Soil classification (SES-705)

Soil classification
Systematic grouping and arrangement of soils into different groups or categories on the basis of
their distinguished characteristics is known as soil classification.

Soil taxonomy
Soil taxonomy is the science of laws and principal of soil classification.

Technically speaking, soil taxonomy is the branch of soil science which deals with discovering,
characterizing, classifying and naming the soils as to understand the relationships between them
and with the factors of environment.

Need for soil classification

Soil is a natural media capable to support plant growth. A soil is a product of parent material
have been changed over time by climate and living organisms and modified by topography. Soils
vary widely in their nature and properties depending upon soil farming factors. For example the
soils that have been developed from sand stone are sandier and inherently less productive
compare to the soils developed from limestone. Likewise, the properties of that developed on
steep slope are entirely different from the soil developed on flat or depressed topography.
Similarly, the nature and properties of soils farmed & developed in temperate region are quite
different from the soils developed in tropical climate. It indicates that some soils are naturally
productive and respond well to different management practices while others are relatively less
productive and respondent to cultural practices. Likewise, some soils drain very rapidly and need
frequent irrigation while others retain much water but require good aeration.

In order to make profitable and sustainable use of soil we cannot handle all types of soils in the
same way. Therefore scientists, study these variations in nature and properties of soil and setup a
classification system that recognize large number of soils each with distinguished characters. The
knowledge of kinds and properties of soil around the world is critical to humanity struggle for
survival and well being. A soil classification system is equally important if we want to use the
knowledge of soil properties gained at one location to solve the problems at another location
where similarly classed soils are found. In short, soil classification system provides a base for
efficient and sustainable use of soil on profitable basis.
Objectives of soil classification
Soil classification is important not only for scientific research in soil sciences themselves but
also for social, economic, natural, cultural and technical sciences. The main contribution of soil
classification is to allow for defining off cluster of different soil characteristics relevant in space
& time to the specific research needs in the respective field of sciences.

Soil classification plays a central role in categorizing the large body of information being
assembled during soil survey. The main objectives of soil classification are:

1. To give an identity to soil to study their nature and properties precisely.

2. It serves as a frame work for organizing our knowledge of soils and provides the means
of communication among scientists and between scientists and the users of the land.
3. To establish various groups and subgroups of soils in order to predict their behavior and
identify their best uses and productivity.
4. To highlight and understand relationship among different classes to each other and to the
environment.
5. To provide appropriate objects and units for research and experimentation.
6. To study the soil intelligently at different locations on the earth surface and to
communicate information about genesis and characteristics of soil.
7. Classification provides a way to organize information regarding soil into a pattern so that
we can recognize and use soil more efficiently and effectively.

Evolution of soil classification system

Soil taxonomy is a soil classification system. Throughout the history, humans have used some
kind of system to name and classify the soil. From the time, when crops were first cultivated the
people observed some differences in soil with respect to their productivity. And they classified
the soils as good soils and bad soils. The early Chinese, Egyptian and Roman civilization,
acknowledge the differences in soils as natural media for plant growth. Such recognition is also
common today as soils are recognized as good cotton soils, wheat, maize, and rice or sugarcane
soils. The earliest documented attempt at formal classification of soils based on the productivity
of the soils seemed to occur in china. The Chinese system included 9 classes of soil based on the
productivity of soils. The evidences suggested that Chinese soil classification system was used to
impose taxes on the farmers based on the productivity of soils. Later on, Roman scientist
develops a classification system based on farming utility. This system was comprised of 9
classes and 21 subclasses and this system was designed for guidance to make decisions about the
use and care of land for the production of food and fiber.

In 1882 Russian Government deputed their scientist to design program for classification and
mapping of soils as a basis for tax assessment. These Russian scientists promoted the description
of soils as natural bodies rather than considering soils simply as materials of weathered rocks.
They studied some relationships among climate, vegetation and soils. They gave the idea of
2
pedon from which data can be collected and compared. The size of pedon varies from 1-10m
depending upon the variability in soils. But due to poor classification facilities, this idea could
th
not be promoted to USA up to earlier parts of 20 century. In 1927 US department of agriculture
used this idea of natural body and develop a classification scheme. This scheme was further
improved in 1935 & 1938. By the survey department in USA this classification scheme was
named as soil taxonomy and it has been implemented in USA as well as 45 other countries since
1965. This scheme was also followed in Pakistan.

Principles of soil taxonomy

Soil taxonomy is based on following principles:

1) Equity
Each category in the system should provide a place for all soils in a landscape or have the
capability to provide such a place without distortion of the system.

2) Transparency
The categories of the system must have unambiguous definitions and clearly stated
functions. Knowledgeable persons equipped with some information must arrive at the same
classification.

3) Science based
The system should not prejudice future applications. This is ensured by adhering to
logical scientific rules and minimizing the use of biases, popular feelings and traditional
approaches. However, this historical information may be used but must be continually
validated for its relevance and acceptance.
4) Architecture and linkage
The designs of classification should facilitate its use in digital processing system, and
where possible with easy linkage to other natural resource classification system.
5) Ecosystem links
As soils are a component of any ecosystem, ecosystem parameters should be valid to
use as criteria for defining categories particularly at higher categories.
6) Flexibility
To serve its intended purpose and to reduce subjectivity (biasness) in application of
the system, flexibility should not result in distortion of the system integrity.
Features of soil classification
It must be comprehensive i.e. it must be capable of accumulating all of the soil found in the
country.

1. Class definition must be clear, vigorous, and mutually exclusive and based on factual
statements of soil properties.
2. Only those soil properties that are easy to measure and verifiable by others should be
used as criteria for soil classification.
3. Classification system must be well structured so that similarities and differences among
soils can easily be understood.
4. Unique nomenclature should be employed which gives definite connotation of the major
characteristics of soil e.g. vertisol.

Categories of soil taxonomy

A category of soil taxonomy is a set of classes that are defined approximately at the same level
of generalization and that include all soils. Soil taxonomy has six categories these are from top to
bottom, order, suborder, great group, sub group, family and series. The highest category has
lowest classes and criteria separating the classes while lowest categories have most classes and
criteria.

