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General Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer: MEC121 1 Semester Atty. Edgar Alan Donasco

Thermodynamics is the study of heat, work, and energy. It has applications in engines, refrigeration systems, power plants, and other machines. Some key concepts in thermodynamics include state, property, equilibrium, process, cycle, and the zeroth law. Temperature can be measured on the Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin, and Rankine scales. Other important concepts are energy, pressure, volume, the first law of thermodynamics, and the difference between extensive and intensive properties. Thermodynamics considers macroscopic effects rather than individual molecular interactions.

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Mikay Orillaneda
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98 views

General Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer: MEC121 1 Semester Atty. Edgar Alan Donasco

Thermodynamics is the study of heat, work, and energy. It has applications in engines, refrigeration systems, power plants, and other machines. Some key concepts in thermodynamics include state, property, equilibrium, process, cycle, and the zeroth law. Temperature can be measured on the Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin, and Rankine scales. Other important concepts are energy, pressure, volume, the first law of thermodynamics, and the difference between extensive and intensive properties. Thermodynamics considers macroscopic effects rather than individual molecular interactions.

Uploaded by

Mikay Orillaneda
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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General Thermodynamics

and Heat Transfer


MEC121 1st Semester
Atty. Edgar Alan Donasco
⚫ word “thermo-dynamic,” used first by
Thomson (later Lord Kelvin),1 has Greek
origin, and is translated2 as the
combination of
◦ • θ´ǫρµη, therme: heat, and
◦ • δυναµις ´ , dynamis: power.

Introduction
• thermodynamics: the science that
deals with heat and work and those
properties of matter that relate to heat and
work.

Introduction
• 1593: Galileo develops a water thermometer.
• 1662: Robert Boyle develops his law for isothermal ideal gases. 1679: Denis
Papin develops his steam digester, forerunner to the steam engine.
• 1698: Thomas Savery patents an early steam engine.
•• 1780s: James Watt improves the steam engine.
•• 1824: Nicolas L`eonard Sadi Carnot discusses idealized heat engines.
• 1840s: James Prescott Joule relates heat and work.
• 1848: William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) postulates an absolute zero of
temperature.
• 1850: Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius formalizes the second law of
thermodynamics.
• 1865: Clausius introduces the concept of entropy.
• 1871: James Clerk Maxwell develops the Maxwell relations.
• 1870s: Josiah Willard Gibbs further formalizes mathematical thermodynamics.
• 1870s: Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann develop statistical thermodynamics.
• 1889: Gibbs develops statistical mechanics, giving underlying foundations for
classical
and statistical thermodynamics.

Historical milestones
⚫ simple steam power plant,
⚫ fuel cells,
⚫ vapor-compression refrigeration cycle,
⚫ air separation plant,
⚫ the gas turbine, and
⚫ the chemical rocket engine.

Some applications
applications
applications
applications
Some Concepts and Definitions
Some concepts and definitions
Some concepts and definitions
macroscopic
• classical thermodynamics will treat macroscopic
effects only and ignore individual molecular
effects. For example molecules bouncing off a
wall exchange momentum with the wall and
induce pressure. We could use Newtonian
mechanics for each particle collision to calculate
the net force on the wall. Instead our approach
amounts to considering the average over space
and time of the net effect of millions of collisions
on a wall.

Some concepts and definitions


microscopic
In principle, we could solve for the forces acting
on every molecule and use Newton’s laws to
determine the behavior of systems. This is difficult
for even modestly sized systems.
• If we had a volume of 1 m3 of gas at atmospheric
pressure and temperature, we would find that it
was composed of 2.4 × 1025 molecules.
• We would need six equations of motion for each
molecule, three for x, y, z, position,
and three for u, v, w velocity. This would require
then a total of 1.4 × 1026 differential
equations to solve simultaneously.

Some concepts and definitions


⚫ Properties and state of a substance

Phase: a quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout,


and

Phase Boundaries: interfaces between different phases.

State: condition described by observable macroscopic


properties, and

Property: quantity that only depends on the state of the


system and is independent of the history of the system.

Some concepts and definitions


Extensive Property: a property that
depends on the mass (or the extent) of the
system, example extensive properties
include mass, total volume, total energy,
and
Intensive Property: a property that is
independent of the mass of the system.
Example intensive properties include
temperature and pressure.

Some concepts and definitions


⚫ Equilibrium: state in which no
spontaneous changes are observed with
respect to time.
⚫We actually never totally achieve equilibrium, we only approximate it. It takes infinite time

⚫to .
achieve final equilibrium

⚫ Mechanical equilibrium: characterized


by equal pressure, and
⚫ Thermal equilibrium: characterized by
equal temperature.

Some concepts and definitions


Some concepts and definitions
Some concepts and definitions
Change of State: implies one or more
properties of the system has changed.

Process: a succession of changes of state.


isothermal: constant temperature,
isobaric: constant pressure, and
isochoric: constant volume.

Thermodynamic cycle: series of processes


that returns to the original state

Some concepts and definitions


Zeroth law of thermodynamics:

When two bodies have equality of


temperature with a third body, then they
have equality of temperature.

Some concepts and definitions


zeroth law: enables the use of a thermometer as a
measurement device.

Celsius (◦C),
• 0 ◦C is the freezing point of water, and
• 100 ◦C is the boiling point of water.
These quantities varied with pressure however, so that
different values would be obtained on top of a mountain
versus down in the valley, and so this is not a good standard.

The modern Celsius scale is defined to be nearly the same, but


has
• 0.01 ◦C as the so-called triple point of water, and
• −273.15 ◦C as absolute zero in K.

Some concepts and definitions


The triple point of water is defined at the
state where three phases of water (solid,
liquid, and gas) are observed to co-exist.

The transformation between the absolute


Kelvin scale and the Celsius scale is given
by:
K = ◦C + 273.15.

Some concepts and definitions


⚫ The English equivalents are degrees
Fahrenheit (◦F) for relative temperature
and degrees Rankine (◦R) for absolute
temperature. The conversions are

● T(◦R) = 1.8T(K),
● T(◦F) = 1.8T(◦C) + 32,
● T(◦F) = T(◦R) − 459.67

Some concepts and definitions


Quasi-equilibrium process
⚫ Energy: roughly speaking, the ability to
do work, found from the product of force
and distance.
⚫ – Joule: (J), 1 J = 1 (N m), and
⚫ – foot-pound force: (ft lbf).

⚫ Specific Volume: the volume per unit


mass, known as
⚫ v = V/m; m3/kg

Some concepts and definitions


Pressure: the limA→0 F/A where A is the
cross-sectional area and F is the component of force
acting normal to that area.

⚫ In thermodynamics, we are almost always concerned


with the absolute pressure as opposed to the gauge
pressure.
⚫ Most common pressure gauges do not measure the
absolute pressure; instead they measure the
difference between the absolute pressure and the
atmospheric pressure.

◦ Pgauge = Pabs − Patm.

Some concepts and definitions


⚫ Pascal: (Pa), 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
⚫ 1 bar = 10,000 Pa, 100kPa
⚫ 1 atm = 1.01325 × 10,000 Pa = 101.325
kPa = 0.101325 MPa, and
⚫ – (psia): 1 psia = 1 lbf/in2
⚫ . 1 atm = 14.696 psia. The a denotes the
“absolute”

Some concepts and definitions


Some concepts and definitions
Some concepts and definitions

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