ANSYS Mechanical APDL Technology

Demonstration Guide

ANSYS, Inc. Release 13.0

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Table of Contents
1. About This Guide ..................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Nonlinear Analysis of a 2-D Hyperelastic Seal Using Rezoning .............................................................. 7
2.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 7
2.2. Problem Description ......................................................................................................................... 8
2.2.1. Understanding Requirements and Physical Behaviors ............................................................... 9
2.2.2. Using Rezoning to Repair Mesh Distortions ............................................................................. 10
2.2.2.1. Horizontal vs. Vertical Rezoning ...................................................................................... 10
2.2.2.2. Understanding the Rezoning Process ............................................................................. 10
2.2.2.3. Understanding the Remeshing Phase of the Rezoning Operation ................................... 10
2.3. Modeling ........................................................................................................................................ 11
2.3.1. Specific Modeling Details ....................................................................................................... 11
2.3.1.1. The Rezoning Process .................................................................................................... 12
2.4. Material Properties .......................................................................................................................... 13
2.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading .................................................................................................. 13
2.6. Analysis and Solution Controls ........................................................................................................ 13
2.6.1. Common Solution Controls .................................................................................................... 14
2.6.2. Solution Controls for Each Load Step ...................................................................................... 14
2.6.3. Rezoning Considerations ........................................................................................................ 14
2.6.3.1. Step 1. Select the Optimal Substep for Rezoning ............................................................. 14
2.6.3.2. Step 2. Select a Region and Remesh ............................................................................... 16
2.6.3.2.1. Selecting Elements for Splitting ............................................................................. 16
2.6.3.2.2. Methods for Remeshing Using Element Splitting ................................................... 16
2.6.3.2.3. Using Nesting to Control Split Element Size ........................................................... 17
2.6.3.3. Step 3. Map Quantities from Old to New Mesh and Rebalance Residuals .......................... 17
2.6.3.4. Step 4. Perform the Multiframe Restart ........................................................................... 18
2.7. Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................... 18
2.8. Recommendations .......................................................................................................................... 32
2.9. References and Acknowledgements ................................................................................................ 33
2.10. Input Files ..................................................................................................................................... 34
3. Nonlinear Transient Analysis of a Camshaft Assembly ........................................................................ 35
3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 35
3.1.1. Differences Between General Axisymmetric and Harmonic Axisymmetric Elements ................. 35
3.1.2. Where to Find More Information ............................................................................................. 36
3.2. Problem Description ....................................................................................................................... 36
3.3. Modeling ........................................................................................................................................ 36
3.3.1. Camshaft Modeling ................................................................................................................ 37
3.3.1.1. General Axisymmetric Element Model ............................................................................ 37
3.3.1.2. Full 3-D Model ............................................................................................................... 38
3.3.2. Contact Modeling .................................................................................................................. 38
3.4. Material Properties .......................................................................................................................... 40
3.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading .................................................................................................. 40
3.6. Analysis and Solution Controls ........................................................................................................ 41
3.7. Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................... 42
3.7.1. Results Comparison: General Axisymmetric Model and Full 3-D Model ..................................... 43
3.8. Recommendations .......................................................................................................................... 45
3.9. Input Files ....................................................................................................................................... 45
4. Simulation of a Lumbar Motion Segment ............................................................................................. 47
4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 47
4.2. Problem Description ....................................................................................................................... 48
4.3. Modeling ........................................................................................................................................ 48

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4.4. Material Properties .......................................................................................................................... 48

4.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading .................................................................................................. 49
4.6. Analysis and Solution Controls ........................................................................................................ 49
4.7. Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................... 49
4.8. References and Acknowledgements ................................................................................................ 52
4.9. Input Files ....................................................................................................................................... 52
5. Fluid-Pressure-Penetration Analysis of a Sealing System .................................................................... 55
5.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 55
5.2. Problem Description ....................................................................................................................... 56
5.3. Modeling ........................................................................................................................................ 56
5.4. Material Properties .......................................................................................................................... 59
5.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading .................................................................................................. 60
5.6. Analysis and Solution Controls ........................................................................................................ 62
5.7. Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................... 63
5.8. Recommendations .......................................................................................................................... 70
5.9. Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ 70
5.10. Input Files ..................................................................................................................................... 71
6. Delamination of a Stiffened Composite Panel Under a Compressive Load .......................................... 73
6.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 73
6.2. Problem Description ....................................................................................................................... 74
6.3. Modeling ........................................................................................................................................ 74
6.4. Material Properties and Section Definitions ..................................................................................... 76
6.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading .................................................................................................. 79
6.6. Analysis and Solution Controls ........................................................................................................ 80
6.7. Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................... 80
6.8. Recommendations .......................................................................................................................... 82
6.9. Input Files ....................................................................................................................................... 83
7. Rocket Nozzle Extension Simulation .................................................................................................... 85
7.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 85
7.2. Problem Description ....................................................................................................................... 85
7.3. Modeling ........................................................................................................................................ 86
7.4. Material Properties .......................................................................................................................... 88
7.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading .................................................................................................. 89
7.6. Analysis and Solution Controls ........................................................................................................ 89
7.7. Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................... 90
7.8. Recommendations .......................................................................................................................... 95
7.9. References ...................................................................................................................................... 95
7.10. Input Files ..................................................................................................................................... 95
8. Nuclear Piping System Under Seismic Loading .................................................................................... 97
8.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 97
8.2. Problem Description ....................................................................................................................... 97
8.3. Modeling ........................................................................................................................................ 98
8.3.1. Global Nuclear Piping System Model ...................................................................................... 98
8.3.2. Local Elbow Model Meshed with ELBOW290 Elements .......................................................... 100
8.3.3. Local Elbow Model Meshed with SHELL281 Elements ............................................................ 101
8.4. Material Properties ........................................................................................................................ 102
8.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading ................................................................................................ 103
8.5.1. Global Nuclear Piping System Model .................................................................................... 103
8.5.2. Local Elbow Model Meshed with ELBOW290 Elements .......................................................... 104
8.5.3. Local Elbow Model Meshed with SHELL281 Elements ............................................................ 104
8.6. Analysis and Solution Controls ...................................................................................................... 104
8.6.1. Modal Analysis of the Global Piping System Model ................................................................ 105