1) Order
This is the most generalized category of soil taxonomy. There are 12 soil orders. These
are differentiated on the basis of presence or absence of diagnostic horizons or features
that reflect soil farming processes. Mostly the criteria include properties that reflect major
differences in the genesis of soil. The soil properties are the consequences of a variety of
process acting on parent material over time. Distinction among soil orders help in
understanding soils and remembering them on grand scale.
Soil properties that can be measured quantitatively are used in this classification system –
they include: depth, moisture, temperature, texture, structure, cation exchange capacity,
base saturation, clay mineralogy, organic matter content and salt content.
The distinction made in classifying soils cannot be based on processes themselves
because new knowledge is certain to change our ideas about the process but features of
the process are the facts that cannot be observed and measured and used as basis for
distinction. Thus, distinguishing between the orders is based on the markers left by
process that are dominant forces in shaping the characters of soil. There are twelve soil
orders. However, these orders are not only the possible orders in soil taxonomy. The
hierarchy is flexible and other adhocorders may be defined to emphasize properties not
considered in 12 orders.
2) Sub orders
 A suborder category is the sub division of an order with in which genetic homogeneity
is emphasized. Soil characteristics used to distinguish sub orders with in orders vary from
order to order. However, soil moisture regimes, temperature regimes and soil properties
derived from differences between soil moisture and temperature are considered important
criteria to differentiate sub order within an order. Sixty four suborders are currently
recognized.
3) Great groups
It is sub division of suborder. There are more than three hundred great groups. Soil
within great group is identified by the kind of sequence of soil horizon.
4) Sub group
It is the subdivision of great group. In sub groups classes are identify on the basis of
horizon nature and arrangement as well as soil temperature and moisture regimes. There
are three kinds of sub groups, typic, inter grade and extra grade.
I. Typic sub group
A typic subgroup represents the basic concept of great group from which it
derives.
II. Inter grade sub group
Inter grade sub group contains soil of grade group but also have soil containing
same properties and characters of another great groups.
III. Extra grade
Soil has properties that do not inter grade or match to any soil of known great
group.
5) Family
A soil family is a group of soil with in a sub group that has similar physical and
chemical properties of soil. The principle characteristics used to differentiate soil texture,
structure, mineralogy, temperature, cation exchange capacity, soil thickness, and presence
of soil coatings, cracks or any other property which is important from the plant growth
point of view.
6) Soil series
The series is the longest category in soil taxonomy. Soil series are the sub division of
soil family based upon relatively detailed properties of the pedon within the depth of
control section. The range of variability of differentiating characteristics is narrower than
for families. The properties such as the nature of horizons, which includes the
mineralogy, texture, structure, rupture, resistance, moisture and temperature regimes and
degree of horizon thickness contrast between horizon and the nature of horizon boundary.
Nomenclature of soil classification

1) Order

The name of the order can be recognized as such because the name of each order ends at “sol”.
Sol is a Latin word derived from solum (soil) with a connecting vowel “O” for Greeks routs and
“I” for other routes e.g. Spodosol or Entisol. Each name of an order contains a formative element
that begins with vowel e.g. in Entisol “Ent” formative element.

Order name Formative element

Entisol Ent
Inceptisol Ept
Alfisols Alf
Aridisol Ardi
Gelisol El
Histosol Ist
Mollisol Oll
Oxisol Ox
Spodosol Od
Ultisols Ult
Vertisol Ert
Andisol

i. Entisol
Entisol derived from a Latin word “ent” means meaningless or recent and sol
means soil. Entisols are those soils which are immature and lack of vertical
development of horizons. These soils are oftenly associated with recently
deposited sediments by the action of wind, water, ice and gravity. The unique
feature of the soil is the dominance of the mineral soil material (sand, silt and
clay) and absence of marks of any pedogenic process. The absence of distinct
pedogenic development in entisol is due to following reasons.
ii. Inceptisol
The word inceptisol is derived from a Latin word “Inceptum” meaning beginning
or start. These are weekly developed soils with ochric or umbric epipedon.
 Ochric epipedon
A surface horizon too light in color, very low in organic matter and very thin in
thickness is called ochric epipedon.
 Umbric epipedon
Surface horizon having base saturation percentage less than 50% is called umbric
epipedon.
Profile development of inceptisol is more advanced than entisol (poorly developed) but
less than all other orders. The lack of profile development in Inceptisol may be due to
following reasons:
  Deposits may be recent, the interaction between soil farming factors such
as parent material with climate and living organisms continued for short period of
time that is not enough for the development of soil profile.
 Erosion may be first enough to remove the developing soil before strong
horizon can be develop.
 Climatic conditions are not very conducive for the development of soil profile.
 Parent material may be inert.
iii. Mollisol
Mollisol is derived from a Latin word “Mollus” mollus mean soft. Mollisols are
characterized by mollic epipedon which is thick in depth, dark in color and has
more than 50% base saturation percentage, mostly Ca and have soft consistence.
Mollic epipedon
“A surface horizon having organic matter less than 1%, relatively dark in color,
almost 18cm thick and does not have any hard structure. It has more than 50%
base saturation percentage and less than 250mg/kg P 2O5 soluble in 1% citric
acid.”
Mollisols are some of the most fertile soil inherently and some can produce
optimum yield without fertilizer. Mollisols are characteristically developed under
grass in the climate that has moderate to pronounced seasonal moisture stress.
Some Mollisols develops under forest ecosystem and some in marshes under
humic conditions. Mollisols have largest number of sub orders that indicates the
diverse nature of these soils. Sub order names indicate the wide distribution of
Mollisols in cold, temperate, humid and semiarid climatic conditions.

