Subsurface

Geology
G310
 Prepared by
•Prof. Doctor/
•Ibrahem Abd-Elfattah
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1: Definition and Role of Subsurface Geology.
• Subsurface geology may be defined as the study of geology in three
dimensions in that it extends the observations and interpretations made at
the surface into the underground. In petroleum geology the term includes
also the interpretation of data furnished by geophysical surveys of various
types (gravity, magnetic, seismic, and well logging) and by geochemical
investigations. The subsurface geologist is concerned, then, with the
distribution, thickness, character, attitude, elevation, sequence, correlation,
fossil content, and geologic age of the underground or subsurface rock layers.
From the study of logs, cuttings, and core from wells; physical measurements
made within the well pores; and data from geophysical and geochemical
surveys, information on the stratigraphy and structure of the underground
rock formations is obtained. When properly interpreted and presented on
appropriate maps, cross sections, and other types of diagrams, this
information has wide application in both exploration and exploitation.
• Subsurface geologic exploration may be roughly subdivided
into three distinct but overlapping phases, each distinguished
by the amount and quality of data available upon which to
base an interpretation of the geologic merits of the region or
area of interest under investigation.
Phase I: may be thought of as the pioneer
or reconnaissance phase in which only sparse,
scattered data may be available on which to base an
evaluation of an area of interest. There are
occasions when a geologist must make
recommendations to management or client even
through the nearest outcrops to the area under
consideration are many miles away, the nearest well
previously drilled is equally distant, only in definite
indications of subsurface structural conditions Such
circumstances require the geologist to use lively but
controlled imagination in order to evaluate the
possibilities of the area. Study of distant outcrops,
wells (perhaps only one), and inconclusive
geophysical findings can result in tentative
conclusions as to regional structural trends, source
and distribution of sediments, and possible
presence of source and reservoir rocks.
Phase II of subsurface exploration is the
advanced or detailed phaso. After a region has
been explored more thoroughly, considerably
more data are available. Perhaps one or more
oil or gas fields have been discovered and
developed Data control from numerous wells
and from detailed geophysical surveys permits
structural and stratigraphical analysis of the
area of interest and construction of structure
contour, isopach, facies, and paleogeographic
maps and sections, both regional and local in
extent. This is the stage in which subsurface
geology is most rewarding, for careful analysis
of the increased amount of dependable data,
together with clear imaginative geologic
thinking, will inevitably result in the
development of drillable prospects in any
petroliferous province.
Phase III: of subsurface exploration is
the application of subsurface geology to
the development and possible extension
of an existing field. This is known as
production or exploitation geology. We
shall limit our discussion of subsurface
geology principally to phases I and II.
1.2. Sources of Subsurface Geologic Data.
• The principal source of the basic data of subsurface
geology is from well drilling, both wildcat and
development. Examination of actual formation
samples obtained during drilling together with
measurements by indirect means of certain physical
properties of the rocks penetrated, yields such
information as formation lithology. formation
boundaries, elevation of formation boundaries,
formation ago, dip and strike of formations, location
of unconformities, the presence of faults, porosity,
permeability, fluid content of porous formations,
fluid pressure, formation temperatures, etc. The
actual formation samples obtained during drilling
include drill cuttings, cores, and formation fluids.
• All the information obtainable at the surface is
also available to the subsurface. Formations are
usually measured, described, and named from
surface observations. The structural geology at the
surface is of utmost importance to the three-
dimensional interpretation. Regional and local
formation dips and strikes can be extrapolated
downward. The location and attitude of faults at
the surface may be projected into the subsurface
and used to predict structural conditions in the
prospect area.
• Geophysical mapping is an integral part of the
systematic exploration program. Geophysical
surveying is, in fact, a form of subsurface mapping
performed at the surface without drilling. The
mapping is done from measurements of various
physical properties of the rocks, such as rock
density, energy transmissibility, radioactivity,
magnetic susceptibility, etc. These measurements
can be translated into geologic data giving
information on structure, stratigraphy, depth, and
attitude. Geophysical data must be combined with
other subsurface information, and all the
information synthesized into a complete picture.
 Chapter 2
CORRELATION
The correlation of subsurface data has no geologic value whatsoever until
the data have been recorded, classified, studied, and interpreted. The first
task for the exploration subsurface geologist is to work out the stratigraphic
section in detail. This includes the correlation of sedimentary units and the
recognition of unconformities. Correlation is the process of determining
mutual relations between sedimentary rock units. Correlation of
stratigraphic units serves to indicate which rocks in different regions are of
the same age and arranges rocks of different ages in their proper sequence.

