SAMCO Final Report 2006

F11 Selected Papers

FROM INPUT-OUTPUT TO OUTPUT-ONLY MODAL

IDENTIFICATION OF CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES

Álvaro Cunha, Elsa Caetano, Filipe Magalhães, Carlos Moutinho

Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto (FEUP), Portugal

E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.fe.up.pt/vibest

Abstract
This paper presents a brief characterization of the evolution of Experimental Modal
Analysis in the Civil Engineering field, from Input-Output to Output-Only Modal
Identification Techniques, taking particularly into account the experience of the
authors at the Laboratory of Vibrations and Monitoring (VIBEST, www.fe.up.pt/vibest)
of FEUP.

Key words: Experimental Modal Analysis, Input-Output, Output-Only, Modal

Identification Techniques, Civil Engineering, Laboratory of Vibrations
and Monitoring

1. Introduction
Some decades ago, the major concern of Structural Engineers was the development
and automatic application of new and powerful numerical methods for the analysis
(static and dynamic) and design of large Civil Engineering structures. In this context,
the fast development of the finite element techniques accompanied by the
tremendous technological progress in the field of personal computers allowed the
structural designer to use currently excellent structural analysis software packages,
which enable to accurately simulate the structural behaviour.
However, the design and construction of more and more complex and ambitious civil
structures, like dams, large cable-stayed or suspension bridges, or other special
structures, made structural engineers feel the necessity to develop also appropriate
experimental tools that might enable the accurate identification of the most relevant
structural properties (static and dynamic), providing reliable data to support the
calibration, updating and validation of the structural analysis numerical models used
at the design stage.
Beyond that, the continuous ageing and subsequent structural deterioration of a large
number of existing structures made structural engineers gradually more interested in
the development and application of efficient vibration based damage detection
techniques supported by structural health monitoring systems, in which the regular
identification of modal properties plays also an important role.
Therefore, the first and natural tendency of Civil Engineering researchers was to take
some profit from important previous developments made in System Identification and
Experimental Modal Analysis in Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, trying to
accurately identify the main dynamic properties of civil structures by applying well
established input-output modal identification techniques.
The difficulty to excite large civil structures in a controlled form, as well as remarkable
technological progresses registered in the area of transducers and analogue to digital

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converters, made however feasible to open a new and very promising road for the
modal identification of large structures, exclusively based on the measurement of the
structural response to ambient excitations and application of suitable stochastic
modal identification methods.
Under these circumstances, the main purpose of this paper is to briefly present the
perspective of the authors concerning the evolution of Experimental Modal Analysis
in the Civil Engineering field, from Input-Output to Output-Only Modal Identification
Techniques, which is naturally strongly influenced and conditioned by their own
experience as researchers at the Laboratory of Vibrations and Monitoring (VIBEST,
www.fe.up.pt/vibest) of FEUP.

2. Input-Output Modal Identification

Equipment and test procedures
The conventional Modal Testing is based on the estimation of a set of Frequency
Response Functions (FRFs) relating the applied force and the corresponding
response at several pairs of points along the structure, with enough high spatial and
frequency resolution.
The construction of FRFs requires the use of an instrumentation chain for structural
excitation, vibration measurement and data acquisition and signal processing.
In small and medium size structures, the excitation can be induced by an impulse
hammer (Fig. 1a), similar to those currently used in Mechanical Engineering. This
device has the advantage of providing a wide-band input, able to stimulate different
modes of vibration. The main drawbacks are the relatively low spectral estimates’
frequency resolution, which can preclude the accurate estimation of modal damping
factors, and the lack of energy to excite some relevant modes of vibration. Due to this
last factor, some laboratories have built special impulse devices more specifically
designed to excite bridges (Fig. 1b). An alternative, also derived from Mechanical
Engineering, is the use of large electrodynamic shakers (Fig. 1c), which can apply a
large variety of input signals (random, multi-sine, etc.), when duly controlled both in
frequency and amplitude using a signal generator and a power amplifier. The
shakers have capacity to excite structures in a lower frequency range and higher
frequency resolution can be attained. The possibility of application of sinusoidal
forces allows for the excitation of the structure in resonance and, consequently, for a
direct identification of the mode shape.

Fig. 1. a) Impulse hammer; b) Impulse exciation device for bridges (K.U.Leuven);

c) Electrodynamic shaker over three load cells; d) Eccentric mass vibrator.

The controlled excitation of large Civil Engineering structures requires however the
use of specific and heavy excitation equipment. One option frequently used in the

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past in dynamic testing of dams was the eccentric mass vibrator (Fig. 1d), which
enables the application of sinusoidal forces with variable frequency and amplitude.
The main drawbacks of this technique are low force amplitude induced at low
frequencies and some difficulty to measure the applied force and ensure no relative
movement of the vibrator with regard to the structure. A better option in terms of
providing a wide band-excitation over the most interesting frequency range for large
civil structures was the use servo-hydraulic shakers. Figure 2 shows, for instance,
two shakers of this type built at EMPA (www.empa.ch) to excite bridges or dams,
vertically and laterally, as well as the electro-hydraulic mass reaction shaker Victoria
from Arsenal Research (www.arsenal.ac.at).