iv. Aridisols
Aridisol derives from a Latin word “Aridus” Aridus mean dry or arid. These
soils are developed in very dry environment. Aridisol have no available water
during most of the time. Aridisol tends to be light in color because of limited
humus addition from vegetations. Since Aridisols develop under low soil moisture
and have little or no water for leaching, consequently soil profile in Aridisols has
following features:
 Lime layer
 Accumulation of gypsum or other salts
 Low organic matter accumulation
 Calcareousness
 Development of hard pane
v. Alfisols
The word alfisols derives from pedalfer, ped mean soil, al mean aluminum, fer
mean ferric.
 The unique character of alfisols is the translocation of clay, aluminum and iron
and their subsequent accumulation into the B horizon. Alfisols are developed
under forest vegetation, where parent material has gone under significant
weathering. The distinguished characters of alfisols are:
 Translocation of clay, aluminium and iron into B- horizon
 Medium to high base saturation
 Light color
vi. Ultisols
Ultisols derived from a Latin word “Ultimus” ultimus mean last or highly leached
soil. Ultisols have marks of clay translocation and intensive leaching. Ultisols are
humid area soils and have following characters:
 Clay accumulation in B-horizon
 CEC is moderate to low
 pH will be moderately to strongly acidic
 Surface horizon dark with humus
 Intensive weathering
 Kaolinites dominates the clay fraction of most Ultisols, although
appreciate able quantity of primary minerals such as quarts, mica and
feldspar arestill present
vii. Vertisols
Vertisol derived from a Latin word “Verto” verto mean turn.
Vertisols are characterized by high content (>30%) of swelling and shrinking type
clays (smectite, montmorillonite and vermiculite) to the depth of 1m. these
swelling clays swell on wetting while contract on drying. Alternate swelling and
contracting of these minerals develop deep and wide cracks making them difficult
to cultivate and nearly impossible to use for supporting roads, buildings and other
infrastructures. The unique characteristics of Vertisols are the high content of
swelling clays, pronounced changes in volume with change in moisture contents,
crack that open and close periodically and the evidence of soil movement such as
slicken sides (polished and grooved soil surfaces that develop when one soil mass
slides over other).
In Vertisols significant amount of material from the upper part of soil profile may
be slough off into cracks giving raise a partial inversion of soil. Hence, these soils
are known as Vertisols. Cation exchange capacity is more than 30meq/100g of
soil, evidence of vertical and horizontal movement of soil material.
viii. Oxisols
Oxisols derived from a French word “oxide” means highly oxidized
throughout the profile. The oxisols are more intensively weathered soil in the
classification system. Weathering is accelerated by high temperature and
 moisture, so the highly weathered oxisols typically occur in hot and humid,
tropical and sub tropical area. The unique feature of an oxisols is the presence of
oxic epipedon and often plinthite. These have lost much of their silica and are rich
in iron and aluminium oxide. Weather able minerals in oxisols are either absent or
present in trace amount. There is no translocation of clay in oxisols. These soils
are highly permeable and have low permeability.
ix. Spodosols
Spodosols derived from Greek word “Spodos” mean wood ash. These soils are
grey in color. The unique features of spodosols are highly acidic, well leached and
ashy white Albic epipedon and a sub surface horizon with an accumulation of
organic matter and oxides of aluminium with or without iron oxides known as
spodic endopedon, B-horizon consisting of an accumulation of radish or black
amorphous material with high cation exchange capacity. Spodosols form mostly
on coarse textured acidic parent material subjected to ready leaching. These occur
only in moist to wet climate under forest vegetation.
x. Histosols
Histosols derived from Greek word “Histos” histos mean tissue. Histosols are
characterized by very high content of organic matter (>20%) in upper 80cm of
soil. Most histosols are peat or muck soils, which contains more or less
decomposed plant residues.
Peat
Unconsolidated soil material consisting largely of undecomposed or slightly
decomposed organic matter accumulated under the conditions of excessive
moisture.
Peat soil
An organic soil containing more than 50% organic matter which is
undecomposed or slightly decomposed is called peat soil.
Muck
Soil material consisting of largely, highly decomposed organic material in
which original plant parts are not recognizable is called muck.
Muck soil
Soil containing 20-50% organic matter which is well decomposed is known
muck soil.
Histosol have high cation exchange capacity and low bulk density.
xi. Andisols
Modified from a Japanese word “Ando” ando mean dark volcanic ash, the unique
property of Andisols is the dominance of aluminium and humus complexes that
results from weathering and mineral transformation with minimum translocation.
 These soils have high phosphorus retention available water capacity and cation
exchange capacity.
xii. Gelisols
Gelisols derived from a Latin word “Gelare” gelare means to freeze, unique
property of gelisols is the presence of permafrost (where temperature is always
below freezing point) and soil features that are associated with freezing and
thawing. These features include irregular broken horizon and incorporation of
organic material into the lower horizon. Freezing and thawing producing granular
and platy structure in the surface and sub surface horizon. The increasing in soil
volume on freezing is the major soil farming process in gelisols. These soils are
confined at high altitude or elevation. These soils makes up about 13% soils in the
world second only to Aridisols.
2) Sub order
st
Name of sub order have two syllables. The 1 syllable indicates or represents the
nd
diagnostic property of soil or soil moisture regime and 2 is the formative element from
the name of order. Thirty formative elements are used with twelve formative elements
from the name of orders, to make the name of the 64 sub orders e.g. Aquent is the
suborder of entisol having aquic moisture regime.

Formative elements in the name of sub orders in soil taxonomy

Formative Derivation Connotation/ Representation

element
Alb L. Aibus (white) Albic horizon
Anth G. Anthropos (humans) Modified by humans
Aqu L. Aquq (water) Aquic conditions
Ar L. Arare (to plough) Mixed horizon
Arg L. Argilla (white clay) Argilic horizon
Cal L. Calcis (lime) Calcic horizon
Cam L.Cambiare(to Cambic horizon
exchange)
Dur L. Durus (hard) Duripan
Fibr L. Fibra (fiber) Least decomposed stage
Fluv L. Fluvius(river) Flood plains
Fol L. Folia(leaves) Mass of leaves
Gyps L. Gypsum Presence of gypsic horizon
Hapl G. Haplus(simple) Minimum horizon development
Hem G. Hemi(half) Intermediate stage of decomposition
Hist G.Histus(tissue) Presence of organic material
 Hum L. Humus Presence of organic matter
Ochr G. Ochrus(color) Ochric horizon
Per L. Per(throughout) Per udic moisture regime
Psamm G. Psammos (sand) Sandy texture
Rend Rendrina High carbonate content
Sal L. Sal(salt) Presence of salic horizon
Sapr G. Sapros(rotten) Most decomposed stage
Torr L.Torridus(hot dry) Torric moisture regime
Turb L. Turbidis(disturbance) Presence of cryoturbation
Ud L. Udus (moist) Udic moisture regime
Umbr L. Umbera(shade) Umbric horizon
Ust L. ustus(burnt) Ustic moisture regime
Vitr L. Vitrum (glass) Presence of glass
Xer G. Xros(dry) Xeric moisture regime