Correlation may be based on three types of stratigraphic units; lithogenetic

or rock units, biostratigraphic or faunal units, or time-stratigraphic (time-
rock) units.
 IV.1: Correlation of Lithogenetic Units.
• Lithogenetic or sedimentary rock units are specific bodies of rock
identified and recognized by observable objective criteria. The
fundamental rock unit is the formation. Formations may be assembled
into groups or differentiated into members. All the features useful in the
recognition of the formations are also useful in correlation. The most
important and most commonly employed types of evidence include: (1)
physical evidences as lithologic similarity, continuity of strata, position in
stratigraphic sequence, electrical characteristics, radioactivity, acoustical
characteristics, unconformable relations, structural development (2)
paleontologic evidences as index fossils, paleontologic sequences,
paleontologic similarity. Figure (27) is an example of long-distance
correlation using electrical characteristics and figure (28) illustrates
correlation of radioactivity logs.
• Correlation of a lithogeneic unit is limited to the areal extent of
the unit in question. Where the extent of the unit is limited by
non-deposition or by erosion, this area over which correlation is
possible is easily defined. However, problems arise where the
unit changes laterally into varying lithofacies as shown in figure
(29). Sometimes such problems can be side- stepped by using
different names for varying aspects of the unit without
attempting to correlate the individual unit over a number of
facies.
 IV.2: CORRELATION OF BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC UNITS.
• Biostratigraphic units are bodies of strata characterized by their contained fossil
assemblages. The fundamental unit is the zone or biozone. Biozone, like rock units, are
of limited areal extent and generally cannot be correlated beyond a single depositional
basin. Biostratigraphic zone are not necessarily related to rock units. However,
environmental factors commonly affect lithotopes and biotopes simultaneously, and
therefore, biozones and rock units may coincide over broad areas. Characteristically,
the two types of units tend to be more parallel or coincident around the rim of a
sedimentary basin and more widely divergent down dip into the basin. Subsurface
correlation of biozones is based on the identification of micropaleontologic zonal guide
fossils. Normally, consideration of assemblages of species rather than individual forms
is required. The data are of importance in determining structural position and in
detecting changes in thickness of stratigraphic intervals from well to well. The first
appearances of zonal guide fossils in the samples are used to establish the position of
tops of successive zones penetrated. These tops may be correlated like key beds in a
lithologic section as seen in figure (30).
 IV.3: Correlation of Time-Stratigraphic Units.
• Time-stratigraphic (time-rock) units are bodies of strata
deposited during a specific interval of geologic time. No
name has been assigned to rocks deposited during an era,
these being commonly referred to as Paleozoic strata, beds of
Cenozoic age, etc. Strata deposited during an epoch form a
series, and those laid down during an age are designated a
stage. The boundaries of time-rock units are invisible planes
or surface of synchronous time, although sometimes these
surfaces may be delineated by unconformities.
• The methods of correlation include recognition of index
fossils and biozone limits, absolute age determinations from
radioactive decay rates, observation of eustatic changes in
sea level, and comparison of gross lithologic character of the
units. The aims of time-rock correlation are generally
interprovincial, interregional, or even intercontinental.
• Some of the more common difficulties encountered in all
correlation work include discontinuity of stratigraphic units,
structural complexity: lateral variations in thickness,
lithology, and paleontology, poor development or absence of
marker beds: presence of unrecognized unconformities;
multiplicity of nomenclature, and erroneously compiled data.
 INTERPRETATION AND
PRESENTATION
Chapter 3
OF SUBSURFACE GEOLOGIC
DATA
 The subsurface data are expressed in
terms of: (1) known geographic locations
(the well sites). (2) known stratigraphic
markers. (3) known depths below the
surface which can be converted to subsea
depths, (4) known lithologic composition of
penetrated rock succession. Undoubtedly,
the most important technique that a
petroleum geologist must acquire is the
ability to express the subsurface data
graphically and to be able to interpret the
graphic representations. These
representations, generally having the form
of maps or sections or diagrams, present
the nature of structural or stratigraphic
features much more clearly than any
amount of verbal description
 in preparing subsurface maps and sections, the
measurements made at each well are assembled
in tabular form called correlation table. The table
has columns for recording the thickness of each
rock type, as well as the total thickness of the