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2. Servo-hydraulic shakers to excite (a) bridges (vertically), (b) dams (laterally) (EMPA);
(c) Electro-hydraulic shaker from Arsenal Research.

The dynamic response of the structure is usually measured with accelerometers

(Figure 3) (piezoelectric, piezoresistive, capacitive or force balance) [1], due to their
relatively low cost and high sensitivity. A particular characteristic of piezoelectric
accelerometers is that they don’t need specific power supply and operate well over a
wide frequency range. However, most of them are not suited to low frequency
applications. On the contrary, piezoresistive, capacitive and force balance
accelerometers can provide DC or low frequency response capability.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 3. Schematic cross-section of (a) piezoelectric, (b) piezoresistive, (c) capacitive and
(d) force balance accelerometers

The electrical signals captured by these transducers are usually rather low and so
must be amplified by conditioning units that may also provide anti-aliasing low-pass
filtering (allowing lower sampling rates) and analogue integration to velocities or
displacements.
The data acquisition and storage of measurement data involves the use of an
analogue-to-digital (A/D) converter inserted in a digital computer. The digital raw data
must be preliminary analysed and processed, considering operations of scale
conversion, trend-removal and decimation. Afterwards, the acceleration time series
can be multiplied by appropriate time windows (Hanning, Cosine-Taper, etc.), in
order to reduce leakage effects, and subdivided in different blocks for evaluation of
average spectral auto and cross spectra estimates, using the FFT algorithm. At last,
estimates of FRFs can be obtained using estimators H1 or H2 [1]. The automatic

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evaluation of FRFs requires appropriate software for analysis and signal processing,
which is already available in commercial Fourier analyzers. These analyzers are
sometimes simply materialized through the insertion of a specific PCMCIA card into a
laptop, allowing either the acquisition of data through input channels or the control of
a shaker through an output channel.

Input-Output Modal Identification methods

There is presently a wide variety of input-output modal identification methods, whose
application relies either on estimates of a set of FRFs or on the corresponding
Impulse Response Functions (IRFs), which can be obtained through the inverse
Fourier Transform. These methods try to perform some fitting between measured
and theoretical functions and employ different optimization procedures and different
levels of simplification. Accordingly, they are usually classified according to the
following criteria: (i) Domain of application (Time or Frequency); (ii) Type of
formulation (Indirect or Modal and Direct); (iii) Number of modes analysed (SDOF or
MDOF); (iv) Number of inputs and type of estimates (SISO, SIMO, MIMO, MISO).
The former methods of identification were developed in the frequency domain. In the
simpler SDOF formulations (e.g. Peak Amplitude, Circle-Fit, Inverse methods), a
fitting between a measured and a theoretical FRF of a SDOF system in the vicinity of
each resonant frequency is developed, neglecting the contribution of resonant
modes. In the more sophisticated MDOF methods (e.g. Rational Fraction Polynomial
(RFP), Complex Exponential Frequency Domain (CEFD), Polyreference Frequency
Domain (PRFD)), the fitting between measured and theoretical FRFs is made
globally in a wide range of frequencies.
Time domain methods, which tend to provide the best results when a large frequency
range or a large number of modes exist in the data, began to be developed as
consequence of some limitation in terms of spectral estimates frequency resolution,
as well as leakage errors in the estimates. The most widely known methods are
either Indirect (e,g. Complex Exponential (CE), Least-Squares Complex Exponential
(LSCE), Polyreference Complex Exponential (PRCE), Ibrahim Time Domain (ITD),
Eigensystem Realization Algorithm (ERA)) or Direct (e.g. Autoregressive Moving-
Average (ARMA)).
The gradual development of all these methods, which are extensively described by
Maia et al. [1], shows a tendency to completely automated systems of acquisition,
analysis, processing and identification, instead of some initial trend to the use of
interactive programs. Beyond that, the best-performing methods have been
implemented in robust Modal Analysis software [2].
A special class of modal identification methods, called Tuned-Sinusoidal methods
(e.g. Asher, Mau) corresponds to the particular type of tests that are based on the
application of a sinusoidal excitation at each natural frequency, as can happen using
eccentric mass vibrators.

Examples of forced vibration tests

The performance of classical input-output modal identification tests in Civil
Engineering structures can be of interest both on physical models and on prototypes.
Figure 4 shows the physical model of Jindo Bridge (South Korea), which was
extensively tested to analyze the importance of dynamic cable-structure interaction in
terms of seismic response analysis [3]. In this context, several forced vibration tests
were performed either using an electro-dynamic shaker or two different shaking

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tables (at Univ. Bristol and ISMES), and considering two alternative configurations for
the model. First, additional masses were distributed along the cables, according to
the similitude theory, in order to idealize the cables’ mass and consider the lateral
cables vibration. In a second phase, no distributed additional mass was introduced
along the cables, but equivalent masses have been concentrated at their extremities.
This study permitted to identify the existence of different sets of multiple modes;
some being pure cable modes, but others coupled modes. Each of these sets
present a common shape for the deck and towers and different cables motion, the
corresponding natural frequencies being very close, always in the vicinity of a global
mode of the primary system (Figure 6).