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8.6.2. Nonlinear Static Analyses of the Local Elbow Models ............................................................. 105
8.7. Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................. 105
8.7.1. Global Piping System: Modal Analysis Results ........................................................................ 105
8.7.2. Local Elbow Models: Nonlinear Static Analysis Results ........................................................... 106
8.8. Recommendations ........................................................................................................................ 107
8.9. References .................................................................................................................................... 108
8.10. Input Files ................................................................................................................................... 108
9. Brake Squeal Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 109
9.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 109
9.2. Problem Description ..................................................................................................................... 110
9.3. Modeling ...................................................................................................................................... 110
9.3.1. Understanding the Advantages of Contact Element Technology ............................................ 110
9.3.2. Modeling Contact Pairs ......................................................................................................... 111
9.3.3. Generating Internal Sliding Motion ....................................................................................... 111
9.3.4. Meshing the Brake Disc-Pad Model ....................................................................................... 112
9.4. Material Properties ........................................................................................................................ 112
9.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading ................................................................................................ 112
9.6. Analysis and Solution Controls ...................................................................................................... 113
9.6.1. Linear Non-prestressed Modal Analysis ................................................................................. 113
9.6.2. Partial Nonlinear Perturbed Modal Analysis ........................................................................... 114
9.6.3. Full Nonlinear Perturbed Modal Analysis ............................................................................... 115
9.7. Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................. 117
9.7.1. Determining the Modal Behavior of Individual Components .................................................. 119
9.7.2. Parametric Study with Increasing Friction Coefficient ............................................................ 121
9.8. Recommendations ........................................................................................................................ 121
9.9. References .................................................................................................................................... 122
9.10. Input Files ................................................................................................................................... 122
10. Calibrating and Validating a Hyperelastic Constitutive Model ........................................................ 123
10.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 123
10.2. Problem Description ................................................................................................................... 123
10.3. Material Properties ...................................................................................................................... 123
10.3.1. Calibration Experiments ..................................................................................................... 124
10.3.2. Validation Experiment ........................................................................................................ 125
10.4. Analysis and Solution Controls .................................................................................................... 125
10.4.1. Calibrating Parameters ....................................................................................................... 125
10.4.2. Validating Parameters ......................................................................................................... 126
10.5. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................ 127
10.5.1. Calibration Results .............................................................................................................. 127
10.5.2. Validation Results ............................................................................................................... 131
10.6. Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 132
10.7. References and Acknowledgements ............................................................................................ 133
10.8. Input Files ................................................................................................................................... 133
11. Reliability Study of a Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessel ...................................................... 135
11.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 135
11.2. Problem Description ................................................................................................................... 135
11.3. Modeling .................................................................................................................................... 136
11.4. Material Properties ...................................................................................................................... 138
11.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading .............................................................................................. 138
11.6. Analysis and Solution Controls .................................................................................................... 139
11.7. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................ 139
11.8. Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 144
11.9. References .................................................................................................................................. 144

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11.10. Input Files ................................................................................................................................. 144

12. Dynamic Simulation of a Nuclear Piping System Using RSA Methods ............................................. 147
12.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 147
12.2. Problem Description ................................................................................................................... 148
12.3. Modeling .................................................................................................................................... 149
12.3.1. BM3 Piping System Modeling ............................................................................................. 149
12.3.2. Elastic Support Modeling .................................................................................................... 149
12.4. Material Properties ...................................................................................................................... 150
12.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading .............................................................................................. 151
12.6. Analysis and Solution Controls .................................................................................................... 152
12.6.1. Response-Spectrum Analysis Summary ............................................................................... 152
12.6.2. Full-Transient Analysis Summary ......................................................................................... 152
12.7. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................ 153
12.7.1. Comparison of the Time-History and Response-Spectrum Support Reactions ...................... 153
12.7.1.1. RSAs A1 and A2 ......................................................................................................... 154
12.7.1.2. RSA A3 ...................................................................................................................... 155
12.7.1.3. RSAs A4 and A5 ......................................................................................................... 156
12.7.1.4. RSA A6 ...................................................................................................................... 157
12.7.1.5. RSA A7 ...................................................................................................................... 159
12.8. Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 160
12.9. References .................................................................................................................................. 161
12.10. Input Files ................................................................................................................................. 161
13. Ring-Gear Forging Simulation with Rezoning .................................................................................. 163
13.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 163
13.2. Problem Description ................................................................................................................... 164
13.3. Modeling .................................................................................................................................... 164
13.3.1. Contact .............................................................................................................................. 165
13.4. Material Properties ...................................................................................................................... 165
13.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading .............................................................................................. 166
13.6. Analysis and Solution Controls .................................................................................................... 166
13.6.1. Solution Parameters and Analysis ....................................................................................... 166
13.6.2. Rezoning Techniques Applied to Ring-Gear Forging ............................................................ 166
13.6.2.1. Step 1: Select the Substep to Initiate Rezoning ............................................................ 167
13.6.2.1.1. First Rezoning ................................................................................................... 167
13.6.2.1.2. Second Rezoning .............................................................................................. 168
13.6.2.2. Step 2: Select a Region to Remesh .............................................................................. 169
13.6.2.3. Step 3: Apply a New Mesh .......................................................................................... 169
13.6.2.4. Map Variables and Balance Residuals ......................................................................... 171
13.6.2.5. Perform a Multiframe Restart ..................................................................................... 172
13.7. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................ 173
13.8. Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 175
13.9. References .................................................................................................................................. 177
13.10. Input Files ................................................................................................................................. 177
14. Thermal-Stress Analysis of a Cooled Turbine Blade .......................................................................... 179
14.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 179
14.2. Problem Description ................................................................................................................... 180
14.3. Modeling .................................................................................................................................... 181
14.4. Material Properties ...................................................................................................................... 182
14.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading .............................................................................................. 183
14.6. Analysis and Solution Controls .................................................................................................... 183
14.7. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................ 184
14.8. Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 189