V.1: Correlation
stratigraphic unit. In another form of correlation
table, subsea depths of the tops of the

Tables and
stratigraphic units at each well are recorded. If
percentages or ratios are to be computed,

Charts.
additional columns may be added for recording
the computed values. In order to show the
vertical and horizontal relationships among the
rock units, correlation charts usually are
constructed. In construction of correlation charts
two considerations are important, choice of scale
and degree of vertical exaggeration.
 The fundamental element for structural and
stratigraphic mapping is am stratigraphic horizon,
commonly termed a key horizon, key bed, or marker
bed. Definition of a stratigraphic unit requires the
selection of two horizons which form the top and
bottom of the three-dimensional body. The marker beds

V.2: Marker
are divided into three classes and include lithologic
characteristics, biologic properties, and structural

Beds.
discontinuities which may be present.
Commonly used kinds of marker beds are; lithologic
key beds including thin limestone or sandstone bed, coal
or lignite bed, bentonite bed, and heavy mineral zone;
biologic markers including teilzone (occurrence of an
index or guide fossil), and biostratigraphic horizon
(occurrence of a typical faunal assemblage); structural
discontinuities including angular unconformity,
disconformity, and diastem.
 The purposes of these maps are to
present the subsurface data in an
V.3: Subsurface interpretable form. Each map is a
Maps. graphic integration of specific
information presented in an
understandable form. These maps
include the following categories:
1- Subsurface maps concern the external
geometry of the three-dimensional rock body
as a hole. They are included the structure
contour and isopach maps.
2- Subsurface maps concern the delineation of
lithologic composition. They explain the kind
of rocks present, their several thicknesses, and
their vertical arrangement within the rock
body. They are subdivided into several types.
The most common type is the conventional
facies maps. These include isolith maps,
percentage maps, ratio maps, and triangle-
ratio maps.
 In compiling data for the map, all available
surface and subsurface information in the area of
interest is assembled. A base map appropriate to
the scope of the study is selected or drawn, and
the control points are plotted on the base map.
The information from each well or measured
section is summarized at the control points, and
contour lines or other suitable symbols are drawn
on the map to bring out the attributes being
studied. Figure (31) shows, in summarized form,
the data needed for preparing stratigraphic
maps. On the right is the base map, with each
control point (borehole, outcrop, or quarry)
numbered, and with its geographic coordinates.
On the left in the figure is a measured section
with its top and bottom elevation indicated, and
with conventional symbols for the rocks in the
section.
V.3.1: STRUCTURE CONTOUR MAPS.
Subsurface structure contour map shows the geometric configuration of a rock surface by
contour lines passed through points of equal elevation or depth above or below a selected
datum. The datum commonly used is sea level. This map generally used to show the
structure of the area which may have important oil prospects. Domes and other anticlinal
features are shown as highs, which are closed contours of smaller depth than surrounding
points. Synclines and basins are the opposite. Monoclinal structures or flexures are
indicated by more or less parallel contour lines increasing or decreasing in sub-sea depth in
a given direction. The magnitude of a structure is expressed in terms of its closure and
areal extent. The closure is read from the map by noting the depth difference within the
largest closed contour which surrounds the structure. The spacing of the structure contour
lines gives an indication of the steepness of the fold or flexure.
• The first step in making a structure contour map is selecting the scale
and the contour interval. The scale is determined partly in order to
make the map of convenient size, partly in order to bring out
important details of the features to be presented, and partly as a
result of the accuracy of the surveying methods. The choice of the
contour interval depends on several factors; the size of the errors in
depth, the types of structures to be mapped, and the purpose for
which the map will be used.
Contouring can be done by three methods; mechanically, equal spacing, and
interpretive. In mechanical contouring (figure 32a), the vertical difference in
depth between two control points is distributed evenly according to the
number of units required by the chosen contour interval. Equal-space
contouring, as seen in figure (32b), maintains uniform slope on the map within
the limits of available data, and may be thus show highs or lows in places where
no actual data are available. This method of contouring is based on the
assumption that if the rate of dip can be determined from three points, it will
continue over broad areas without change. Interpretive contouring, as shown
in figure (32c), consists in giving a grain to the map in accordance with known
or inferred structural or other trends in the mapped area.
 Contouring faulted beds presents some problems. On contour maps a
fault is commonly drawn as a single heavy line. However, a normal fault
with a low-dipping plane results in a zone where the mapped horizon
or surface is absent. This zone is known as a datum gap. The width of
the gap depends on the degree of dip of the mapped bed surface, the
dip of the fault plane, and the amount of throw of the fault plane, as
seen in figure (33) For reverse faults, no datum gap is present and the
contour on the upthrown block overlie the contour on the downthrown
side, as shown in figure (34).
V.3.2: ISOPACH MAPS.
• An isopach or isopachous map shows the varying thicknesses of a
stratigraphic unit by contour lines (isopachs) drawn through points of
equal thickness. Isopach maps may show variations in thickness of a
formation, a group of formations, the strata belonging to a given
geologic period or epoch, a lithologic unit such as a sandstone or
limestone bed. The area covered by an isopach map may be small,
such as a single pool or field, or it may be very large for regional
studies covering structural basins or provinces including thousands of
square miles.
• Isopach maps are constructed in much the same way as structure contour maps.
Once the stratigraphic unit for isopaching is selected, the observed thicknesses are
plotted at the control points on the base map and the isopach lines drawn through
points of equal thickness. The vertical interval between isopachs may be selected
from several hundred feet on a regional map to intervals as small as ten feet for
detailed studies of thin stratigraphic units. Isopach maps may be prepared directly
from two subsurface structure contour maps by subtracting the depths of the lower
surface from those of the upper surface at each control point, and drawing contours
of equal interval between the two surfaces. Isopach maps prepared in this manner
are called convergence maps. Figure (35) shows steps of constructing these maps.
Isopach is commonly drawn by vertical or true thicknesses. If the mapped formation
is dipping, true thickness can be calculated and it is equal to the drilling thickness
multiplied by the cosine of the dip angle. A subsurface isopach map showing by
contours the drilled thickness of a stratigraphic unit, is termed an isochore map.
 V.3.3: Facies Maps.
The rock characteristics in practically all stratigraphic units change in some manner
from one part of a basin to another. The degree of variation and rate of change may be
great or small, depending upon such factors as the size and configuration of the basin
and adjacent terrain, the climate, the chemistry of waters, etc A single formation may
be a conglomerate at one locality, a sandstone or shale at another, a limestone or
anhydrite at a third. and perhaps a combination of three or more lithologies at still
another place. The changing patterns of sedimentation within a genetically related
stratigraphic unit reflect differences in both the tectonic framework and the local
environment, and it is, therefore, of utmost importance to the subsurface geologist in
working out geologic history to determine the nature of these variations and where
they occur and to be able to show the changes on maps.