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4. (a) Jindo cable-stayed bridge; (b) Physical model on shaking table (EERC, Univ.
Bristol); (c) Physical model on shaking table (ISMES).

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5. (a) Application of electro-dynamic shaker; (b) Response measurement with
piezoelectric accelerometer; (c) Measurement of cables tensions.
Amplitude FRF ((m/s2)/N)

1.00E+01

1.00E+00
Shaker

Exp.
1.00E-01
Ajust.

1.00E-02
8 9 10 11 12
Frequência (Hz)
(a) (b)
Fig. 6. (a) Amplitude of FRF relating vertical acceleration at 1/3 span with the vertical force
applied at the opposite 1/3 span; (b) Identified pattern of a set of multiple modes.

Several large Civil Engineering structures, like buildings, bridges or dams, have been
also submitted to forced vibration tests in the past, using heavy excitation devices
only available at important and well equipped laboratories. That was the case of
EMPA, where Cantieni and other researchers have tested a significant number of
bridges and dams [4-6]. Figures 7-9 show some examples of that remarkable
activity, presenting in particular some of the modes of vibration accurately identified
at the sweedish Norsjö dam.

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(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 7. (a) Dala bridge; (b) Aarburg bridge; (c) Electro-hydraulic vibrator used at Aarburg
bridge

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 8. (a) Norsjö dam; (b,c) View of instrumented point at downstream side reinforced
concrete wall

Fig. 9. Some identified modes of vibration at Norsjö dam (modes 1, 2, 3, 10, 11, 12).

3. Output-Only Modal Identification

The main problem associated to the performance of forced vibration tests in bridges,
buildings or dams stems from the difficulty to excite, with sufficient energy and in
controlled manner, their most significant modes of vibration in a low range of
frequencies. In very large and flexible structures like cable-stayed or suspension
bridges, in particular, the forced excitation requires extremely heavy and expensive
equipment very seldom available in most dynamic labs. Figure 10 shows, for
instance, the impressive shakers used to excite the Tatara and the Yeongjong
bridges.

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(a) (b)
Fig. 10. Forced vibration tests of (a) Tatara cable-stayed bridge (http://www.hsba.go.jp)
and (b) Yeongjong suspension bridge (http://www.yeongjongbridge.com)
However, the technological developments registered in the fields of transducers and
A/D converters during the last years made feasible the very accurate measurement
of very low levels of dynamic response induced by ambient excitations, like wind or
traffic, strongly stimulating the development of output-only modal identification
methods.
Therefore, the performance of output-only modal identification tests became an
alternative of extraordinary importance in the field of Civil Engineering, allowing the
accurate identification of modal properties of large structures at the commissioning
stage or during the structure life time, in a much more comfortable way and avoiding
any type of interruption of normal traffic in bridges.

Equipment and test procedures

Fig. 11. (a) Force balance accelerometers; (b) Multi-channel data acquisition and processing
system for ambient vibration tests; (c) Strong motion tri-axial seismograph
Modern force balance accelerometers (Fig. 11a), specially conceived for
measurements in the range 0-50Hz and virtually insensitive to high frequency
vibrations, have contributed very significantly to the success of ambient vibration
tests. In such tests, the structural ambient response is captured by one or more
reference sensors, at fixed positions, together with a set of roving sensors, placed at
different measurement points along the structure, in different setups. The number of
points used is conditioned by the spatial resolution needed to characterize
appropriately the shape of the most relevant modes of vibration (according to
preliminary finite element modeling), while the reference points must be conveniently
far from the corresponding nodal points. Force balance accelerometers require
appropriate power supply, and their analogue signals (that may be locally amplified)
are usually transmitted to a data acquisition system with an A/D conversion card, of
at least 16 bit, through relatively long electrical cables. This system can be based on
a normal PC, although some data acquisition and processing systems, specifically
conceived for the performance of ambient vibration tests are already available (Fig.
11b), playing a role similar to the Fourier analyzers in the context of classical
Experimental Modal Analysis.
Although most of the output-only modal identification tests in large civil structures
have been based worldwide on the use of long electrical cables, the implementation

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of this type of solution is rather cumbersome and time consuming. Therefore, there is
presently a natural tendency to develop wireless architectures or, at least reduce
drastically the cables length, by introducing local digitization and single cable signal
transmission. A very efficient and comfortable alternative has been intensively used
at FEUP[7] and LNEC[8], based on tri-axial strong motion recorders duly
synchronized through GPS sensors.