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14.9. References .................................................................................................................................. 189

14.10. Input Files ................................................................................................................................. 190
15. Evaluation of Mixed-Mode Stress-Intensity Factors for 3-D Surface Flaws ...................................... 191
15.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 191
15.2. Problem Description ................................................................................................................... 192
15.2.1. Rectangular Block with a Semicircular Surface Flaw ............................................................. 192
15.2.2. X-Joint Pipe with Warped Surface Flaw ................................................................................ 193
15.3. Modeling .................................................................................................................................... 194
15.4. Material Properties ...................................................................................................................... 198
15.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading .............................................................................................. 198
15.6. Analysis and Solution Controls .................................................................................................... 199
15.7. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................ 199
15.7.1. Rectangular Block with Semicircular Surface Flaw ............................................................... 199
15.7.2. X-joint Pipe with Warped Flaw ............................................................................................ 200
15.8. Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 202
15.9. References .................................................................................................................................. 202
15.10. Input Files ................................................................................................................................. 203
16. Centrifugal Impeller Analysis Using Cyclic Symmetry and Linear Perturbation .............................. 205
16.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 205
16.2. Problem Description ................................................................................................................... 205
16.3. Modeling .................................................................................................................................... 206
16.3.1. Impeller Blade Modeling ..................................................................................................... 207
16.3.2. Contact Modeling ............................................................................................................... 208
16.4. Material Properties ...................................................................................................................... 209
16.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading .............................................................................................. 209
16.6. Analysis and Solution Controls .................................................................................................... 209
16.6.1. Modal Cyclic Symmetry Analysis ......................................................................................... 210
16.6.2. Linear Prestressed Modal Cyclic Symmetry Analysis with Linear Perturbation ....................... 210
16.6.3. Nonlinear Prestressed Modal Cyclic Symmetry Analysis with Linear Perturbation ................. 211
16.6.4. Full Harmonic Cyclic Symmetry Analysis .............................................................................. 212
16.7. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................ 212
16.7.1. Performance Benefits of Cyclic Symmetry Analysis .............................................................. 217
16.8. Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 219
16.9. References and Acknowledgements ............................................................................................ 219
16.10. Input Files ................................................................................................................................. 219
17. Transient Dynamic Analysis of a Digger-Arm Assembly ................................................................... 221
17.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 221
17.2. Problem Description ................................................................................................................... 222
17.3. Modeling .................................................................................................................................... 223
17.3.1. Modeling Rigid Parts .......................................................................................................... 223
17.3.2. Modeling Joints .................................................................................................................. 225
17.3.3. Modeling Flexible Parts ...................................................................................................... 228
17.3.4. Modeling Flexible Parts with CMS Superelements ............................................................... 229
17.4. Material Properties ...................................................................................................................... 231
17.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading .............................................................................................. 231
17.6. Analysis and Solution Controls .................................................................................................... 231
17.7. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................ 232
17.8. Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 235
17.9. Input Files ................................................................................................................................... 236
18. Dynamic Simulation of a Printed Circuit Board Assembly Using Modal Analysis Methods ............. 237
18.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 237
18.2. Problem Description ................................................................................................................... 238

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18.3. Modeling .................................................................................................................................... 238

18.3.1. Modeling of the PCB Structure ............................................................................................ 238
18.3.2. Contact Modeling ............................................................................................................... 238
18.4. Material Properties ...................................................................................................................... 239
18.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading .............................................................................................. 239
18.6. Analysis and Solution Controls .................................................................................................... 241
18.6.1. Residual Vector Method ...................................................................................................... 242
18.6.2. Mode Expansion ................................................................................................................ 242
18.7. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................ 242
18.7.1. Computational Efficiency .................................................................................................... 243
18.7.2. Accuracy of Results ............................................................................................................. 243
18.8. Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 245
18.9. References .................................................................................................................................. 245
18.10. Input Files ................................................................................................................................. 245
19. Impact of a Metal Bar on a Rigid Wall ................................................................................................ 247
19.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 247
19.2. Problem Description ................................................................................................................... 247
19.3. Modeling .................................................................................................................................... 248
19.3.1. Impact Scenarios ................................................................................................................ 249
19.4. Material Properties ...................................................................................................................... 249
19.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading .............................................................................................. 250
19.6. Analysis and Solution Controls .................................................................................................... 250
19.6.1. Solution Options for Capturing Simulation Results .............................................................. 250
19.6.1.1. Rigid Impact .............................................................................................................. 250
19.6.1.2. Elastic Impact ............................................................................................................ 251
19.6.1.3. Elastoplastic Impact ................................................................................................... 251
19.7. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................ 251
19.7.1. Rigid Impact Results ........................................................................................................... 251
19.7.2. Elastic Impact Results ......................................................................................................... 255
19.7.3. Elastoplastic Impact Results ................................................................................................ 258
19.7.4. Performance Summary ....................................................................................................... 261
19.8. Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 262
19.9. References .................................................................................................................................. 262
19.10. Input Files ................................................................................................................................. 262
20. Buckling and Post-Buckling Analysis of a Ring-Stiffened Cylinder Using Nonlinear Stabilization ... 265
20.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 265
20.2. Problem Description ................................................................................................................... 266
20.3. Modeling .................................................................................................................................... 266
20.4. Material Properties ...................................................................................................................... 268
20.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading .............................................................................................. 269
20.6. Analysis and Solution Controls .................................................................................................... 269
20.6.1. Performing the Nonlinear Buckling Analysis ........................................................................ 269
20.6.1.1. Run a Linear (Eigenvalue) Buckling Analysis ................................................................ 269
20.6.1.2. Generate Imperfections ............................................................................................. 270
20.6.1.3. Run the Nonlinear Buckling Analysis .......................................................................... 270
20.6.2. Post-Buckling Analysis ........................................................................................................ 271
20.6.3. Applying Nonlinear Stabilization ......................................................................................... 272
20.6.3.1. Damping Method ..................................................................................................... 272
20.6.3.2. Energy Method .......................................................................................................... 273
20.7. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................ 273
20.7.1. Buckling Behavior Is Expected ............................................................................................ 274
20.7.2. Number of Buckles Decreases ............................................................................................. 278