Soil characteristics used to distinguish sub orders within an order vary from order to
order. For example, soil moisture and temperature regimes are important factors that
differentiate sub orders in certain orders like alfisols. The presence of argilic horizon is
used to place sub orders within the order Aridisols. However, sub orders within a soil
order differentiated largely on the basis of soil properties and horizons resulting from
difference in soil moisture and temperature regimes. Sub orders within soil orders are
discussed below:
Order
Entisol
Suborders
i. Aquents
ii. Fluvents
iii. Orthents
iv. Psamments
v. Arents
i. Aquents (unfavorable ecological conditions)
Derived from a Latin word “Aqua” means saturated. This suborder include those
soils that have aquic conditions (aquic soil moisture regimes) or (reducing soil
conditions for sometime). These are the soils in the areas of marshes. These soils are
often saturated with water and have blue or green on the surface these are called
mottles (patches of different color). If more than 10% soil is colored then it is called
mottled soil.
ii. Fluvents (insufficient time)
 This sub order includes the soils that are not wet and consist of recent illuvium
which is generally stratified. This sub order contains soils that are very young and
poorly developed. The poor development (poor development) in these soils is mainly
due to continuous deposition of new sediments which consequently have in sufficient
time for development.
iii. Orthents
This sub order includes soils of recently eroded slopes. The rate of erosion is
greater than the rate of development. Consequently the horizon development is poor.
This sub order includes those soils which are kept young due to removal of soil
material at a rate that is more rapid than horizon development.
iv. Psamments
It is derived from Greek word”Psammos” means sand. This sub order includes
sand that is too inert to develop soil horizon. Consequently these soils have poor
structure development, low soil fertility, poor water holding capacity, high
susceptibility to erosion and high hydraulic conductivity.
v. Arents
Arents derived from a Latin word “Arare” means to plough. It includes those
soils in which horizon have been mixed by deep ploughing or other human activities
that have destroyed pedogenic horizon.
Order
Inceptisol
Sub orders
i. Anthrepts
ii. Aquepts
iii. Cryepts
iv. Udepts
v. Ustepts
vi. Xerepts
i. Anthrepts
These are more or less freely drained inceptisol that have an anthropic or plaggic
epipedon. Most of these soils have been used in crop land or as sites for man
occupation for many years.
ii. Aquepts
These are wet inceptisols. The natural drainage is poor or very poor and if the
soil has not been artificially drained ground water is at or near the soil surface for
sometime during the year but not during the whole season.
iii. Cryepts
 Cryepts are old inceptisols of high mountains or high latitude. The vegetation is
mostly conifers. These soils mostly develop from loess (large deposits) and have
brownish ochric epipedon.
iv. Udepts
Udepts have udic moisture regimes. These are formed on nearly level to steep
surfaces. Most of these soils support forest vegetation and usually have ochric or
umbric epipedon.
v. Ustepts
These are more or less freely drained inceptisols that have an ustic moisture
regime. These soils dominantly received summer precipitation and have isomesic,
hyper thermal or warmer temperature regime. Most ustepts have an ochric epipedon
and many have calcic horizon. The native vegetation commonly are grasses but some
soils may support forest.
vi. Xerepts
Xerepts are inceptisols that have xeric moisture regime. These have frigid or
mesic temperature regime but in some cases thermic temperature regime are also
present. The native vegetation is commonly coniferous forest.
Order
Aridisols
Sub orders
i. Argids
ii. Calcids
iii. Cambids
iv. Cryids
v. Druids
vi. Gypsids
vii. Salid
i. Argids
These are Aridisols that have an argilic or natric horizon. The low water flux or
availability and high accumulation of salts in many Aridisols usually hinder the crop
productivity.
ii. Calcids
Calcids are the Aridisols with high concentration of calcium carbonates that was either
in parent material or added externally as dust. Precipitation is insufficient to leach or
even move carbonates to greater depth. The upper boundary of calcic or petrocalcic
horizon is normally within 50cm of soil surface. If soils are not irrigated or cultivated,
micronutrients deficiencies are common. These have temperature regime warmer than
cryic.
iii. Cambids
 These are the Aridisols with least soil development. These soils have cambic horizon
within 100cm of soil surface. These may have other diagnostic horizons such as
petrocalcic, gypsic or calcic horizon but the upper boundary of these horizons must
below 100cm of depth.
iv. Cryids
Cryids are the Aridisols of cold deserts, short growing season combined with arid
conditions limit the use of these soils, and Cryids sub order may have a duripan,
Argillic, calcic, gypsic, Natric, petrocalcic, petrogypsic or salic horizon. These
horizons are the basis for great groups. Some cryids may have ustic or xeric soil
moisture regime which is also used as criteria for placing soils in different great
groups.
v. Druids
Druids are the Aridisols that have duripan in many areas. The duripan is within 50cm
of soil surface. These soils occur dominantly on gentle slopes. The soils commonly
have CaCO3. The duripan is barrier to both water infiltration and root penetration.
vi. Gypsids
Gypsids are the Aridisols that have a gypsic or petrogypsic horizon within 100cm of
soil surface. Accumulation of gypsum takes place initially as crystal aggregates in the
voids of soil but then deposits in the form of layer. When gypsic horizon occurs as
cemented impermeable layer, it is referred as petrogypsic horizon that may restrict the
movement of water and plant roots.
vii. Salids
The concept of salids represents the accumulation of excessive amount of salts that are
-
more soluble than gypsum. Salids must have EC 30dsm in1:1 soil extract and the
product of EC and thickness should be at least 900. Under arid environment and hot
temperature, accumulation of salts commonly occur when there is a supply of salts and
net upward movement of salts. In some areas salic horizon formation may be due to
salty parent material. The most common form of salts is NaCl but sulfates and other
salts may also be present.
Order
Mollisols
Sub orders
i. Albolls
ii. Aquolls
iii. Cryolls
iv. Rendolls
v. Udolls
vi. Ustolls
vii. Xerolls
i. Albolls
Albolls are the Mollisols that have an Albic horizon and fluctuating ground
water. Most of these soils are saturated with water to or near the soil surface, at
sometime during winter season, however in summer ground water is not commonly
within a depth of 200cm. below Albic horizon, there is either an Argillic or less
commonly Natric horizon. These soils developed mostly on broad nearly level to
sloppy ridges, on back slopes (slope which is opposite to sun) or in closed depression.
Most Albolls developed under grass vegetation. However in early stages of
development some are thought to support vegetations that were replaced by grasses.
ii. Aquolls
Aquolls are the Mollisols that are wet and have reduced conditions. Aquolls
have aquic soil moisture regime and need artificial drainage. These soils commonly
develop in low lying areas, where water collects and stands for long time. Most of
soils have grass vegetation but few soils may support forests.
iii. Cryolls
Cryolls are cool and more or less freely drainedMollisols. Cryolls have cryic
temperatureregimes and udic or ustic and xeric moisture regime.
iv. Rendolls
These are the Mollisols developed in highly calcareous parent material such as
limestone or chalk. These soils have mollic epipedonthat rest on cambic horizon
which is rich in carbonates. These are formed mostly under forest vegetation but may
develop under grass and shrubs.
v. Udolls
Udolls are more or less freely drained Mollisols of humid climate in addition to
mollic epipedon, these soils have cambic, Natric, calcic or Argillic horizon. These
have udic moisture regime while temperature regime is frigid or warmer. Where slops
are not too steep, these soils are cultivated. Maize and sorghum are major crops
grown on these soils.
vi. Ustolls
Ustolls are the Mollisols having ustic soil moisture regime. In these soils,
drought is common and may be severe. During drought soil bellowing becomes a
problem without irrigation the low supply of moisture usually limits crop yield. In
addition to mollic epipedon most ustolls have B k horizon (k represent the
accumulation of calcium carbonate) that have identifiable secondary carbonates or
calcic horizon. Ustolls may also have cambic, Argillic, Natric, petrocalcic horizon.
The presence or absence of these horizons is used as basis for defining great groups
of ustolls.
vii. Xerolls
 These are the Mollisols having xeric soil moisture regime. Xerolls are dry for
extended periods in summer but moisture retain and move through most of soils in
winter characteristically are relatively thick mollic epipedon, cambic or Argillic
horizons and accumulation of carbonate in the lower part of B horizon.
Order
Alfisols
Suborders
i. Aqualf
ii. Cryalf
iii. Udalf
iv. Ustalf
v. Xeralf
i. Aqualf
Aqualf are the alfisols that have aquic soil moisture regime during some part of the
year. The wetness of aqualf may be due to shallow water table, poor hydraulic
conductivity, seepage from any water source or heavy rainfall. These soils required
artificial drainage for cultivation of crops. Rice is the most important crop of these soils.
ii. Cryalf
Cryalf are more or less freely drained alfisols of cold region. These soils have cryic
temperature regime and mostly udic moisture regime. These soils are generally used for
coniferous forests.
iii. Udalf
These soils have udic soil moisture regime and frigid or warm temperature regime.
These soils mostly support forest vegetation. Normally the undisturbed soil has a thin a
horizon which is darkened by the accumulation of humus. These soils may have Natric
horizon.
iv. Ustalf
Ustalf are the alfisols of sub humid to semiarid region. These soils have ustic
moisture regime. Moisture moves through most of these soils to deeper layer only in
occasional years. If carbonates are present in parent material or added to soil surface as
dust. These soils have Bk horizons.
v. Xeralf
Xeralf have xeric moisture regime. These are dry for extended period in summer but
in winter sufficient moisture is available for leaching in occasional years. If irrigation
water is available these soils are suitable for variety of crops.
Order
Andisol
Suborders
i. Aquand
 ii. Cryand
iii. Torrand
iv. Udand
v. Ustand
vi. Xerand
vii. Vitrand