Output-Only Modal Identification methods

The ambient excitation has commonly a multiple input nature and wide band
frequency content, stimulating a significant number of modes of vibration. For
simplicity, output-only modal identification methods assume the excitation input as a
zero mean Gaussian white noise, which means that the real excitation can be
interpreted as the output of a suitable filter excited with that white noise input.
Modelling the behaviour of the filter-structure system, one may conclude that some
additional computational poles, without structural physical meaning, appear as
consequence of the white noise assumption.
There are two main groups of output-only modal identification methods: non-
parametric methods essentially developed in frequency domain and parametric
methods in time domain.
The basic frequency domain method (Peak-Picking), though already applied some
decades ago to the modal identification of buildings [9,10] and bridges [11,12], was
only conveniently systematized by Felber [13] about twelve years ago. This
approach, which leads in fact to estimates of operational mode shapes, is based on
the construction of average normalized power spectral densities (ANPSDs) and
ambient response transfer functions involving all the measurement points, and
allowed the development of software for modal identification and visualization used at
UBC and EMPA [13]. The frequency domain approach was subsequently improved
[14,15] by performing a single value decomposition of the matrix of response spectra,
so as to obtain power spectral densities of a set of SDOF systems. This method
(Frequency Domain Decomposition (FDD)) was better detailed and systematized by
Brincker et al. [16], and subsequently enhanced [17] in order to extract modal
damping factors estimates. In this last approach (EFDD) these estimates are
obtained through inspection of the decay of auto-correlation functions, evaluated by
performing the inverse Fourier transform of the SDOF systems’ power spectral
densities.
The time domain parametric methods involve the choice of an appropriate
mathematical model to idealize the dynamic structural behaviour (usually time
discrete state space stochastic models, ARMAV or ARV models) and the
identification of the values of the modal parameters so as that model fits as much as
possible the experimental data, following some appropriate criterion. These methods
can be directly applied to discrete response time series or, alternatively, to response
correlation functions. The evaluation of these functions can be made based on their
definition, using the FFT algorithm [18] or applying the Random Decrement method
(RD) [19]. A peculiar aspect of output-only modal identification based on the fitting of
response correlation functions is the possibility to use methods that stem from
classical input-output identification methods, based on impulse response functions.
Some of these methods are the Ibrahim Time Domain (ITD) [20], the Multiple
Reference Ibrahim Time Domain (MRITD) [21], the Least-Squares Complex
Exponential (LSCE) [22], the Polyreference Complex Exponential (PRCE) [23] or the
Covariance-Driven Stochastic Subspace Identification (SSI-COV) [24]. An alternative
method that allows direct application to the response time series is the Data-Driven

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Stochastic Subspace Identification (SSI-DATA) [25]. It’s still worth noting that the
Random Decrement technique, usually associated to the application of time domain
methods like Ibrahim’s, can be also the base for the application of frequency domain
methods, like PP, FDD or EFDD, as it leads to free vibration responses, from which
power spectral densities can be evaluated using the FFT algorithm [26], reducing
noise effect (methods RD-PP, RD-FDD and RD-EFDD).
These methods, schematically represented in Figure 6, have been recently
systematized, applied and compared by Rodrigues [8]. Figure 6 also indicates the
five different types of numerical techniques employed in their development (FFT,
SVD, LS, EVD and QR).

PP method

estimates of
Welch method FDD and EFDD methods
power spectral
FFT density SVD Numerical techniques used:
modal
functions parameters

RD-PP method FFT fast Fourier transform

Sy (f)
fi
response SVD singular value
time series estimates of RD-FDD and RD-EFDD methods
FFT decomposition
RD functions SVD
RD method ξi LS least squares fitting
Dy(t) ITD and MRITD methods
y (t) estimates of LS, EVD
correlation EVD eigenvector decomposition
direct method functions LSCE and PTD methods φi
LS, EVD
QR orthogonal decomposition
FFT based method Ry(t) SSI-COV method
FFT SVD, LS, EVD
SSI-DATA method
QR, SVD, LS, EVD

Fig. 12. Schematic representation of output-only modal identification methods.

Very recently, the new operational Polymax parameter estimation method was
introduced by LMS (www.lms.be) [27]. This method operates on spectra or half
spectra (i.e. the Fourier transforms of the positive time lags of the correlation
functions) and its main advantage consists in yielding extremely clear stabilization
diagrams, making an automation of the parameter identification process rather
straightforward, which may enable the continuous monitoring of structural dynamic
properties.

Examples of ambient vibration tests

1.00E+00
Half-sum
1.00E-01 Half-diff.
ANPSD (N-S)

1.00E-02

1.00E-03

1.00E-04

1.00E-05

1.00E-06
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Mode 1
1.00E+00

1.00E-01
ANPSD (E-W)

1.00E-02

1.00E-03

1.00E-04

1.00E-05
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Frequency (Hz) Mode 4
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 13. (a) Heritage Court Tower; (b) ANPSDs spectra; (c) Two identified mode shapes.