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20.7.3. Buckle Size and Behavior Is Consistent with Reference Results ............................................. 279
20.7.4. Plasticity Affects Buckling Results Insignificantly ................................................................. 281
20.8. Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 283
20.8.1. Buckling Analysis Guidelines ............................................................................................... 283
20.8.2. Nonlinear Stabilization Guidelines ...................................................................................... 284
20.9. References .................................................................................................................................. 285
20.10. Input Files ................................................................................................................................. 285
21. Rotordynamics of a Shaft Assembly Based on a Representative Model of Nelson-Vaugh Rotor ..... 287
21.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 287
21.2. Problem Description ................................................................................................................... 288
21.3. Modeling .................................................................................................................................... 289
21.3.1. 3-D Modeling of Flexible Rotor Component ........................................................................ 289
21.3.2. Axisymmetric Modeling of the Flexible Rotor Component from 3-D Geometry ..................... 290
21.3.3. Disk and Bearing Modeling ................................................................................................. 292
21.3.3.1. Disk Modeling ........................................................................................................... 293
21.3.3.2. Modeling Bearings .................................................................................................... 295
21.4. Material Properties ...................................................................................................................... 296
21.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading .............................................................................................. 297
21.6. Analysis and Solution Controls .................................................................................................... 298
21.6.1. Modal Analysis ................................................................................................................... 298
21.6.1.1. Modal Analysis without Gyroscopic Effects ................................................................. 298
21.6.1.2. Modal Analysis with Gyroscopic Effects ...................................................................... 298
21.6.2. Campbell Diagram Analysis ................................................................................................ 299
21.6.3. Unbalance Response Analysis ............................................................................................. 300
21.7. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................ 300
21.7.1. Performance Benefits of the 2-D Axisymmetric Model ......................................................... 305
21.8. Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 306
21.9. References .................................................................................................................................. 307
21.10. Input Files ................................................................................................................................. 307
22. Viscoelastic Analysis of an All-Ceramic Fixed Partial Denture .......................................................... 309
22.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 309
22.2. Problem Description ................................................................................................................... 310
22.3. Modeling .................................................................................................................................... 311
22.3.1. Denture Modeling .............................................................................................................. 311
22.3.2. Contact Modeling ............................................................................................................... 312
22.4. Material Properties ...................................................................................................................... 313
22.4.1. Transient Thermal Analysis Material Properties .................................................................... 313
22.4.2. Static Structural Analysis Material Properties ....................................................................... 313
22.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading .............................................................................................. 314
22.5.1. Thermal Analysis BC and Loading ........................................................................................ 315
22.5.2. Structural Analysis BC and Loading ..................................................................................... 315
22.6. Analysis and Solution Controls .................................................................................................... 316
22.7. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................ 317
22.8. Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 319
22.9. References .................................................................................................................................. 320
22.10. Input Files ................................................................................................................................. 320
23. Modal Analysis of a Wind Turbine Blade Using Beam Elements ....................................................... 321
23.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 321
23.2. Problem Description ................................................................................................................... 322
23.3. Modeling .................................................................................................................................... 323
23.3.1. Wind Turbine Blade: BEAM188 Models ................................................................................ 323
23.3.2. Wind Turbine Blade: SHELL281 Reference Model .................................................................. 325

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23.4. Material Properties ...................................................................................................................... 326

23.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading .............................................................................................. 326
23.5.1. BEAM188 Blade Model Boundary Conditions ...................................................................... 326
23.5.2. SHELL281 Blade Model Boundary Conditions ...................................................................... 327
23.6. Analysis and Solution Controls .................................................................................................... 328
23.7. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................ 328
23.8. Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 331
23.9. Input Files ................................................................................................................................... 331
24. Modal and Harmonic Frequency Analyses of an Automotive Suspension Assembly Using CMS .... 333
24.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 333
24.2. Problem Description ................................................................................................................... 333
24.3. Modeling .................................................................................................................................... 334
24.4. Material Properties ...................................................................................................................... 335
24.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading .............................................................................................. 335
24.6. Analysis and Solution Controls .................................................................................................... 337
24.6.1. Substructure ...................................................................................................................... 337
24.6.2. Component Mode Synthesis ............................................................................................... 340
24.6.3. Modal Analysis ................................................................................................................... 342
24.6.4. Harmonic Analysis .............................................................................................................. 342
24.7. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................ 344
24.7.1. Modal Analysis Comparison of Accuracy and Efficiency ....................................................... 344
24.7.2. Full Harmonic Analysis Comparison of Accuracy and Efficiency ............................................ 345
24.7.3. Analysis of Peak Response .................................................................................................. 346
24.8. Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 348
24.9. References and Acknowledgements ............................................................................................ 348
24.10. Input Files ................................................................................................................................. 348
Index ........................................................................................................................................................ 349