i. Aquand
Aquand are the Andisols with aquic soil moisture regime. These soils have dark
colored surface horizons that meet the requirement of histic or mollic epipedon. These
soils normally occur in lower land scape and generally support forest vegetation.
ii. Cryand
Cryand are the Andisols that have cryic temperature regime. These soils generally
support coniferous forest.
iii. Torrand
These soils haveTorric (aridic) moisture regime. These soils mostly develop under
grass or shrub and have ochric or mollic epipedon. Some of these soils may have
duripan or petrocalcic horizons.
iv. Udand
Udand are the Andisols that have udic soil moisture regime. These soils generally
developed under forest vegetation and have umbric epipedon.
v. Ustand
These soils have ustic soil moisture regime and frigid or warmer soil temperature
regime. These soils have an ochric or mollic epipedon.
vi. Xerand
Andisol that have xeric moisture regime is called Xerand. Most Xerand have a frigid or
mesic temperature regime and develop under coniferous vegetation.
vii. Vitrand
These are relatively young soils that occur near volcanoes. These are normally well
drained soils having coarse texture.
Order
Gelisols
Suborders
i. Histell
ii. Orthell
iii. Turbel
i. Histell
 These are the gelisols with large amount of carbon that commonly accumulate
under anaerobic condition. Cold temperature contributes to the accumulation of organic
matter.
ii. Orthell
Orthells are the gelisols that show the evidence of cryoturbation (profile
development through wetting and drying, freezing and thawing). These soils occur
primarily within the zone of permafrost where parent material is mostly coarse textured.