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Fig. 14. View of Vasco da Gama Bridge.

dB | 1.0 / Hz Frequency Domain Decomposition - Peak Picking State Space Stabilization Diagram
Singular Values of Spectral Density Matrices Dimension Data Set: Deck nodes 4 and 10
of Data Set: Deck nodes 4 and 10 PC [Data Driven]
20

83

78

-20
73

-40
68

-60
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2
Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]
ARTeMIS Extractor, 0f 9-4eaa-9649-64e1, ARTX-0330E-270803PRO, Enterprise License ARTeMIS Extractor, 0f 9-4eaa-9649-64e1, ARTX-0330E-270803PRO, Enterprise License

Fig. 15. Singular value spectra (left); Stabilization diagram (right).

Fig. 16. Identified first (left) and second (right) bending (up) and torsion (down) modes.

Ambient vibration tests have been performed with great success in large buildings,
bridges or other special structures, allowing the creation of high quality experimental
databases that have been used to compare the performance of different output-only
modal identification methods. In this context, a benchmark test, concerning the modal
identification of the Heritage Court Tower (Vancouver, Canada) has been organized
at IMAC-XVIII by Ventura [28]. This example could show the interest of considering
a pre-combination of measured signals (half-sum and half-difference signals along
two orthogonal directions at two different points at each floor) to emphasize the
contributes from bending or torsion, as well as of a high frequency resolution to
separate contributions from close modes, when using the classical PP method [29].
The application of FDD and SSI methods permitted a more automatic identification
procedure, distinguishing close modes and extracting modal damping estimates.
In the field of bridges, complete ambient vibration tests were developed along about
5km of the Vasco da Gama Bridge by FEUP. Regarding the main cable-stayed

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bridge (Figure 14), the ambient structural response was measured during periods of
16 minutes at 58 points along the deck and towers (upstream and downstream) using
a wireless system based on 6 tri-axial 16 bit seismographs duly synchronized by a
laptop. The identification of a significant number of lateral, vertical and torsion
modes in the relevant frequency range of 0-1Hz was performed, in a first instance [7],
using the PP method. Subsequently, SSI and FDD methods were also applied
[30,31] and compared using the software MACEC [24] and ARTEMIS [32], leading
also to estimates of modal damping factors, although very accurate damping
estimates require longer measurement periods. Figure 15 shows the singular value
spectra and a stabilization diagram associated to the application of these two
methods, while Figure 16 presents plots of some fundamental identified modes.
PSD - half-sum of vertical aceleration
1E-02
S1 - v=2m/s
1E-03 S2 - v=2m/s
S3 - v=2m/s
S4 - v=9m/s
1E-04
S5 - v=9m/s
S6 - v=9m/s
1E-05 S7 - v=14m/s

1E-06
0.25 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.65
Frequency (Hz)

(a) (b)
Power Spectral Density functions at reference section Power Sepctral Density functions at reference section
Amplitude (half-sum of vertical acceleration) Amplitude (half-sum of transversal acceleration)
1E-02 1E-02

1E-03 1E-03

1E-04
1E-04
1E-05
1E-05 1E-06
wind - 2 m/s wind - 10 m/s wind - 14 m/s wind - 2 m/s wind - 10 m/s wind - 14 m/s
1E-06 1E-07
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)

(c) (d)
Fig. 17. (a) Guadiana cable-stayed bridge; PSD functions of half-sum vertical (b, c)
and lateral (d) acceleration at reference section, as function of mean wind speed.

It’s worth noting that the existence of cables’ frequencies in the frequency range of
analysis can difficult the identification of global natural frequencies. Figures 17 (c,d)
show, for instance, PSD functions concerning the ambient response of the
international Guadiana cable stayed-bridge (Fig. 17 (a)) (linking Portugal to Spain in
Algarve), evaluated with three different levels of average wind speed, which show the
appearance of spectral contributes from the fundamental modes of stay-cables (in
the range 0.6-0.9Hz) or second harmonics, leading to spectral peaks that can not be
interpreted as global natural frequencies of the bridge. Inspection of the spectral
peaks (Figure 17 (b)) shows also the increase of modal damping with wind speed,
which can be evaluated through ambient vibration tests using sufficiently long
measurement periods [33].
It’s still worth mentioning that the above described output-only modal identification
technique used in Vasco da Gama and Guadiana bridges by FEUP, has been also
recently applied with great success in the dynamic tests at the commissioning stage
of the outstanding Millau viaduct, coordinated by Grillaud and Flamand (CSTB,
France) [34].
The same approach can be used in the experimental assessment of other special
structures, like innovative stadia roofs, particularly susceptible to wind induced
vibrations, as consequence of their slenderness. That is, for instance, the case of the
new Braga Sports Stadium suspended roof (EURO’2004) (Figure 18), formed by 68

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cables with 212m span, supporting precast reinforced concrete slabs extended to
about 1/4 span.
The experimental modal identification of this structure was developed by performing
an ambient vibration test considering a mesh of 3x9 measurement points, at one
side, and 3x5 points, at the other side. Two reference points were used during the
test and the time of acquisition in each setup was of 16 minutes. Figure 19 shows 9
modes of vibration identified, as well as the corresponding natural frequencies, which
present an excellent correlation with the results provided by the finite element
modelling developed considering the geometrical non-linear behaviour of the
suspended roof and the progressive application of loads during the construction
phase. This comparison is summarized in Table 1, considering the calculated values
obtained at the design stage and after some slight modifications dictated by
construction, and it is presented in detail in ref. [35].

