Extrusion

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For the process that creates volcanic rock, see Extrusive (geology).

Extruded aluminium with several hollow cavities; T slots allow bars to be joined with special connectors.

Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A material is pushed or

pulled through a die of the desired cross-section. The two main advantages of this process over other
manufacturing processes are its ability to create very complex cross-sections, and to work materials that
are brittle, because the material only encounters compressive and shear stresses. It also forms parts with
an excellent surface finish.[1]
Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing indefinitely long material) or semi-continuous
(producing many pieces). The extrusion process can be done with the material hot or cold.
Commonly extruded materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, concrete, play dough, and foodstuffs.
The products of extrusion are generally called "extrudates". Drawing metal is the main way to
produce wire and sheet, and bar and tube are also often drawn.
Hollow cavities within extruded material cannot be produced using a simple flat extrusion die, because
there would be no way to support the center barrier of the die. Instead, the die assumes the shape of a
block with depth, beginning first with a shape profile that supports the center section. The die shape then
internally changes along its length into the final shape, with the suspended center pieces supported from
the back of the die.
The extrusion process in metals may also increase the strength of the material.

Contents

 1 History
 2 Process
o 2.1 Hot extrusion
o 2.2 Cold extrusion
o 2.3 Warm extrusion
o 2.4 Extrusion defects
 3 Equipment
o 3.1 Forming internal cavities
o 3.2 Direct extrusion
o 3.3 Indirect extrusion
o 3.4 Hydrostatic extrusion
o 3.5 Drives
 4 Die design
 5 Materials
o 5.1 Metal
o 5.2 Plastic
o 5.3 Ceramic
 6 Applications
o 6.1 Food
o 6.2 Drug carriers
o 6.3 Biomass briquettes
 7 See also
 8 References
o 8.1 Notes
o 8.2 Bibliography
 9 See also
 10 External links

History[edit]
In 1797, Joseph Bramah patented the first extrusion process for making lead pipe. It involved preheating
the metal and then forcing it through a die via a hand-driven plunger. The process was not further
developed until 1820 when Thomas Burr constructed the first hydraulic powered press. At this time the
process was called "squirting". In 1894, Alexander Dick expanded then process to copper and brass
alloys.[2]

Process[edit]

Extrusion of a round blank through a die.

The process begins by heating the stock material (for hot or warm extrusion). It is then loaded into the
container in the press. A dummy block is placed behind it where the ram then presses on the material to
push it out of the die. Afterward the extrusion is stretched in order to straighten it. If better properties are
required then it may be heat treated or cold worked.[2]
The extrusion ratio is defined as the starting cross-sectional area divided by the cross-sectional area of
the final extrusion. One of the main advantages of the extrusion process is that this ratio can be very
large while still producing quality parts.
Hot extrusion[edit]
Hot extrusion is a hot working process, which means it is done above the
material's recrystallization temperature to keep the material fromwork hardening and to make it easier to
push the material through the die. Most hot extrusions are done on horizontal hydraulic pressesthat
range from 230 to 11,000 metric tons (250 to 12,130 short tons). Pressures range from 30 to 700 MPa
(4,400 to 101,500 psi), therefore lubrication is required, which can be oil or graphite for lower
temperature extrusions, or glass powder for higher temperature extrusions. The biggest disadvantage of
this process is its cost for machinery and its upkeep. [1]
The extrusion process is generally economical when producing between several kilograms (pounds) and
many tons, depending on the material being extruded. There is a crossover point where roll
forming becomes more economical. For instance, some steels become more economical to roll if
producing more than 20,000 kg (50,000 lb).[2]

 Aluminium hot extrusion die



Front side of a four family die. For reference, the die is 228 mm (9.0 in) in diameter.
 

Close up of the shape cut into the die. Notice that the walls are drafted and that the back wall thickness varies.
 

