%

Theory
Sextant:
A sextant has a length of ⅙ of a turn (60°); hence the sextant's name (sextāns is
the Latin word for "one sixth"). An octant is a similar device with a shorter scale (⅛ turn,
or 45°), whereas a quintant (⅕ turn, or 72°) and a quadrant (¼ turn, or 90°) have longer
scales.

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Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727) invented the principle of the doubly reflecting navigation
instrument (a reflecting quadrant), but never published it. John Bird made the first sextant
in 1757. The octant and later the sextant, replaced the Davis quadrant as the main
instrument for navigation.
The Davis Mark 15 shown in figure 1, is a durable plastic sextant, has a traditional split
mirror and is lightweight. The three power telescope has anti-reflective coated glass
lenses plus a hood sight tube and shades.
This sextant has many great features including seven large sunshades, a 3 mm x 27 mm
star scope, and easy-to-read micrometer drum vernier scale that reads to 2/10 of a minute.
It has a 7" (18 cm) frame radius graduated from 120 degrees to -5 degrees and comes
with a traditional half-silvered mirror.

Working principle:
Sextant is based on the principle of rotation of a plane mirror. According to this principle,
when a plane mirror is rotated through an angle θ, the reflected angle rotates through an
angle 2θ provided that the incident ray remains unchanged. The distant object is viewed
directly through the clean parts of mirrors M2 and then the movable arm is so rotated that
the mirror M1 and M2 become parallel. In this position the telescope receives the rays
from distant object in two paths.

Operating the Sextant

There are three steps to adjusting your sextant: index mirror adjustment, horizon mirror
adjustment, and index error adjustment and calculation. The index arm of the sextant can
move in relation to the body by turning the micrometer drum or by squeezing the spring-
loaded quick release levers. The levers free the fine adjustment screw in the interior of
the index arm and allow it to be moved quickly to any angle. Be sure to squeeze the
levers completely so that the screw clears the gear rack on the underside of the sextant.
Release the levers and turn the micrometer drum at least one full turn to ensure that the
screw has meshed fully with the gear rack. An incorrect reading may be obtained at the
drum if this is not done.
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Every sextant exhibits some difference in readings when turning toward higher or lower
angles (called backlash error). Always make the final movement of the knob toward a
higher angle.

Reading the Sextant Scales:

The Davis Mark 15 sextant has three scales that give readings to 2/10 of a minute. The
scale on the frame is called the “arc”; each division of the arc equals one degree.

To read the number of degrees:

Find the lines on the arc that are closest to the index line on the index arm. The index line
is usually somewhere between two lines. The correct reading is usually that of the lower
value, i.e., the line to the right of the index line.
Note: When the index line is very close to a line on the arc, check the reading at the
micrometer drum to be sure that you have taken the correct whole degree.

To read fractions of a degree:

Use the two scales involving the micrometer drum at the side of the index arm. The outer
revolving drum scale indicates minutes of arc (one minute equals 1/60 of a degree), while
the stationary vernier reads to 2/10 of a minute.

To read the number of minutes:

Find the single long line at the top of the vernier. The line on the drum scale that is
opposite this line gives the number of minutes. If the line on the vernier is between two
lines on the drum, choose the line of lower value.

To read fractions of a minute:

1. Find the short line of the vernier that is opposite to a line on the drum.
2. Count the number of spaces this line is away from the long line at the top of the
vernier. Each one equals 2/10 of a minute.

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In this diagram, the line on the vernier that is opposite to a line on the drum is two spaces
away from the long line at the top of the vernier. The sextant reads 45°16.40'.
Note: The micrometer drum scale and its screw mechanism, not the arc, determine the
accuracy of your sextant. The arc is stamped with sufficient accuracy to ensure that you
are never reading the incorrect whole degree; full accuracy in minutes of arc depends
exclusively on the drum scale. For example, when the sextant reads 0° 00', the drum scale
will be set precisely at zero, while the index line and the zero on the arc may be slightly
out of alignment. As you are concerned only with reading whole degrees on the arc, this
difference is not significant.

Precautions:
i. The scale should lie in a vertical plane and the axis of telescope should be
horizontal.
ii. The two images should overlap and should have the same intensity.
iii. Telescope should be at the same height from the floor as the bottom of the object
(i.e. mark ‘Y’).
iv. The vernier constant of the sextant should be found carefully.
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 v. The index and horizon glasses should be parallel and at the same time the vernier
should read zero.

Applications:
i. Determination of angular diameter of the sun.
ii. Determination of angular elevation of the sun or some other luminous objects.
iii. Height of an accessible and inaccessible object can be found by using sextant.

Sample Viva voce questions

Q # 1. What is the principle upon which the sextant is constructed?

A. When a mirror rotates through a certain angle, the reflected ray will rotate through
double the angle. For example if the ray is rotated through one degree the reflected beam
turns through two degrees.
Q # 2. Why this instrument is called sextant?
A. It is named as sextant because its circular scale is one sixth of a circle i.e., its scale
forms an arc of 60o which is graduated into sixty degrees each degree being further
divided into half degrees to facilitate a direct reading from the scale.
Q # 3. Give some uses of sextant.
▪ To determine the height of an accessible and inaccessible objects.
▪ To find the angular diameter of celestial objects.
▪ To determine angular distance between two points.
▪ It can determine angular elevation of the sun or other luminous objects.

Q # 4. How inaccessible object is defined?

A. If the distance from the foot of a distant object to the sextant is not measureable
directly, it is called an inaccessible object.
Q # 5. Which type of telescope is used in the sextant?
A. An Astronomical telescope with Ramsden eyepiece.
Q # 6. What is Ramsden Eyepiece?
A. The Ramsden eyepiece comprises two plano convex lenses of the same glass and
similar focal lengths, placed less than one eye-lens focal length apart. The lens separation
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varies between different designs, but is typically somewhere between 7/10 and 7/8 of the
focal length of the eye-lens.

Figure 1: Schematic of Ramsden eyepiece

Q # 7. What is reflection?
A. When light traveling in a medium encounters a boundary leading to a second
medium, part of the incident light is returned to the first medium from which it came.
This phenomenon is called reflection.
Q # 8. What are the laws of reflection?
A. According to the laws of reflection,
▪ When light falls on a surface which is plane, the angle with which the light falls
on the surface is equal to the angle with which the light reflects back and the
incident ray, reflected ray and the normal ray lies in the same plane.
▪ Angle of incidence is always equal to angle of reflection.

Q # 9. What are the types of reflection?

A. There are two types of reflection;
▪ Reflection of light from a smooth surface is called regular or specular
reflection.
▪ It may be noticed that while the incident rays are parallel, the reflected rays
emerge in different directions. This is called scatter or diffuse reflection.

Q # 10. What are the limitations of the law of reflection?

A. Law of reflection does not hold for curved mirrors and diffuse reflection as the angle
of incidence is different from the angle of reflection.

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