iii. Turbel
These are the gelisols having a layer of organic matter accumulation on the top of
permafrost layer. These soils have also the evidence of cryoturbation.
Order
Histosol
Suborders
i. Fibrist
ii. Hemist
iii. Saprist
iv. Folist
i. Fibrist
Fibrists are the histosols in which organic matter is slightly decomposed. The
botanic origin of organic matter can be readily identified. The bulk density is less
3
than 0.1g/cm .
ii. Hemist
These are the histosols in which organic materials are moderately decomposed.
The source of organic matter cannot be readily identified. The bulk density is
3
commonly between 0.1-0.2g/cm . Ground water is at very close to soil surface, unless
artificially drained.
iii. Saprist
These are the histosols in which organic materials are well decomposed. The
botanic origin of organic material is very difficult to identify. Most of these soils have
3
a bulk density more than 0.2g/cm . These soils commonly occur in areas where
ground water fluctuates.
iv. Folist
These are the histosols that have organic horizon commonly derived from leaf litter
or branches resting on rocks or on fragmental material that consists of gravels, stones
or bolders in which cavities are filled with organic materials and plants are grown on
these organic materials. These soils are commonly present in humid climates
particularly at high latitudes.
 Order
Oxisol
Suborders
i. Aquox
ii. Torrox
iii. Udox
iv. Ustox
i. Aquox
These are wet oxisols developed in shallow depressions and in seepage areas.
These soils accumulate iron in the form of nodules or concretions. These soils
constitute small areas.
ii. Torrox
These are the oxisols of arid regions. These have an aridic or Torric moisture
regime and have high base saturation percentage compare to other oxisols.
iii. Udox
Udox are well drained oxisols with udic soil moisture regime. These soils have
considerable moisture content but may be dry in some parts for less than 90 days.
iv. Ustox
These are the oxisols that have an ustic moisture regime. These soils are moist for
at least 90 days, that period is long enough for one rain fed crop.
Order
Spodosols
Suborders
i. Aquod
ii. Cryod
iii. Humod
iv. Orthod
i. Aquod
Aquod are the spodosols of wet regions, these are characterized either by shallow
fluctuating water table or an extremely humid climate. These soils mostly developed
in sandy parent material and may have any temperature regime.
ii. Cryod
Cryod are the spodosols that have cryic temperature regime and mostly developed
at high latitudes. Many cryods are formed in volcanic ash or glacial drift. However,
some farmed or developed in colluvial parent material at the base of mountain slope.
These soils have very thin organic horizon.
iii. Humod
 Humods are relatively freely drained spodosols that have a large accumulation of
organic material in spodic horizon. These soils generally support forest vegetation.
iv. Orthod
Orthod are relatively freely drained spodosols with a layer containing Al or Fe and
organic carbon. The moisture regime of orthods is predominantly udic but a few may
have xeric moisture regime.

Order
Ultisols
Suborders
i. Aquult
ii. Humult
iii. Udult
iv. Ustult
v. Xerult
i. Aquult
These are the Ultisols having aquic soil moisture regime. High moisture content in
these soils is mainly due to shallow water table. These soils mostly support forest
vegetation.
ii. Humult
Humults are the Ultisols which are rich in humus. These soils mostly develop in
mountainous areas that have high rainfall. The natural vegetation consists of
coniferous forest.
iii. Udult
These are humus poor Ultisols having udic moisture regime. Most soils have light
colored upper horizon commonly grey in color that rest on yellowish brown to
redishargilic horizon. These soils have well distributed rainfall.
iv. Ustult
These are the Ultisols that have an ustic soil moisture regime and relatively low
contents of organic matter. These occur in the regions where rainfall is moderately
low and evapotranspiration usually exceeds precipitation.
v. Xerult
These soils have xeric moisture regime and small amount of organic matter. These
soils mostly develop on generally sloppy to very steep areas. Natural vegetation
mostly consists of coniferous forests.
Order
Vertisol
 Suborders
i. Aquert
ii. Cryert
iii. Torrert
iv. Udert
v. Ustert
vi. Xererts

i. Aquert
Aquerts are the wet Vertisols. These have aquic condition at or near the soil
surface for extended period during the year. But these soils are also dry for the period
long enough for cracks to open.
ii. Cryerts
Cryerts are the Vertisols having cryic temperature regime. These soils are fine
textured, develop in cold temperature, periodically shrink and swell farming
diagnostic characteristics of Vertisols.
iii. Torret
Torrert are the Vertisols having Torric soil moisture regime. The cracks of Torrert
commonly stay open for most of the year. These soils are further subdivided into
different great groups by the presence or absence of salts gypsum or carbonates.
iv. Udert
These are the Vertisols having udic moisture regime. These soils have cracks that
open and close depending upon the amount of precipitation. In some years cracks
may not open completely.
v. Ustert
These are the Vertisols having ustic soil moisture regime, cracks open and close
once or twice during the year. Many of these soils farmed in gently sloping areas of
fine textured alluvial deposits.
vi. Xererts
Xererts are Vertisols having xeric moisture regime. Due to fluctuation in soil
moisture these soils have cracks that open and close regularly and may damage soil
structure.
3) Great group
The name of great group consists of the name of suborder and a prefix that reflects
some unique features of that group.
Examples
Dur Argids.
In “Dur Argids” Dur is prefix, arg represents the sub order and ids represents the name
of order.
 Fluvents is the sub order of entisol developed from fluvial parent material and torri
fluvents is the great group having Torric moisture regime.
4) Sub group
i. Typic
ii. Intergrade
iii. Extra grade

The name of sub group consists of the name of the great group modified by one or more
adjectives e.g. typic torri fluvents, typic indicates the sub group, torri great group while fluvents
indicates the sub order and order name.

5) Family
The family names consist of the name of the sub group and descriptive term
generally three or more to indicate particle size, the mineralogy, the CEC, the
calcareousness, temperature, soil depth and rupture resistance.
Examples
Fine, montmorillonitic, thermic, typic torri fluvents
Fine loamy, mixed, hyper thermic, typic dur Argids

6) Series
The name of series is generally taken from a place where soil series has discovered or
recognized first. It may be the name of town or country or some local features e.g.
Gujranwala fine loamy, mixed, hyper thermic, calcareous, typic dur Argids.