List of Figures
2.1. Schematic of a Static Elastomeric Seal Assembly [1] ................................................................................. 8
2.2. Schematic of Finite-Element Static Elastomeric Seal Assembly with Dimensions ....................................... 8
2.3. Progression of Seal Deformation ............................................................................................................. 9
2.4. Deformed Mesh Plot of Seal After Third Load Step Without Rezoning .................................................... 15
2.5. Deformation Profile at Load Step 1 -- Substep 20 (First Rezoning) ........................................................... 18
2.6. Deformation Profile at Load Step 1 -- Substep 50 (Second Rezoning) ...................................................... 20
2.7. Deformation Profile at Load Step 2 -- Substep 10 (Third Rezoning) ......................................................... 21
2.8. Final Mesh (After Third Load Step) ......................................................................................................... 22
2.9. Contact Pressure-Distribution Trends ..................................................................................................... 24
2.10. Seal Hydrostatic Pressures ................................................................................................................... 26
2.11. Seal σYY Profile .................................................................................................................................... 28
2.12. Seal σYY Plot Animation ....................................................................................................................... 30
2.13. Extrusion σYY Profile ............................................................................................................................ 31
2.14. Extrusion σXY Profile ............................................................................................................................ 31
2.15. Mesh Gradation Created with Nested Element Splitting During Vertical Rezoning ................................. 33
3.1. Full 3-D Geometry of a Camshaft Assembly ........................................................................................... 36
3.2. Simplified Geometry of a Camshaft Assembly ........................................................................................ 37
3.3. Meshed Camshaft Model Prior to Generating the 3-D Mesh ................................................................... 37
3.4. Meshed Camshaft Model After Generating the 3-D Mesh ....................................................................... 38
3.5. Bonded Contact Pairs ............................................................................................................................ 39
3.6. Revolute Joints and Surface-to-Surface Contact Pair .............................................................................. 40

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3.7. USUM Plots of Camshaft Assembly During Analysis ............................................................................... 42

3.8. Maximum and Minimum Principal Stress Plots ....................................................................................... 43
3.9. Comparison of USUM Plots: General Axisymmetric Model and Full 3-D Model ......................................... 44
4.1. Vertebral Body Components ................................................................................................................. 47
4.2. Finite Element Model of a Human Lumbar Motion Segment .................................................................. 48
4.3. IVD Deformation ................................................................................................................................... 49
4.4. IVD von Mises Stresses .......................................................................................................................... 50
4.5. Lumbar Motion Segment Animation of Vertical Displacement Increasing with Time ............................... 50
4.6. Displacements of Vertebral Body Over Time ........................................................................................... 51
4.7. Lumbar Motion Segment Creep Response ............................................................................................. 51
4.8. IVD Pore-Pressure Dissipation ................................................................................................................ 52
5.1. 3-D View of Sealing System ................................................................................................................... 56
5.2. Sealing System and Finite Element Model .............................................................................................. 57
5.3. Sealing System Contact Pairs ................................................................................................................. 58
5.4. Material Model Test Data ....................................................................................................................... 59
5.5. Sealing System with Applied Pressure to Contact Pairs ........................................................................... 62
5.6. Sealing System Contact Pressure Following Housing Compression (First Load Step) ............................... 63
5.7. Sealing System fluid Penetration Pressure Distributions (During Second Load Step) ............................... 64
5.8. Animation of Fluid Penetration Pressure ................................................................................................ 66
5.9. Sealing System Contact Pressure Distributions (During Second Load Step) ............................................. 66
5.10. Animation of Contact Pressure ............................................................................................................ 68
5.11. Sealing System Von Mises Stress Contour (After Second Load Step) ...................................................... 69
5.12. Sealing System Equivalent Plastic Strain Contour (After Second Load Step) ........................................... 69
5.13. Sealing System Total Strain Energy and Stabilization Energy Time History ............................................. 70
6.1. Geometry ............................................................................................................................................. 74
6.2. Symmetry Section ................................................................................................................................ 74
6.3. Meshed Geometry ................................................................................................................................ 75
6.4. Two Contact Pair Definitions (Initial Crack and CZM Area) ....................................................................... 75
6.5. Contact Elements .................................................................................................................................. 76
6.6. Target Elements .................................................................................................................................... 76
6.7. Boundary Conditions ............................................................................................................................ 79
6.8. Time History Plot of Strain and Stabilization Energies ............................................................................. 80
6.9. Global Deformed Shape (Last Substep) .................................................................................................. 81
6.10. Equivalent Stress (Last Substep) .......................................................................................................... 81
6.11. Contact Status at Final Substep ........................................................................................................... 82
6.12. Contact Status for the Initial Bonded Contact Region ........................................................................... 82
7.1. Nozzle Extension Geometry .................................................................................................................. 86
7.2. Nozzle Extension 1° Base Sector Geometry ............................................................................................ 86
7.3. Ring Element Plot ................................................................................................................................. 87
7.4. Expanded Solid Representation of the Shell Mesh .................................................................................. 87
7.5. Nozzle Wall and Ring Connection with Shell Offsets .............................................................................. 88
7.6. Nozzle Wall and Ring Connection without Shell Offsets .......................................................................... 88
7.7. Nozzle Model Boundary Conditions ....................................................................................................... 89
7.8. Nozzle Radial (X) Stress ......................................................................................................................... 90
7.9. Nozzle Hoop (Y) Stress .......................................................................................................................... 90
7.10. Nozzle Axial (Z) Stress .......................................................................................................................... 91
7.11. Nozzle Radial Stresses (Bottom and Top Sections) ................................................................................ 92
7.12. Nozzle Hoop Stresses (Bottom and Top Sections) ................................................................................. 93
7.13. Nozzle Axial Stresses (Bottom and Top Sections) .................................................................................. 94
8.1. Large-Scale Nuclear Piping System ........................................................................................................ 98
8.2. Entire Nuclear Piping System Line Diagram ........................................................................................... 99
8.3. Entire Nuclear Piping System Meshed with Pipe and Elbow Elements ..................................................... 99

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8.4. Elbow Model Line Diagram ................................................................................................................. 100