Fig. 18. Braga stadium cable roof.

Table 1. Natural frequencies of the roof structure: calculated at design and constructed,
and identified.
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Mode Mode
Design Constructed Identified Design Constructed Identified
1 0.303 0.277 0.275 8 0.672 0.678 0.702
2 0.322 0.305 0.293 9 0.691 0.712 0.684
3 0.455 0.520 0.525 10 0.693 0.754 0.737
4 0.470 0.532 0.537 11 0.712 0.844
5 0.476 0.574 0.562 12 0.748 0.923
6 0.516 0.610 0.635 13 0.802 1.045
7 0.660 0.673 0.653 14 0.864 1.063

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f = 0.276 Hz f = 0.293 Hz f = 0.523 Hz

f = 0.540 Hz f = 0.559 Hz f = 0.632 Hz

f = 0.654 Hz f = 0.701 Hz f = 0.874 Hz

Fig. 19. Nine identified modes of vibration

Examples of Free Vibration Tests - Damping Estimation

The accurate identification of modal damping factors is a point of major difficulty in
the identification process, not only due to the considerably larger scatter associated
to the estimates provided by the several methods used with regard to natural
frequencies and mode shapes, but also because the viscous damping assumption
does not correspond exactly to the real damping characteristics, the values of modal
damping ratios increasing gradually with the levels of oscillation.
However, in several circumstances the accurate identification of modal damping
factors is required, which is frequently achieved by performing a free vibration test.
That is, for instance, the case of large and slender cable-stayed or suspension
bridges, where knowledge of certain damping factors is crucial for the assessment of
aero elastic instability problems. Therefore, such tests have been performed, in
particular, at Normandy, Vasco da Gama or Millau bridges. At Vasco da Gama
bridge, the test was made suspending a barge with a mass of 60t from an eccentric
point at the deck (Fig. 20a) [7], at 1/3 span upstream, through a cable, which was cut
when the tide became low and the wind speed inferior to 3m/s, to avoid the influence
of aerodynamic damping. The sudden release of the mass caused a free vibration
response, which was measured during 16 minutes by six tri-axial seismographs at ½
and 1/3 span deck cross-sections. Other alternative techniques can be used with the
same purpose, as is the case of Madeira airport [36], where a mass of 60.8t
(Fig.20b,c) was suspended from the deck, the sudden release of the mass being
achieved through an explosion of a fusible element incorporated in the suspension
device.

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(b)

(a) (c)
Fig. 20. (a) Free vibration test of Vasco da Gama cable-stayed bridge; (b) Aerial view of
Madeira airport extension; (c) Mass of 60.8t used in the free vibration test of Madeira
airport

In the cable-roof of the new Braga Stadium (EURO’2004) (Fig. 18), whose
aeroeleastic stability was proved by different experimental tests on physical models,
the modal damping identification was essentially required to study possible
resonance effects, which may affect the structural integrity and durability in the long
term.
The identification of modal damping ratios was developed, in a first instance [37]
based on a set of data collected by the instrumentation installed at the roof structure,
during the forced and free vibration tests developed at commissioning phase.
The free vibration test was based on the sudden release of a 5 ton mass from the
roof, the structural response (Figure 21a) being collected by the six tri-axial force-
balance accelerometers of the dynamic monitoring system. The application of band-
pass filters to the measured signals enables the evaluation of modal free decay
responses; these were used to estimate the modal damping coefficients presented in
the second column of Table 2. This procedure faces two problems, which justify the
missing values in the table: the low level of excitation of some modes and the
difficulty of isolate the contribution of modes with very close natural frequencies. An
alternative to this procedure is to use the measured response to the impulse as input
to the SSI-COV method, as the responses to impulses are proportional to the
correlations of the responses to a white noise excitation. This technique was used
after the application of a low-pass filter, with a cut-off frequency of 1 Hz, and a
decimation to reduce the sampling frequency to 5 Hz, and provided the results
presented in the third column of Table 2. It is interesting to observe that for the
modes where both techniques were applied the results are very consistent.
Forced vibration tests were further conducted, based on a harmonic excitation of the
roof at resonance, by means of a cable pulled by an electric engine. After resonance
was attained, the excitation was suppressed and the free vibration response
measured at the same 6 accelerometers. Figure 21b) represents one of the
measured free decays. Using this procedure 5 modes were excited and so, 5 free

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decays were measured, like the one represented in Figure 21b), which were used to
estimate the modal damping coefficients presented in the fourth column of Table 2.