Criteria for soil classification in soil taxonomy

i. Presence and absence of diagnostic horizon
ii. Soil moisture regimes
iii. Soil temperature regimes
iv. Soil properties important from agriculture
v. Soil profile development

Diagnostic horizon

Diagnostic horizons are those horizons which are used to differentiate a soil among
different order, sub order, great group, sub group, families and series. A layer of soil
approximately parallel to soil surface different in soil characteristics from adjacent
genetically similar layer present above or below it. The diagnostic horizons are of two
types

1) Diagnostic epipedon
The word epi is derived from Greek origin meaning above. Those diagnostic horizons
which are developed at the soil surface are known as diagnostic epipedon.
i. Mollic epipedon
ii. Umbric epipedon
iii. Anthropic epipedon
iv. Plaggin epipedon
v. Ochric epipedon
vi. Histic epipedon
vii. Melanic epipedon

Out of these epipedon two epipedon mollic and ochric are present in Pakistan.

i. Mollic epipedon
A surface horizon darker in color and contain more than 1% organic matter, it
is 18cm thick and does not have any hard or massive structure. It has more
than 50% base saturation percentage and less than 250mg/kg P2O5 in 1%
citric acid.
ii. Umbric epipedon
Surface horizon similar to mollic epipedon but have less than 50% base
saturation percentage.
iii. Ochric epipedon
Surface horizon too light in color, too low in organic matter, too thin in
thickness to be mollic or umbric epipedon is known as ochric epipedon.
iv. Anthropic epipedon
Surface horizon developed during the use of soil by people for long
period of time as home sites for growing irrigated crops. It contains more than
250mg/kg of P2O5 soluble in 1% citric acid.
v. Plaggin epipedon
Man made surface horizon developed by long and continuous manuring.
It is generally more than 30cm thick. Its color and organic “C” contents
depends upon the source of material used for manuring.
vi. Melanic epipedon
Thick black horizon at the surface with high contamination of organic
carbon associated with aluminium- humus complexes. The intense black color
is associated with accumulation of organic matter. It has low bulk density and
high phosphate retention.
vii. Histic horizon
Surface horizon high in organic matter and saturated with water at least far
apart during the year, unless artificially drained. It is generally 20-30cm thick
and should contain more than 30 % organic matter.
 2) Diagnostic endopedon
Diagnostic horizon which is developed below the soil surface horizon as
diagnostic endopedon is known as diagnostic endopedon.
i. Agric endopedon
ii. Argillic endopedon
iii. Natric endopedon
iv. Spodic endopedon
v. Sombric endopedon
vi. Albic endopedon
vii. Oxi endopedon

i. Agric endopedon
A sub surface horizon that have farmed under the plough layer by
movement of silicate clay and humus into voids (these are created by worms,
wetting and drying or by capillary pores).
ii. Argillic endopedon
It is an illuvial horizon developed by the deposition or accumulation of
silicate clays. It is at least 15cm thick.
iii. Natric endopedon
Natric endopedon derived from Latin word natrium means sodium. It is the
sub surface horizon containing 15% or more exchangeable sodium.
iv. Spodic horizon
Sub surface horizon in which organic matter and compounds of aluminium
and iron are accumulated. The active material has high CEC, large surface
area and high water holding capacity. It is usually developed in humid
climate.
v. Sombric endopedon
A sub surface horizon farmed or developed in well drained mineral soil
containing illuvial humus. Its base saturation percentage is less than 50%.
vi. Oxi endopedon
Sub surface horizon containing mixture of kaolinite, hydrated iron and
aluminium oxides, quartz and other primary minerals.
vii. Albic endopedon
It is a sub surface horizon from which clay and iron oxide have been
removed, as a result of this color depends upon sand and its particles.

Horizons developed through the accumulation of solublized materials:

i. Calcic horizon
 ii. Gypsic horizon
iii. Salic horizon
iv. Sulfuric horizon
i.Calcic horizon
It is a horizon developed by the accumulation of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) and magnesium carbonate (MgCO3). It is generally present in C
horizon. It is more than 15cm thick and contains at least 5% more carbonates
than C horizon, where it is present.
ii. Gypsic horizon
Horizon that developed by the accumulation of gypsum. The gypsum
content should be at least 5% more than the horizon where it is present. The
product of its thickness in cm and gypsum percentage should be 150 or more.
iii. Salic horizon
A horizon having the accumulation of salts more soluble in cold water than
gypsum is called salic horizon. The product of its thickness in cm and gypsum
percentage should be 60 or more.
iv. Sulfuric horizon
A horizon rich in sulfide mineral or high in surface organic matter, that
when drained, oxidized to sulfuric acid. Under oxidized conditions such soils
have pH less than 3.5, therefore these soils are toxic o many plants.

Hard horizons

i. Duripan
ii. Fragipan
iii. Petrocalcic horizon
iv. Petrogypsic horizon
v. Placic horizon
i.Duripan
A sub surface horizon that is strongly cemented by silica is called duripan.
Although carbonates may be present, duripans do not slack during prolonged
soaking in water or 8% HCl. However, it is disintegrates in hot concentrated
KOH solution.
ii. Fragipan
A natural sub surface horizon with high bulk density relative to the master
horizon where it is present is called Fragipan. It is slowly permeable to water
and usually shows cracks on repeated wetting and drying.
iii. Petrocalcic horizon
 -2
A sub surface horizon cemented by carbonates (CO 3 ) and not penetrable
by spade or auger is called petrocalcic horizon. Dry fragments do not slack in
water. It is at least 2.5cm thick.
iv. Petrogypsic horizon
A subsurface horizon that is cemented by gypsum so strongly that dry
fragments do not slack in water and cementation usually restricts root
penetration is called petrogypsic horizon.
v. Placic horizon
A sub surface horizon cemented by iron manganese or iron humus
complexes is called Placic horizon. It is usually present in humid region. It
restricts root penetration and water infiltration.

Other diagnostic features used in soil taxonomy:

i. Slicken sides
ii. Plinthite
iii. Permafrost
iv. Lithic contact
v. Durinodes
i.Slicken sides
Polished and grooved surfaces produced by sliding of one soil mass over
other. These surfaces are usually present in soils having high content of
swelling clays (smectite) and marked seasonal changes in moisture content.
ii. Plinthite
A mixture of iron and aluminium oxide clays, quartz and other material
that commonly occur as red soil mottles (patches of different color other than
that soil), Plinthite changes irreversibly to iron stone or exposure to repeated
cycles of wetting and drying with heat from the sun.
iii. Permafrost
0
A layer of soil where temperature is either 0 C or below zero throughout
the year is known as permafrost.
iv. Lithic contact
A contact or boundary between the soil and underlying coherent or
consolidated material which is usually sufficiently hard to make and digging
with spade practically impossible, however it can be chipped or scrapped.
v. Durinodes
It is weekly cemented nodules, the cementation is usually by silica
oxides, and these nodules usually do not slack into water.

