Chapter 3:

Characteristics of
the Driver, the
Pedestrian, the
Vehicle, and the
Road.
Characteristics of the Driver, the Pedestrian,
the Vehicle, and the Road.
The four main components of the highway mode of transportation are the
driver, pedestrian, vehicle, and the road. It is very important to know the
inter-relationships that exist among theses components in order to
determine the effects, if any, that they have on each other.
 3.1 DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS
Studies have shown that these drivers’ characteristics may also vary
per driver and per situation. Therefore Road and Traffic Engineer
should consider all of the criteria needed to design a road that can
accommodate a wide range of capabilities and limitations.
 HUMAN RESPONSE PROCESS
Actions taken by drivers on a road result form their evaluation of
and reaction to information they obtain from certain stimuli that
they see or hear. However, evaluation and reaction must be carried
out within a very short time.
VISUAL RECEPTION

01 Visual
Acuity 02 Peripheral
Vision 03 Color
Vision

- Is how your eyes can see the - The ability to see objects - Is the ability to distinguish
clarity and or sharpness in and movements outside of among various colors and
fine details. the direct line of vision. their hue.

Glare
04 Vision and
Recovery
05 Depth
Perception 06 Hearing
Perception
- Is the loss of visual or - Is the ability to receive and
- Is the ability to judge how interpret information that
discomfort produced by an
far away an object is. reached the ears.
intesity of light.
01 Visual Acuity

- Also known as clarity of vision or

sharpness of vision, refers to a
person’s ability to see or recognize
small details in objects.

02 Peripheral Vision

- is our ability to see out of the corner

of our eyes. This means that we're
able to see things outside of our direct
line of vision without having to turn our
heads: a skill that comes in handy
throughout ourdriving hours, even
when we don't realize it.
03 Color Vision

- ability to distinguish among various

wavelengths of light waves and to
perceive the differences as
differences in hue.

04 Glare Vision and

Recovery

- is the loss of visual performance or

discomfort produced by an intensity
of light in the visual field greater than
the intensity of light to which the eyes
are adapted.
05 Depth
Perception

- is the ability to see things in three

dimensions (including length, width
and depth), and to judge how far away
an object is.

06 Hearing Perception

- Hearing, or auditory perception, is

the ability to perceive sounds through
an organ, such as an ear, by detecting
vibrations as periodic changes in the
pressure of a surrounding medium.
3.2
PERCEPTION-REACTION
PROCESS
The process through which a driver,
cyclist, or a pedestrian evaluates and
reacts to a stimuli. It is also very
important factor on determining the
braking distance, which in turn
dictates the minimum sight distance
required on a certain highway.
4 Stages in Perception-Reaction Process

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

PERCEPTION IDENTIFICATION EMOTION REACTION

3.3 OLDER DRIVERS’ CHARACTERISTICS

As one grow older, his or her sensory, cognitive, and physical

functioning ability declines, which can result in older drivers
being less safe than their younger counterparts, and with a
higher probability of being injured when involved in a crash.
3.4 PEDESTRIAN
CHARACTERISTICS
Pedestrian characteristics relevant to
traffic and highway engineering practice
include those of the driver, discussed in the
DRIVE
preceding sections. In addition, other
pedestrian characteristics may influence
the design and location of pedestrian
control devices.

START
4.93 ft/sec 4.63 ft/sec
3.5 BICYCLISTS AND BICYCLES
CHARACTERISTICS

CLASS A CLASS B CLASS C

Experienced and Less Experienced Children riding on their

advanced bicyclist that bicyclist that prefer to own or with their
consider the bicycle as a ride in a designated parent that chose to
motor vehicle and can lane for bicycles. ride in their
ride in a traffic. neighborhood.
VEHICLE
CHARACTERISTICS
Presented by: Neil Jonathan Maxian
Sheanne Marie Iglesia
 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS

STATIC KINEMATIC DYNAMIC

CHARACTERISTIC CHARACTERISTIC CHARACTERISTICS
❑ STATIC
CHARACTERISTICS
The size of the design vehicle for a highway is an important factor in the
determination of design standards for several physical components of the highway.
✓ Lane width
✓ shoulder width
✓ length and width of parking bays
✓ Length of vertical curves
Axle weight is important in determining:
✓ Pavement thickness
✓ Maximum grade
❑ STATIC
CHARACTERISTICS
Surface Transportation Assistance
Act of 1982:

➢ 80,000 lb gross weight, with axle

loads of up to 20,000 lb for single
axles and 34,000 lb for tandem
(double) axles
➢ 102 in. width for all trucks
➢ 48 ft length for semitrailers and
trailers
➢ 28 ft length for each twin trailer
OVERALL MAXIMUM GROSS WEIGHT

𝑳𝑵
𝑾 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟐𝑵 + 𝟑𝟔
𝑵−𝟏

W=overall gross weight

L= the extreme of any group of two or more consecutive axles
N= number of axles in the group under consideration

Three things to consider:

✓ Gross Weight
✓ Single-Axle Weight
✓ Tandem-Axle Weight
Estimating Allowable Gross Weight of a Truck

A 5-axle truck travelling on an interstate highway has the following axle

characteristics:
Distance between the front single axle and the first set of
tandem axles =20 ft
Distance between the first set of tandem axle and the back set
of tandem axles =48 ft .

If the overall gross weight of the truck is 79,500 lb, determine whether this
truck satisfies federal weight regulations.
𝐿𝑁
𝑊 = 500 + 12𝑁 + 36
𝑁−1
𝑾 = 𝟕𝟒, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃
(48)(4)
𝑊 = 500 + 12(4) + 36
4−1
The static characteristics of vehicles expected
to use the highway are factors that influence
the selection of design criteria for the
highway.
❑ KINEMATIC CHARACTERISTICS
The primary element among kinematic characteristics
is the acceleration capability of the vehicle.
Acceleration capability is important in several traffic
operations, such as passing maneuvers and gap
acceptance.
Acceleration Capabilities of Passenger Cars and Tractor-
Semitrailers on Level Roads
 FORMULAS
ACCELERATION AS FUNCTION
ACCELERATION ASSUMED CONSTANT

x
Dynamic
Characteristics

Chapter 3.6.3

Sheanne Marie E. Iglesia

Dynamic Characteristics

Several forces act on a vehicle while it is in motion: air resistance,

grade resistance, rolling resistance, and curve resistance. The
extents to which these forces affect the operation of the vehicle
are discussed in this section.
 Forces Acting on a Moving Vegicle
Air Resistance Rolling
resistance

Tractive Force
Friction

Weight of the
Vehicle
 Air Resistance

The force required to overcome these is known as the

air resistance and is related to the cross-sectional area
of the vehicle in a direction perpendicular to the
direction of motion and to the square of the speed of
the vehicle.
 Air Resistance

𝟐. 𝟏𝟓𝒑𝑪𝑫 𝑨𝒖𝟐
𝑹𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟓
𝒈
Where:

𝑅𝑎 = Air resistance force (lb)

𝑝 = Density of air (0.0766 lb/𝑓𝑡 3 ) at sea level
𝐶𝐷 = aerodynamic drag coefficient
(current average value for passenger cars is 0.4; for trucks, this value ranges from
0.5 to 0.8, but a typical value is 0.5)
A = frontal cross sectional area (𝑓𝑡 2 )
u = vehicle speed (mph)
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 )
 Grade Resistance

When a vehicle moves up a grade, a component of the weight of the

vehicle acts downward, along the plane of the highway. This creates
a force acting in a direction opposite that of the motion. This force is
the grade resistance. A vehicle traveling up a grade will therefore
tend to lose speed unless an accelerating force is applied.
 Grade Resistance

𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑊 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒

 Rolling Resistance

There are forces within the vehicle itself that offer resistance to
motion. These forces are due mainly to frictional effect on moving
parts of the vehicle, but they also include the frictional slip between
the pavement surface and the tires. The sum effect of these forces
on motion is known as rolling resistance.
 Rolling Resistance

𝑹𝒓 = 𝑪𝒓𝒔 + 𝟐. 𝟏𝟓𝑪𝒓𝒗 𝒖𝟐 𝑾
Where:
𝑅𝑟 = 𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑙𝑏)
𝐶𝑟𝑠 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 0.012 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑠)
𝐶𝑟𝑣 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 0.65𝑥10−6 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 /𝑓𝑡 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑠)
𝑢 = 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑚𝑝ℎ)
𝑊 = 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑙𝑏)
 Rolling Resistance
(for trucks)