8.5. Elbow Model Meshed with ELBOW290 Elements .................................................................................. 101
8.6. Midsurface Geometry of Elbow (SHELL281 Model) ............................................................................... 101
8.7. Elbow Model Meshed with SHELL281 Elements ................................................................................... 102
8.8. Boundary Conditions of Entire Nuclear Piping System .......................................................................... 104
8.9. USUM Plot Comparison: Local ELBOW290 and SHELL281 Models .......................................................... 106
8.10. Von Mises Stress Comparison: Local ELBOW290 and SHELL281 Models ............................................... 106
8.11. Von Mises Strain Comparison: Local ELBOW290 and SHELL281 Models ............................................... 107
9.1. Brake Disc-Pad Assembly ..................................................................................................................... 110
9.2. Contact Pair Definition ....................................................................................................................... 111
9.3. Meshed Brake Disc-Pad Assembly ........................................................................................................ 112
9.4. Boundary Conditions (Displacement Constraints and Pressure Loading) ............................................... 113
9.5. Mode Shape for Unstable Mode (Mode 21) Obtained from the Linear Non-prestressed Modal Solution .. 117
9.6. Mode Shape for Unstable Mode (Mode 22) Obtained from the Linear Non-prestressed Modal Solution .. 118
9.7. Mode Shape of Free Disc (6343 Hz) ...................................................................................................... 120
9.8. Mode Shape of Free Pad (6640 Hz) ....................................................................................................... 120
9.9. Effect of Friction Coefficient on Unstable Modes .................................................................................. 121
10.1. Hyperelastic Test Suite: Test Specimens ............................................................................................. 124
10.2. Hyperelastic Test Suite: Experimental Data ........................................................................................ 124
10.3. Tension-Torsion Test Specimen .......................................................................................................... 125
10.4. Tension-Torsion Experimental Data ................................................................................................... 125
10.5. Tension-Torsion Test Specimen Mesh ................................................................................................. 126
10.6. Comparison of the Data and Fits Over the Entire Range of Data .......................................................... 128
10.7. Parameters Fit to Experimental Data to About 100 Percent Strain ....................................................... 130
10.8. Comparison of the Data and Fits Showing Predictions Outside the Range of Fitted Data ..................... 131
10.9. Strain-Energy Density Contours of the Tension-Torsion Test ................................................................ 132
10.10. Comparison of Tension-Torsion Experiment to the Five-Parameter Mooney-Rivlin Model .................. 132
11.1. COPV Geometry ................................................................................................................................ 136
11.2. COPV Mesh ....................................................................................................................................... 137
11.3. COPV Boundary Conditions ............................................................................................................... 139
11.4. COPV Total Displacement .................................................................................................................. 140
11.5. COPV Thickness Strain ....................................................................................................................... 140
11.6. Layer with Maximum Failure Criteria in Matrix and Fibers ................................................................... 141
11.7. Type of Maximum Failure Criteria in Matrix and Fibers ........................................................................ 141
11.8. Value of Maximum Failure Criterion in Matrix and Fibers ..................................................................... 142
11.9. Radial Strain Against the Axial Location ............................................................................................. 142
11.10. Equivalent Stresses at Critical Layer in Matrix and Fibers ................................................................... 143
11.11. COPV Membrane Stress in the Element X Coordinate Direction ........................................................ 143
11.12. COPV Bending Stress in the Element X Coordinate Direction ............................................................ 144
12.1. Full Model of the BM3 Nuclear Piping System .................................................................................... 148
12.2. BM3 Model Meshed with PIPE289 and ELBOW290 Elements ............................................................... 149
12.3. Elastic Supports Meshed with COMBIN14 Elements ............................................................................ 150
12.4. Input-Acceleration Response Spectra (1% X Direction) ....................................................................... 151
12.5. Input-Acceleration Time History (X Direction) .................................................................................... 151
13.1. Original Finite Element Model with Boundary Conditions and Loading ............................................... 165
13.2. Effective Plastic Strain and Deformed Mesh at Time of First Rezoning ................................................. 168
13.3. Effective Plastic Strains and Deformed Mesh at Time of Second Rezoning ........................................... 169
13.4. New Mesh Read in During the First Rezoning ..................................................................................... 170
13.5. New Mesh Read in During the Second Rezoning ................................................................................ 170
13.6. Mesh Containing Triangular Elements (Not Recommended) ............................................................... 171
13.7. Effective Plastic Strain Distribution After First Mapping ...................................................................... 171
13.8. Effective Plastic Strain After Second Mapping .................................................................................... 172