(a) (b)

Fig. 21. Free decay (a) after application of an impulse and (b) after excitation of the 2nd mode

The comparison between the modal damping coefficients identified using artificial
and ambient excitation shows the existence of a satisfactory correlation. However,
one can notice that relative differences tend to increase at lower frequencies. In
effect, it is well known that it is very difficult to estimate modal damping coefficients
since they are dependent on the amplitude of vibration and also on the wind
characteristics because of the existence of aeroelastic damping. The very low
damping values of this structure make the comparison even more difficult, because
very small differences are expressed by significant relative errors.
It is important to stress that, in this very flexible structure, the results provided by the
FDD method are comparable with the ones of the SSI methods due to the very long
time series used and because it was adopted an alternative procedure [35] to
estimate the correlation function. The application of the standard EFDD method using
independently the time series of each setup (with 16 min.) led to values of modal
damping coefficients for the first modes of about 1%.

Table 2. Summary of all the identified modal damping coefficients (%).

Mode Free Vib. Free Vib. Harmonic Amb. vibration
Filter SSI-COV excitation FDD SSI-COV SSI-DATA
1 - 0.29 0.28 0.58 0.50 0.51
2 - 0.37 0.27 0.52 0.42 0.48
3 0.28 0.32 0.22 0.47 0.44 0.39
4 0.25 0.22 - - 0.40 0.33
5 - 0.44 - - 0.47 0.53
6 0.34 0.36 0.43 0.35 0.54 0.47
7 - 0.29 - - 0.28 0.73
8 - 0.11 0.20 - 0.27 0.30
9 - 0.18 - - 0.26 0.31
10 0.20 0.18 - 0.25 0.26 0.29
11 - - - 0.36 0.41 0.38

4. Finite Element Correlation and Updating

Finite element correlation

The modal identification of bridges and special structures plays a relevant role in
terms of experimental calibration and validation of finite element models used to

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predict the static or dynamic structural behaviour, either at the design stage or at
rehabilitation. After appropriate experimental validation, finite element models can
provide essential baseline information that can be subsequently compared with
information captured by long-term monitoring systems, in order to detect structural
damage.
The correlation of modal parameters can be analyzed both in terms of identified and
calculated natural frequencies and in terms of the corresponding mode shapes, using
correlation coefficients or MAC values. Beyond that, modal damping estimates can
be also compared with the values assumed for numerical modelling. This type of
analysis, already developed at Vasco da Gama or Luiz I bridges with excellent
results [7,38], has been recently applied considering two Portuguese bridges over
Douro river: the New Hintze Ribeiro Bridge (a six span composite bridge that
substituted the centenary bridge that collapsed in 2001) and the Pinhão Bridge (a
three span simple supported metallic bridge with a concrete slab at the deck, which is
presently under rehabilitation).

Fig 22. Lateral view and schematic of the New Hintze Ribeiro Bridge, over Douro river, with
indication of the measurement points used along the deck.

In the first case (Fig. 22), rather good correlation between identified and calculated
modal parameters was achieved concerning the vertical bending modes of vibration
(Table 3, left). However, regarding the lateral response of the bridge, identified
frequencies were systematically considerably higher than the corresponding
calculated values (Table 3, right), though good correlation of modal shapes has been
obtained [39]. Such discrepancy stems naturally from the difficulty to simulate
numerically the real characteristics of soil-structure interaction at the foundation of
the several piers, and it shows the large influence that variations of boundary
conditions can have on the global dynamic bridge properties.

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Table 3. Comparison between calculated and identified natural frequencies

associated to vertical (left) and lateral modes (right).

Calculated Identified Type of Calculated Identified Type of

frequency frequency mode frequency frequency mode
(Hz) (Hz) (Hz) (Hz)
1.608 1.465 1st vertical 0.715 1.147 1st lateral
1.896 1.782 2nd vertical 0.892 1.636 2nd lateral
1.180 2.881 3rd lateral
2.291 2.197 3rd vertical
2.711 2.710 4th vertical
3.458 3.54 5th vertical

Fig. 23. Views of Pinhão Bridge, over Douro River.

In the case of Pinhão Bridge (Fig. 23), very similar modal estimates were obtained in
the three similar spans and good correlation was achieved between significant
identified and calculated modal parameters, considering either the vertical or the
lateral behaviour of the bridge. However, it was clearly noticed [40] that the initial
numerical modeling developed by the designer should be improved to correctly
simulate the lateral dynamic response by including the stiffness associated to the
concrete slab of the deck, which was made through a discretization in shell elements.

Table 4. Comparison of calculated and identified natural frequencies.