Back side of die. The wall thickness of the extrusion is 3 mm (0.12 in).
Cold extrusion[edit]
Cold extrusion is done at room temperature or near room temperature. The advantages of this over hot
extrusion are the lack of oxidation, higher strength due to cold working, closer tolerances, better surface
finish, and fast extrusion speeds if the material is subject to hot shortness.[1]
Materials that are commonly cold extruded
include: lead, tin, aluminum, copper, zirconium, titanium, molybdenum, beryllium, vanadium, niobium,
and steel.
Examples of products produced by this process are: collapsible tubes, fire extinguisher cases, shock
absorber cylinders and gear blanks.
Warm extrusion[edit]
Warm extrusion is done above room temperature, but below the recrystallization temperature of the
material the temperatures ranges from 800 to 1800 °F (424 to 975 °C). It is usually used to achieve the
proper balance of required forces, ductility and final extrusion properties. [3]
Extrusion defects[edit]

 Surface cracking occurs when the surface of an extrusion splits. This is often caused by the
extrusion temperature, friction, or speed being too high. It can also happen at lower temperatures if the
extruded product temporarily sticks to the die.
 Pipe – A flow pattern that draws the surface oxides and impurities to the center of the product.
Such a pattern is often caused by high friction or cooling of the outer regions of the billet.
 Internal cracking – When the center of the extrusion develops cracks or voids. These cracks are
attributed to a state of hydrostatic tensile stress at the centerline in the deformation zone in the die. (A
similar situation to the necked region in a tensile stress specimen)
 Surface lines – When there are lines visible on the surface of the extruded profile. This depends
heavily on the quality of the die production and how well the die is maintained, as some residues of the
material extruded can stick to the die surface and produce the embossed lines.

Equipment[edit]

A horizontal hydraulic press for hot aluminum extrusion (loose dies and scrap visible in foreground)

There are many different variations of extrusion equipment. They vary by four major characteristics: [1]

1. Movement of the extrusion with relation to the ram. If the die is held stationary and the ram
moves towards it then it is called "direct extrusion". If the ram is held stationary and the die moves
towards the ram it is called "indirect extrusion".
2. The position of the press, either vertical or horizontal.
3. The type of drive, either hydraulic or mechanical.
4. The type of load applied, either conventional (variable) or hydrostatic.
A single or twin screw auger, powered by an electric motor, or a ram, driven by hydraulic pressure (often
used for steel and titanium alloys), oil pressure (for aluminium), or in other specialized processes such as
rollers inside a perforated drum for the production of many simultaneous streams of material.
Typical extrusion presses cost more than $100,000, whereas dies can cost up to $2000.
Forming internal cavities[edit]

Two-piece aluminum extrusion die set (parts shown separated.) The male part (at right) is for forming the internal
cavity in the resulting round tube extrusion.

There are several methods for forming internal cavities in extrusions. One way is to use a hollow billet
and then use a fixed or floatingmandrel. A fixed mandrel, also known as a German type, means it is
integrated into the dummy block and stem. A floating mandrel, also known as a French type, floats in
slots in the dummy block and aligns itself in the die when extruding. If a solid billet is used as the feed
material then it must first be pierced by the mandrel before extruding through the die. A special press is
used in order to control the mandrel independently from the ram. [1] The solid billet could also be used with
a spider die, porthole die or bridge die. All of these types of dies incorporate the mandrel in the die and
have "legs" that hold the mandrel in place. During extrusion the metal divides, flows around the legs, then
merges, leaving weld lines in the final product. [4]
Direct extrusion[edit]

Plot of forces required by various extrusion processes.

Direct extrusion, also known as forward extrusion, is the most common extrusion process. It works by
placing the billet in a heavy walled container. The billet is pushed through the die by a ram or screw.
There is a reusable dummy block between the ram and the billet to keep them separated. The major
disadvantage of this process is that the force required to extrude the billet is greater than that needed in
the indirect extrusion process because of the frictional forces introduced by the need for the billet to
travel the entire length of the container. Because of this the greatest force required is at the beginning of
process and slowly decreases as the billet is used up. At the end of the billet the force greatly increases
because the billet is thin and the material must flow radially to exit the die. The end of the billet (called the
butt end) is not used for this reason. [5]
Indirect extrusion[edit]
In indirect extrusion, also known as backwards extrusion, the billet and container move together while the
die is stationary. The die is held in place by a "stem" which has to be longer than the container length.
The maximum length of the extrusion is ultimately dictated by the column strength of the stem. Because
the billet moves with the container the frictional forces are eliminated. This leads to the following
advantages:[6]