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13.9. Effective Strain Distribution and Deformed Shape at the Final Stage (Complete Die Fill) ...................... 174
13.10. Final Stage Animation ..................................................................................................................... 174
13.11. Von Mises Stress Distribution at the Final Stage ................................................................................ 175
13.12. Half Expanded Plot of Von Mises Stress at the Final Stage of Ring-Gear Forging ................................. 175
14.1. Turbine Blade Cooling Passages ......................................................................................................... 180
14.2. Turbine Blade Cooling Passages ......................................................................................................... 181
14.3. Solid Region Mesh ............................................................................................................................ 182
14.4. Solid Region Temperature Distribution .............................................................................................. 184
14.5. Fluid Temperatures ........................................................................................................................... 185
14.6. Solid Surface Temperatures ............................................................................................................... 186
14.7. Fluid Temperature Along Path of Hole Number 1 ................................................................................ 187
14.8. Solid Temperature Along Path of Hole Number 1 ............................................................................... 187
14.9. Von Mises Stresses for Solid Region ................................................................................................... 188
14.10. Von Mises Stress Along Path of Hole Number 1 ................................................................................ 189
15.1. Rectangular Block Geometry with Semicircular Surface Flaw .............................................................. 192
15.2. Semicircular Crack and Torus Along the Crack Front .......................................................................... 193
15.3. X-Joint Pipe Full Model with Warped Surface Flaw at Welded Joint ..................................................... 193
15.4. Semi-elliptical Surface Crack Dimensions ........................................................................................... 194
15.5.Two-plane Symmetry of X-joint Pipe with Warped Surface Flaw Geometry .......................................... 194
15.6. Rectangular Block Model with Boundary Conditions and Loading Applied ......................................... 195
15.7. Sweep Mesh with SOLID186 Around Crack Front ................................................................................ 195
15.8. Two-plane Symmetry of X-joint Pipe with Warped Surface Flaw at Welded Joint ................................. 196
15.9. X-joint Pipe with Warped Surface Flaw at Welded Joint in Thickness Direction. .................................... 196
15.10. Sweep Mesh with SOLID186 Around the Crack Front ........................................................................ 197
15.11. Crack Tip Nodal Component: Rectangular Block Model ..................................................................... 198
15.12. Crack Tip Nodal Component: X-joint Pipe Model .............................................................................. 198
15.13. USUM Results (Rectangular Block) ................................................................................................... 199
15.14. Von Mises Stress Plot (Rectangular Block) ......................................................................................... 200
15.15. Normalized KI Results ..................................................................................................................... 200
15.16. USUM Results (X-joint Pipe) ............................................................................................................. 201
15.17. Von Mises Stress Plot (X-joint Pipe) .................................................................................................. 201
15.18. Normalized SIF Results: Comparison with Chong Rhee[4] ................................................................. 202
16.1. Sector Model of Centrifugal Impeller Blade ........................................................................................ 206
16.2. Full Model of Centrifugal Impeller Blade ............................................................................................ 206
16.3. Element Plot of Cyclic-Sector Model .................................................................................................. 207
16.4. Low-Edge Component of Sector Model of Centrifugal Impeller Blade ................................................. 207
16.5. High-Edge component of Sector Model of Centrifugal Impeller Blade ................................................. 208
16.6. Bonded Contact Pair Between the Shroud and Impeller ..................................................................... 208
16.7. Static Fluid Pressure Load on Hub Wall, Main Blade, and Splitter .......................................................... 209
16.8. Total Deformation Pattern of Full Model at Frequency of Excitation 2920 Hz ....................................... 214
16.9. Total Deformation Pattern of Full Model at Frequency of Excitation 4210 Hz ....................................... 215
16.10. Total Deformation Pattern of Full Model at Frequency of Excitation 4210 Hz ..................................... 216
16.11. Comparison of CPU Time Between the Cyclic and Full Model for Various Analyses ............................. 218
17.1. Dagger-Arm Assembly ...................................................................................................................... 222
17.2. Rigid Modeling of the Connecting Rod .............................................................................................. 223
17.3. Rigid Representation of the Digger-Arm Assembly ............................................................................. 225
17.4. Connections Between Piston, Cylinder, and Arms ............................................................................... 227
17.5. Connecting Rods Modeled with SOLID185 Elements .......................................................................... 229
17.6. Relative Displacement Specifications for Cylinders and Pistons ........................................................... 231
17.7. Digger-Arm Assembly Animation ...................................................................................................... 232
17.8. Relative Rotation at Cylindrical Joint (Ground-to-Frame) .................................................................... 233
17.9. Relative Rotation at General Joint Along Local Z Axis (Bucket-Frame) .................................................. 233

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17.10. USUM Plots of Connecting Rods ...................................................................................................... 234

17.11. Equivalent Stress Plots of Connecting Rods ...................................................................................... 234
18.1. Full 3-D Geometry of a PCB assembly ................................................................................................. 238
18.2. Bonded Contact Pairs Between IC Packages and Circuit Boards .......................................................... 239
18.3. PCB Boundary Conditions ................................................................................................................. 240
18.4. PSD Base Excitation Values ................................................................................................................ 241
18.5. Solution Times With and Without MXPAND ....................................................................................... 243
18.6. Mode Shape of the Residual Vector .................................................................................................... 244
18.7. Improved Accuracy of RPSD Values with Residual Vectors for 50 Modes .............................................. 245
19.1. Geometry and FE Model of a Metal Bar Impacting a Rigid Wall ........................................................... 248
19.2. Rigid Impact: Newmark Method with No Damping ............................................................................. 253
19.3. Rigid Impact: Newmark Method with Damping .................................................................................. 254
19.4. Rigid Impact: HHT Method with Damping ......................................................................................... 255
19.5. Elastic Impact: Newmark Method with No Damping ........................................................................... 256
19.6. Elastic Impact: Newmark Method with Damping ................................................................................ 257
19.7. Elastic Impact: HHT Method with Damping ........................................................................................ 258
19.8. Elastoplastic Impact: Newmark Method with No Damping ................................................................. 259
19.9. Elastoplastic Impact: Newmark Method with Damping ....................................................................... 260
19.10. Elastoplastic Impact: HHT Method with Damping ............................................................................. 260
19.11. Animation: Elastoplastic Impact Using the HHT Method with Damping ............................................. 261
20.1. Geometry and Finite-Element Model ................................................................................................. 267
20.2. Inside View of a 45-Degree Sector ...................................................................................................... 268
20.3. Stiffening Ring Detail with Dimensions .............................................................................................. 268
20.4. Monitor File of Initial Run .................................................................................................................. 271
20.5. Time-History Plot of Stiffness Energy (SENE) and Stabilization Energy (STEN) ...................................... 273
20.6. Load Factor and Mode Shape for the First Eigenvalue ......................................................................... 274
20.7. Applied Pressure and Axial Shortening .............................................................................................. 275
20.8. Applied Pressure vs. Radial Displacement .......................................................................................... 276
20.9. Total Deformation at the Time of Buckling Initiation ........................................................................... 277
20.10. Total Deformation at Zero Slope on the Load-Deformation Curve ..................................................... 278
20.11. Total Deformation at the End of the Post-Buckling Analysis .............................................................. 280
20.12. Another Total Deformation View ...................................................................................................... 281
20.13. Von Mises Stress Distribution at Buckling Initiation ........................................................................... 282
20.14. Von Mises Stress Distribution at the End of the Analysis .................................................................... 283
21.1. 3-D Geometry of Nelson-Vaugh Rotor ................................................................................................ 288
21.2. 2-D Axisymmetric Geometry of Nelson-Vaugh Rotor .......................................................................... 289
21.3. 3-D Model Meshed with SOLID187 Elements ..................................................................................... 289
21.4. 3-D Geometry ................................................................................................................................... 290
21.5. 2-D Axisymmetric Geometry Extracted from 3-D Geometry ................................................................ 290
21.6. 2-D Axisymmetric Geometry Meshed with SOLID272 Elements .......................................................... 291
21.7. 2-D Axisymmetric Model with Fourier Nodal Planes ........................................................................... 292
21.8. 3-D View of SOLID272 Mesh .............................................................................................................. 292
21.9. Rigid Disk Modeled Using MASS21 Element (3-D Solid Model) ............................................................ 293
21.10. Disk Modeled Using MASS21 Element (2-D Axisymmetric Model) ..................................................... 294
21.11. Bearings Modeled with COMBI214 Elements (3-D solid model) ......................................................... 295
21.12. Bonded Contact Pairs at Bearing Locations (3-D Solid Model) ........................................................... 295
21.13. Bearings Modeled with COMBI214 Elements (2-D Axisymmetric Model) ........................................... 296
21.14. Boundary Conditions (3-D Solid Model) ........................................................................................... 297
21.15. Campbell Diagram .......................................................................................................................... 301
21.16. Unbalance Response ....................................................................................................................... 303
21.17. Orbits Plot of 2-D Axisymmetric Model ............................................................................................ 305
21.18. CPU Time of 2-D Axisymmetric and 3-D Solid Models (Unbalance Response Analysis) ....................... 306