N-value
 It refers to the relation between percentage of water under field conditions and percentage of
clay and humus. A simple field test is used to estimate the n-value by squeezing the moist soil in
hand. If the soil flows freely between fingers the n-value will be more than 1, but if the soil flows
with difficulty the n-value is between 0.7-1.

COLE (coefficient of linear extensibility)

The ratio between difference of moist length and dry length of clod to its dry length, It can be
estimated from shrinkage of sample packed at field capacity into a mold and than dry.

COLE= Lm-Ld/Ld

Soil moisture regimes

Soil moisture regimes refer to relative amount of water in soil control section. Soil control
section is the depth of soil used to measure soil moisture regimes. The soil control section ranges
from 10-30cm when soil is fine loamy, coarse silty, fine silty and clayey, 20-60cm when soil is
coarse loamy and 60-90cm when soil is sandy. Soil moisture regimes range from those where
ground water remains on the soil surface for a part of year to those containing only unavailable
water for much of the year. Soil moisture regimes indicate the soil moisture condition that
combine many water related features such as runoff, climate, seepage, drainage and slope
direction. The regimes are based mostly on the length of time (consecutive days) for which soil
control section is moist to permanent wetting percentage. Following are soil moisture regimes:

1. Aquic soil moisture regime

The word aquic derived from Latin word aqua, aqua mean water. Aquic moisture
regime is a reducing regime in soil that is completely free of dissolved oxygen. It is not
known how long soil must be saturated with water before it is set to have an aquic
moisture regime but duration must be at least a few days to deplete dissolved oxygen
completely. When soil is completely saturated with water, the dissolved oxygen is
consumed by plant roots, microorganisms and soil fauna resulting in reducing conditions
in soil. When soil remains saturated with water for sufficiently long period of time to
deplete the oxygen completely. Consequently soil is not suitable for the cultivation of
crops because of anaerobic conditions.
2. Udic moisture regime
The word udic derived from Latin word Udus, Udus mean humid; at this moisture
regime soil moisture control section is not dry in any part for 90 cumulative days in a
year. At this moisture regime adequate moisture is available for growing plants for most
of the year. Udic moisture regime is common to the soils of humid climates that have
 well distributed rainfall, which is approximately equal or exceeds the evapotranspiration
requirements.
3. Ustic moisture regime
The word ustic derived from Latin word ustus, ustus means dryness. At this moisture
regime soils contains considerable but inadequate plant available water. The soil moisture
control section may dry in any part for more than 90 but less than 180 cumulative daysper
year. However, soil moisture control section is not dry for 45 consecutive days in four
growing months from June 21- October 20.
4. Xeric moisture regime
The word xeric derived from a Greek word xeros, xeros mean dry. Xeric moisture
regime is a typical moisture regime in areas where winter is moist and cool while summer
is hot and dry. Xeric moisture regime contains moisture which is particularly effective for
leaching during winter months when evapotranspiration is minimum. In the areas of xeric
moisture regimesoil moisture control section is dry in all parts for at least 45 consecutive
days in four growing months June 21- October 20. However, soil moisture control section
is moist for half of the time per year.
5. Aridic/ Torric soil moisture regime
The word aridic derived from Latin word Aridus, Aridus mean dry while Torric
derived from a Latin word torridus, torridus mean hot and dry. These terms are used for
some moisture regimes but in different categories of soil taxonomy. In aridic or Torric
soil moisture regime soil moisture control section is dry in all parts for more than half of
o
the year, and the soil temperature at the depth of 50cm from the soil surface is above 5C .
soil moisture control section is moist in some or all parts for less than 90 consecutive
days. Soils that have aridic or Torric moisture regimes normally occur in arid climate.
There is little or no leaching in the moisture regime and soluble salts may accumulate in
soil if there is any source of salt.

Soil temperature regimes

Soil temperature regimes are defined in term of soil temperature measured at 50cm soil depth
and the difference between mean annual summer and mean annual winter temperature. Soil
temperature regimes are used to define soil classes at various catabolic levels in soil taxonomy.
There are ten soil temperature regimes:

1. Pergelic temperature regime

Temperature regime is said to be Pergelic when mean soil annual temperature is below
o
0C (permafrost).
2. Cryic temperature regime
o
Soils in this temperature regime have mean annual temperature 0-8C but do not have
permafrost.
3. Frigid temperature regime
A soil with frigid temperature regime is warmer in summer than a soil with cryic
o
temperature regime. Mean annual soil temperature is 0-8C and the difference between
o
mean summer and mean winter temperature is more than 5C .

4. Iso frigid temperature regime

If the name of soil temperature regime has prefix Iso, it means that mean summer
o
and mean winter temperature differs by less than 5C at the depth of 50cm or at Lithic
o
contact. At this temperature regime soils have mean annual temperature 0-8C but the
o
difference between mean summer and mean winter temperature is less than 5C .
5. Mesic temperature regime
o
The mean annual soil temperature ranges from 8-15C and the difference between
o
mean summer and mean winter temperature is more than 5C at the depth of 50cm from
soil surface.
6. Iso-mesic temperature regime
o
The mean annual soil temperature is 8-15C and the difference between mean
o
summer and mean winter temperature is less than 5C at the depth of 50cm.
7. Thermic temperature regime
o
At this temperature regime mean annual soil temperature is 15-22C and difference
o
between mean summer and mean winter temperature is more than 5C .
8. Iso-thermic temperature regime
o
The mean annual soil temperature is 15-22C and the difference between mean
o
summer and mean winter temperature is less than 5C .
9. Hyper thermic temperature regime
o
At this soil temperature regime mean annual soil temperature is more than 22C and
o
the difference between mean summer and mean winter is more than 5C .
10. Iso-hyper thermic
o
The mean annual soil temperature is greater than 22C and the difference between
o
mean summer and mean winter temperature is less than 5C .