37
V.3.3.A: Lithofacies Maps.
Lithofacies maps are maps of facies differentiated on the basis
of lithologic characteristics. Several kinds of conventional
lithofacies maps may be distinguished; single-component, and
multi-component lithofacies maps.
a-Single-Component Lithofacies Maps.
Two main kinds of facies maps fall into this category. They
are based either on the absolute thickness of a selected rock
type in a stratigraphic unit (isolith maps), or on its relative
thickness with respect to the total thickness of the stratigraphic
unit itself (percentage maps).

38
1- Net Thickness Maps (Isolith Maps).
An isolith is a line denoting the aggregate thickness of beds of only
one lithology in a stratigraphic succession composed of one or more
lithologies, where only one lithology is present, an isolith and an
isopach of the same stratigraphic interval are identical. An isolith map is
a contour map depicting the thickness of an exclusive lithology over the
map area. In a section composed of sandstones and shales, two isolith
maps are required to show the total thickness distribution, whereas
only one isopach map is needed. The sum of all the thicknesses shown
on a complete set of isolith maps of a given stratigraphic interval equals
the isopach map of the same interval. Figure (36) presents an isopach
map of a basin of sedimentation together with a cross section
illustrating the complex relationships of the sediments occupying the
basin, followed by isolith maps of sandstone, shale, limestone, and
evaporites comprising the sediments.
39
2- Percentage Maps.
Instead of contouring net one lithology thickness directly, the
percentage of it in stratigraphic unit may be computed by dividing the
thickness of this one lithology by total thickness at each control point.
The resulting map is a percentage map that shows the relative amount of
the one lithology in the stratigraphic unit. Figure (37) shows examples of
isolith and percentage maps of a hypothetical stratigraphic unit