Mode type Frequency (Hz)
Experimental Model_1 Model_2
1st 2.779 2.380 2.998
Vertical 2nd 5.460 4.676 5.447
bending 3rd 8.293 6.352 8.695
4th 10.604 7.383 11.749
5th 12.577 8.106 13.396
Lateral 1st 1.721 1.165 1.758
bending 2nd 3.210 2.020 3.523
3rd 4.273 4.278 4.495
Torsion 1st 5.937 5.087 6.921

This fact is evidenced by Table 4, where the identified natural frequencies are
compared with the calculated ones using either a numerical model exclusively based
on a discretization in bar elements (Model_1) or an improved model including the
discretization of the concrete slab in shell elements (Model_2).

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Finite element updating

The accurate identification of the most significant modal parameters based on output-
only identification tests can support the updating of finite element models, which may
be a very interesting task in order to overcome several uncertainties associated to
the numerical modeling.
Such updating has been recently followed, on a sensitivity basis, to study the
dynamic behaviour of a footbridge at FEUP Campus (Figure 24). The bridge deck is
a very slender stress-ribbon concrete slab, continuous over two spans (30m / 28m).
The slab (3.80m wide and 0.15m height) is formed by 1m long precast segments, at
the bottom, and cast in-situ concrete at the top, and embeds four prestressing
cables, taking a catenary shape over the two spans, with a circular curve over the
intermediate support.

Fig. 24. Stress-ribbon footbridge at FEUP Campus.

For the purpose of finite element updating, a complete ambient vibration test was
performed and initial finite element models were developed idealizing the bridge deck
as a set of beam elements with the geometry considered at the design stage or
measured through a topographic survey (Models 1 and 2). Afterwards, due to the
clear nonlinear geometrical behaviour of the bridge, a third model (Model 3) was
developed discretizing the deck in truss finite elements with the cables axial stiffness
(neglecting bending stiffness), adjusting the initial cables tension so as to obtain the
measured longitudinal profile after progressive application of the loads. In order to
take also into account the bending stiffness of the concrete slab, this model was
subsequently adapted (Model 4), discretizing the deck in truss finite elements, with
progressive loading and activation of beam elements connecting the nodes of the
truss elements, simulating the effective construction procedure.
Finally, this model was slightly modified, considering partial rotations between beam
elements to simulate the lack of sealing of the joints and reducing the area and
inertia of the beam elements to simulate the effects of cracking and lack of
adherence between precast and cast in situ concrete. After all these iterations, very
good level of correlation between identified and calculated natural frequencies and
mode shapes was achieved, as extensively described in ref. [41].
Subsequently, similar finite element updating procedure was also performed
considering the three-dimensional nature of the bridge and discretizing the concrete
slab in shell elements (Figure 25), which led also to a good correlation of calculated
and identified natural frequencies (Table 5) and mode shapes [42].

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Table 5. Calculated and identified natural frequencies and damping coefficients.

Calculated Identified Identified
Mode
frequency frequency damping Type of mode
no.
(Hz) (Hz) (%)
1 0.940 0.972 1.07 First symmetric (two spans, opposite phase)
2 2.101 2.072 1.51 Second anti-symmetric (L=30m)
3 2.152 2.043 1.40 First symmetric (two spans, in-phase)
4 2.234 1.960 1.10 First lateral (two spans)
5 2.344 2.382 1.72 Second anti-symmetric (L=28m)
6 3.736 3.590 1.78 Second symmetric (L=30m)
7 3.875 - - First torsional (two spans, L=30m dominant)
8 4.188 4.165 2.00 Second symmetric (L=28m)
9 4.200 - - First torsional (two spans, L=28m dominant)
10 5.761 5.461 1.92 Third anti-symmetric (L=30m)

F=2.101Hz F=2.152Hz

F=2.234Hz F=2.344Hz

Fig. 25. Examples of calculated modal shapes

Beyond this type of sensitivity analyses, more automatic finite element updating
techniques can also be used [43]. In this context, a drawback of output-only modal
identification seemed to be the impossibility to obtain mass normalized mode shapes.
However, this inconvenient can be overcome [44] introducing appropriate mass
changes.

5. Conclusion
Civil Engineering structures have peculiar characteristics (large size and relatively
low natural frequencies) that make difficult the current application of classical input-
output modal identification techniques. Therefore, there is presently a clear tendency
worldwide to explore and improve the potential of output-only modal identification
techniques, whose efficiency and accuracy were clearly illustrated with the
applications shown. These techniques, that may be used under normal operation
conditions, can provide a solid basis for: (i) the development of finite element
correlation analyses, (ii) the finite element updating and validation; (iii) the definition

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of a baseline set of dynamic properties of the initially non-damaged structure, that

may be subsequently used for the application of vibration based damage detection
techniques; (iv) the integration of output-only modal identification techniques in health
monitoring systems; (v) the implementation of vibration control devices.

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[34] Flamand, O. & Grillaud, G. “Identification Modale du Viaduc de Millau”, Technical

Report EN-CAPE 05.007 C-V0, CSTB, France, 2005
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