 A 25 to 30% reduction of friction, which allows for extruding larger billets, increasing speed, and
an increased ability to extrude smaller cross-sections
 There is less of a tendency for extrusions to crack because there is no heat formed from friction
 The container liner will last longer due to less wear
 The billet is used more uniformly so extrusion defects and coarse grained peripherals zones are
less likely.
The disadvantages are:[6]

 Impurities and defects on the surface of the billet affect the surface of the extrusion. These
defects ruin the piece if it needs to be anodized or the aesthetics are important. In order to get around
this the billets may be wire brushed, machined or chemically cleaned before being used.
 This process isn't as versatile as direct extrusions because the cross-sectional area is limited by
the maximum size of the stem.
Hydrostatic extrusion[edit]
In the hydrostatic extrusion process the billet is completely surrounded by a pressurized liquid, except
where the billet contacts the die. This process can be done hot, warm, or cold, however the temperature
is limited by the stability of the fluid used. The process must be carried out in a sealed cylinder to contain
the hydrostatic medium. The fluid can be pressurized two ways:[6]

1. Constant-rate extrusion: A ram or plunger is used to pressurize the fluid inside the container.
2. Constant-pressure extrusion: A pump is used, possibly with a pressure intensifier, to pressurize
the fluid, which is then pumped to the container.
The advantages of this process include: [6]

 No friction between the container and the billet reduces force requirements. This ultimately allows
for faster speeds, higher reduction ratios, and lower billet temperatures.
 Usually the ductility of the material increases when high pressures are applied.
 An even flow of material.
 Large billets and large cross-sections can be extruded.
 No billet residue is left on the container walls.
The disadvantages are:[6]

 The billets must be prepared by tapering one end to match the die entry angle. This is needed to
form a seal at the beginning of the cycle. Usually the entire billet needs to be machined to remove any
surface defects.
 Containing the fluid under high pressures can be difficult.
Drives[edit]
Most modern direct or indirect extrusion presses are hydraulically driven, but there are some small
mechanical presses still used. Of the hydraulic presses there are two types: direct-drive oil presses and
accumulator water drives.
Direct-drive oil presses are the most common because they are reliable and robust. They can deliver
over 35 MPa (5000 psi). They supply a constant pressure throughout the whole billet. The disadvantage
is that they are slow, between 50 and 200 mm/s (2–8 ips).[7]
Accumulator water drives are more expensive and larger than direct-drive oil presses, and they lose
about 10% of their pressure over the stroke, but they are much faster, up to 380 mm/s (15 ips). Because
of this they are used when extruding steel. They are also used on materials that must be heated to very
hot temperatures for safety reasons.[7]
Hydrostatic extrusion presses usually use castor oil at pressure up to 1400 MPa (200 ksi). Castor oil is
used because it has good lubricity and high pressure properties. [8]

Die design[edit]
The design of an extrusion profile has a large impact on how readily it can be extruded. The maximum
size for an extrusion is determined by finding the smallest circle that will fit around the cross-section, this
is called the inscribing circle. This diameter, in turn, controls the size of the die required, which ultimately
determines if the part will fit in a given press. For example, a larger press can handle 60 cm (24 in)
diameter inscribing circles for hydrogen and 55 cm (22 in). diameter circles for argon and oxygen.[1]
The complexity of an extruded profile can be roughly quantified by calculating the shape factor, which is
the amount of surface area generated per unit mass of extrusion. This affects the cost of tooling as well
as the rate of production.[9]
Thicker sections generally need an increased section size. In order for the material to flow properly legs
should not be more than ten times longer than their thickness. If the cross-section is asymmetrical,
adjacent sections should be as close to the same size as possible. Sharp corners should be avoided; for
aluminium and magnesium the minimum radius should be 0.4 mm (1/64 in) and for steel corners should
be 0.75 mm (0.030 in) and fillets should be 3 mm (0.12 in). The following table lists the minimum cross-
section and thickness for various materials.[1]
Materials[edit]
Metal[edit]
Metals that are commonly extruded include: [10]