𝑹𝒓 = 𝑪𝒂 + 𝟏. 𝟒𝟕𝑪𝒃 𝒖 𝑾
Where:
𝑅𝑟 = 𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑙𝑏)
𝐶𝑎 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 0.02445 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑠)
𝐶𝑏 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 0.00044 𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑠)
𝑢 = 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑚𝑝ℎ)
𝑊 = 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑙𝑏)
 Curve Resistance

When a passenger car is maneuvered to take a curve, external forces

act on the front wheels of the vehicle. These forces have
components that have a retarding effect on the forward motion of
the vehicle. The sum effect of these components constitutes the
curve resistance.
 Curve Resistance

𝟐. 𝟏𝟓𝒖𝟐 𝑾
𝑹𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟓
𝒈𝑹
Where:
𝑅𝑐 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑙𝑏)
𝑢 = 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑚𝑝ℎ)
𝑊 = 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑙𝑏)
𝑔 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (32.2 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 )
𝑅 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑓𝑡)
 Power Requirements

Power is the rate at which work is done. It is usually expressed in

horsepower (a U.S. unit of measure), where 1 horsepower is 550 lb-
ft /sec. The performance capability of a vehicle is measured in
terms of the horsepower the engine can produce to overcome air,
grade, curve, and friction resistance forces and put the vehicle in
motion.
 Power Requirements

𝟏. 𝟒𝟕𝑹𝒖
𝑷=
𝟓𝟓𝟎
Where:
𝑃 = ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 (ℎ𝑝)
𝑅 = 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑙𝑏)
𝑢 = 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑚𝑝ℎ)
 Example Problem:
(Vehicle Horsepower Required to Overcome Resistance Forces)

Determine the horsepower produced by a passenger car traveling

at a speed of 65 mi/h on a straight road of 5% grade with a smooth
pavement. Assume the weight of the car is 4000 lb and the cross-
sectional area of the car is 40 ft2.
 Solution

Note: The force produced by the car should be at least equal to the
sum of the acting resistance forces.

R = (air resistance) +(rolling resistance) +(upgrade resistance)

 Solution

For Air Resistance:

2.15𝑝𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝑢2
𝑅𝑎 = 0.5
𝑔

2.15(0.0766)(0.4)(40)(65)2
𝑅𝑎 = 0.5
32.2

𝑅𝑎 = 172.87 𝑙𝑏
 Solution

For Rolling Resistance:

𝑹𝒓 = 𝑪𝒓𝒔 + 𝟐. 𝟏𝟓𝑪𝒓𝒗 𝒖𝟐 𝑾

𝑅𝑟 = 0.012 + 2.15(0.65𝑥10−6 )(65)2 4000

𝑹𝒓 = 𝟕𝟐 𝒍𝒃

For Grade Resistance:

5
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 4000 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃
100
 Solution

Total Resistance:

R = (air resistance) +(rolling resistance) +(upgrade resistance)

R = (172.87 lb )+(72 lb) +(200 lb)

R = 444.87 lb
 Solution

Determine Horsepower:

𝟏. 𝟒𝟕𝑹𝒖
𝑷=
𝟓𝟓𝟎

1.47(444.87)(65)
𝑃=
550

𝑷 = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟐𝟗 𝒉𝒑
 Braking Distance

The action of the forces (shown in Figure 3.6) on the moving vehicle
and the effect of perception-reaction time are used to determine
important parameters related to the dynamic characteristics of the
vehicles. These include the braking distance of a vehicle and the
minimum radius of a circular curve required for a vehicle traveling
around a curve with speed u where u >10 mi/h.
 Braking Distance

A general equation for the braking distance can therefore be

written as:

𝒖𝟐
𝑫𝒃 =
𝟑𝟎 𝒇 ± 𝑮
 Estimating Velocities

𝟏/𝟐
𝑫𝒃 𝟐
𝒖𝒖 = 𝒖𝒌 + 𝒖𝟐𝟏
𝑫𝒌
Where:
𝑢𝑢 = 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
𝐷𝑏 = 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝐷𝑘 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑢𝑛
𝑢𝑘 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑢1 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑘 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒
 Minimun Radius of a Circular Curve

𝒖𝟐
𝑹=
𝟏𝟓 𝒆 + 𝒇𝒔
Where:
𝑢 = speed of the vehicle
𝑅 = Radius of the curve
𝑒 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
fs = coefficient of side friction
ROAD
CHARACTERISTICS
-Ian Mathew S. Flores| BSCE-3A
ROAD CHARACTERISTICS

The characteristics of the highway

discussed in this section are related to
stopping and passing because these have a
more direct relationship to the
characteristics of the driver and the vehicle
discussed earlier.
SIGHT DISTANCE

is the length of the roadway a driver

can see ahead at any particular time.
The sight distance available at each
point of the highway must be such that,
when a driver is traveling at the
highway’s design speed, adequate time
is given after an
object is observed in the vehicle’s path
to make the necessary evasive
maneuvers without colliding with the
object.
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

The stopping sight distance (SSD), for

design purposes, is usually taken as the
minimum sight distance required for a
driver to stop a vehicle after seeing an
object in the vehicle’s path without
hitting that object. This distance is the
sum of the distance traveled during
perception-reaction time and the
distance traveled during braking.
 Stopping Sight Distance Formula

Observing two terms:

1st term: Lag Distance Perception & Reaction

time

2nd term: Braking Distance

u: velocity in miles/hr.
G: grade
Table 3.4 Traffic&Highway Eng’
Notes on SSDs

• The SSD requirements dictate the minimum lengths of vertical curves and
minimum radii
• On upgrades, the SSDs are shorter; on downgrades, they are longer
Decision Sight Distance (DSD)
• is defined by AASHTO as the “distance required or a driver to detect
an unexpected or otherwise difficult-to-perceive information source
or hazard in a roadway environment that may be visually cluttered,
recognize the hazard of its threat potential, select an appropriate
speed and path, and initiate and complete the required safety
maneuvers safely and efficiently.”

• when the stimulus is unexpected or when it is necessary for the

driver to make unusual maneuvers

• perception-reaction time is much longer

DSD Cases
What’s the Difference?
Stopping sight distance is applied where only one obstacle must
be seen in the roadway and dealt with. Decision sight distance
applies when traffic conditions are complex, and driver
expectancies are different from normal traffic situation. The
difference between stopping in the context of decision sight
distance and stopping sight distance is that the vehicle should
stop for some complex traffic condition, such as a queue of
vehicles or hazardous conditions, rather than an object in the
roadway.
 Passing Sight Distance (PSD)

• is the minimum sight distance required on a two-lane, two-way

highway that will permit a driver to complete a passing maneuver
without colliding with an opposing vehicle and without cutting off
the passed vehicle.
• will also allow the driver to successfully abort the passing maneuver
Assumptions in Designing PSDs
• Overtaken vehicle is at constant speed
• Overtaker speed is reduced before passing section
• At passing section, decides if or not to overtake
• If they do, passing speed is about 10mph more than
impeding vehicle
• There is a clearance between the opposing vehicle as passing
vehicle returns to own lane
Passing Distances Detail

d1: Perception and reaction , “Just

enters”
d2: Overtaking Travel Distance
d3: At the end of passing, distance
between vehicle and fronting,
opposing vehicle on the opposite lane
d4: distanced moved by opposing
vehicle since start of overtake/pass.
Passing Distances Formulas

d1=1.47t1(u-m+(at1/2))
d2= 1.47t2
d3= (100,300)ft.
d4=(2/3)(d2)

Where:
t1= time for initial maneuver (sec)
t2= time overtaking in left lane
u= average speed of overtaking
vehicle (mph)
m=speed difference between passing
and impeding vehicle
Summary
• Most Important Characteristic of the Driver- Driver Response
Process: perception, identification, emotion, and reaction or volition.
• Perception-reaction times vary from one person to another, but the
recommended value for design is 2.5 sec.
• The static, kinematic, and dynamic characteristics of the vehicle
determine minimum radii of horizontal curves for low speeds, the
acceleration and deceleration capabilities of the vehicle (through
which distance traveled and velocities attained can be determined),
and the resistance forces that act on the moving vehicle.
Summary
• Two types of sight distances are considered to be part of the
characteristics of the road: the stopping sight distance, which is
normally taken as the minimum sight distance required for a driver to
stop a vehicle after seeing an object in the vehicle’s path without
hitting that object, and the passing sight distance, which is the
minimum sight distance required on a two-lane, two-way highway
that will permit a driver to complete a passing maneuver without
colliding with an opposing vehicle and without cutting off the passed
vehicle.