 Aluminium is the most commonly extruded material. Aluminium can be hot or cold extruded. If it
is hot extruded it is heated to 575 to 1100 °F (300 to 600 °C). Examples of products include profiles for
tracks, frames, rails, mullions, and heat sinks.
 Brass is used to extrude corrosion free rods, automobile parts, pipe fittings, engineering parts.
 Copper (1100 to 1825 °F (600 to 1000 °C)) pipe, wire, rods, bars, tubes, and welding electrodes.
Often more than 100 ksi (690 MPa) is required to extrude copper.
 Lead and tin (maximum 575 °F (300 °C)) pipes, wire, tubes, and cable sheathing. Molten lead
may also be used in place of billets on vertical extrusion presses.
 Magnesium (575 to 1100 °F (300 to 600 °C)) aircraft parts and nuclear industry parts.
Magnesium is about as extrudable as aluminum.
 Zinc (400 to 650 °F (200 to 350 °C)) rods, bar, tubes, hardware components, fitting, and
handrails.
 Steel (1825 to 2375 °F (1000 to 1300 °C)) rods and tracks. Usually plain carbon steel is
extruded, but alloy steel and stainless steel can also be extruded.
 Titanium (1100 to 1825 °F (600 to 1000 °C)) aircraft components including seat tracks, engine
rings, and other structural parts.
Magnesium and aluminium alloys usually have a 0.75 µm (30 µin) RMS or better surface finish. Titanium
and steel can achieve a 3 micrometres (120 µin) RMS.[1]
In 1950, Ugine Séjournet, of France, invented a process which uses glass as a lubricant for extruding
steel.[11] The Ugine-Sejournet, or Sejournet, process is now used for other materials that have melting
temperatures higher than steel or that require a narrow range of temperatures to extrude. The process
starts by heating the materials to the extruding temperature and then rolling it in glass powder. The glass
melts and forms a thin film, 20 to 30 mils (0.5 to 0.75 mm), in order to separate it from chamber walls and
allow it to act as a lubricant. A thick solid glass ring that is 0.25 to 0.75 in (6 to 18 mm) thick is placed in
the chamber on the die to lubricate the extrusion as it is forced through the die. A second advantage of
this glass ring is its ability to insulate the heat of the billet from the die. The extrusion will have a 1 mil
thick layer of glass, which can be easily removed once it cools.[3]
Another breakthrough in lubrication is the use of phosphate coatings. With this process, in conjunction
with glass lubrication, steel can be cold extruded. The phosphate coat absorbs the liquid glass to offer
even better lubricating properties.[3]
Plastic[edit]

Sectional view of a plastic extruder showing the components

Sectional view of how a caterpillar haul-off provides line tension

Main article: Plastics extrusion

Plastics extrusion commonly uses plastic chips or pellets, which are usually dried, to drive out moisture,
in a hopper before going to the feed screw. The polymer resin is heated to molten state by a combination
of heating elements and shear heating from the extrusion screw. The screw, or screws as the case with
twin screw extrusion, forces the resin through a die, forming the resin into the desired shape. The
extrudate is cooled and solidified as it is pulled through the die or water tank. A "caterpillar haul-off"
(called a "puller" in the US) is used to provide tension on the extrusion line which is essential for overall
quality of the extrudate. Pelletizers can also create this tension while pulling extruded strands in to be
cut. The caterpillar haul-off must provide a consistent pull; otherwise, variation in cut lengths or distorted
product will result. In some cases (such as fibre-reinforced tubes) the extrudate is pulled through a very
long die, in a process called "pultrusion". The configuration of the interior screws are a driving force
dependent on the application. Mixing elements or convey elements are used in various formations.
Extrusion is common in the application of adding colorant to molten plastic thus creating specific custom
color.
A multitude of polymers are used in the production of plastic tubing, pipes, rods, rails, seals, and sheets
or films.
Ceramic[edit]
Ceramic can also be formed into shapes via extrusion. Terracotta extrusion is used to produce pipes.
Many modern bricks are also manufactured using a brick extrusion process. [12]

Applications[edit]
Food[edit]
This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this
section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (November 2013)
Main article: Food extrusion

Elbow macaroni is an extruded hollow pasta.

With the advent of industrial manufacturing, extrusion found application in food processing of instant
foods and snacks, along with its already known uses in plastics and metal fabrication. Products such as
certain pastas, many breakfast cereals, premade cookie dough, some french fries, certain baby foods,
dry or semi-moist pet food and ready-to-eat snacks are mostly manufactured by extrusion. It is also used
to produce modified starch, and to pelletize animal feed.
Generally, high-temperature extrusion is used for the manufacture of ready-to-eat snacks, while cold
extrusion is used for the manufacture of pasta and related products intended for later cooking and
consumption. The processed products have low moisture and hence considerably higher shelf life, and
provide variety and convenience to consumers.
In the extrusion process, raw materials are first ground to the correct particle size. The dry mix is passed
through a pre-conditioner, in which other ingredients may be added, and steam is injected to start the
cooking process. The preconditioned mix is then passed through an extruder, where it is forced through a
die and cut to the desired length. The cooking process takes place within the extruder where the product
produces its own friction and heat due to the pressure generated (10–20 bar). The main independent
parameters during extrusion cooking are feed rate, particle size of the raw material, barrel temperature,
screw speed and moisture content. The extruding process can induce both protein
denaturation andstarch gelatinization, depending on inputs and parameters.
Drug carriers[edit]
This section requires expansion.
(August 2008)

For use in pharmaceutical products, extrusion through nano-porous, polymeric filters is being used to
produce suspensions of lipid vesicles liposomes or transfersomes with a particular size of a narrow size
distribution. The anti-cancer drug Doxorubicin in liposome delivery system is formulated by extrusion, for
example.
Biomass briquettes[edit]
Main article: Biomass briquettes
The extrusion production technology of fuel briquettes is the process of extrusion screw wastes (straw,
sunflower husks, buckwheat, etc.) or finely shredded wood waste (sawdust) under high pressure when
heated from 160 to 350 °C. The resulting fuel briquettes do not include any of the binders, but one
natural – the lignin contained in the cells of plant wastes. The temperature during compression causes
melting of the surface of bricks, making it more solid, which is important for the transportation of
briquettes.

See also[edit]
 Equal channel angular extrusion
 Impact extrusion
 Extrusion coating

References[edit]
Notes[edit]

1. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i Oberg et al. 2000, pp. 1348–1349

2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Drozda, pp. 13-11 & 13-12.
3. ^ Jump up to:a b c Avitzur, B. (1987), "Metal forming", Encyclopedia of Physical Science & Technology 8,
San Diego: Academic Press, Inc., pp. 80–109
4. Jump up^ Drozda, pp. 13–21.
5. Jump up^ Drozda, p. 13.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Drozda, pp. 13–14.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Drozda, pp. 13–16.
8. Jump up^ Drozda, pp. 13–20.
9. Jump up^ Aluminum Extrusion Tooling – MakeItFrom
10. Jump up^ Drozda, pp. 13–15 & 16.
11. Jump up^ Bauser, Martin; Sauer, Günther; Siegert, Klaus (2006), Extrusion, ASM International,
p. 270, ISBN 0-87170-837-X
12. Jump up^ Brick manufacturing process

Bibliography[edit]

 Drozda, Tom; Wick, Charles; Bakerjian, Ramon; Veilleux, Raymond F.; Petro, Louis (1984), Tool
and manufacturing engineers handbook: Forming 2, SME, ISBN 0-87263-135-4.
 Oberg, Erik; Jones, Franklin D.; Horton, Holbrook L.; Ryffel, Henry H. (2000), Machinery's
Handbook (26th ed.), New York: Industrial Press, ISBN 0-8311-2635-3.

See also[edit]
 Forming (metalworking)

External links[edit]
 eFunda Engineering Fundamentals - Extrusion
 Extrusion cross-sectional tolerances

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrusion#Hot_extrusion