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22.1. FPD Viscoelastic (Glass) Veneer Geometry .......................................................................................... 310

22.2. FPD Ceramic Core Geometry (Inside the Veneer) ................................................................................ 311
22.3. FPD Veneer and Core Mesh (SOLID87) ................................................................................................ 312
22.4. Contact Between Veneer and Core (CONTA174 and TARGE170) .......................................................... 312
22.5. FPD Boundary Conditions: Thermal Analysis ....................................................................................... 315
22.6. FPD Boundary Conditions: Structural Analysis .................................................................................... 316
22.7. Temperature Distribution in Veneer and Core at 60 Seconds ............................................................... 317
22.8. Temperature Distribution in Veneer and Core at 300 Seconds ............................................................. 317
22.9. Temperature Distribution in Veneer and Core at 600 Seconds ............................................................. 317
22.10. Von Mises Stress in Veneer and Core at 60 Seconds .......................................................................... 318
22.11. Von Mises Stress in Veneer and Core at 300 Seconds ......................................................................... 318
22.12. Von Mises Stress in Veneer and Core at 600 Seconds ......................................................................... 318
22.13. Residual Principal Stress Distribution in Veneer and Core 600 Seconds .............................................. 319
22.14. Reference Results: Residual Principal Stress Distribution in Veneer and Core ...................................... 319
23.1. Wind Turbine Blade Geometry and Structural Components ............................................................... 322
23.2. Representative Blade Cross-Section Areas at Various Locations ........................................................... 323
23.3. Line Diagram of Wind Turbine Blade Model ....................................................................................... 324
23.4. BEAM188 Blade Model with Fine Mesh and Linear Interpolation ........................................................ 325
23.5. BEAM188 Blade Model with Coarse Mesh and Cubic Interpolation ...................................................... 325
23.6. SHELL281 Reference Blade Model ...................................................................................................... 326
23.7. Boundary Conditions on the BEAM188 Blade Model .......................................................................... 327
23.8. Boundary Conditions on the Reference SHELL281 Blade Model .......................................................... 327
23.9. Comparison of Mode Shapes Predicted by BEAM188 and SHELL281 Models ....................................... 329
23.10. Averaged Bending-Stress Distribution (Corresponding to Third Mode Shape at Location x = 15m)
................................................................................................................................................................. 330
23.11. Nonaveraged Bending-Stress Distribution (Corresponding to Third Mode Shape at Location x = 15m)
................................................................................................................................................................. 331
24.1. 3-D Suspension Model ...................................................................................................................... 334
24.2. Meshed Suspension Model ................................................................................................................ 335
24.3. Suspension Assembly with Boundary Conditions and Displacement Loading ..................................... 336
24.4. Superelements of the Suspension Assembly ...................................................................................... 337
24.5. Interface Master Nodes Between the Superelements of the Suspension Assembly .............................. 338
24.6. Master Nodes Defined at Fixed Bolts .................................................................................................. 339
24.7. Master Nodes Defined at Points of Application of Harmonic Displacement ......................................... 339
24.8. Superelement of the Suspension Model After the Use Pass ................................................................. 341
24.9. Non-Master Nodes for Response Calculation in the Expansion Pass .................................................... 343
24.10. Nodal Responses Due to Harmonic Displacement Excitation at the Bottom of the Wheels ................ 346
24.11. Mode Shapes at the Undamped Natural Frequency of 187.22 Hz ...................................................... 347
24.12. Mode Shapes at the Undamped Natural Frequency of 223.63 Hz ...................................................... 347
24.13. Mode Shapes at the Undamped Natural Frequency of 237.48 Hz ...................................................... 348

List of Tables
9.1. Solution Output .................................................................................................................................. 118
24.1. Comparison of Eigenfrequencies for Full and CMS Models .................................................................. 344
24.2. Comparison of CPU and Elapsed Times for Modal Analysis ................................................................. 345
24.3. Comparison of Response Amplitudes for Full and CMS Models ........................................................... 345
24.4. Comparison of CPU and Elapsed Times for Harmonic Analysis ............................................................ 346

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Chapter 1: About This Guide
The purpose of this guide is to encourage you to take advantage of the extraordinarily broad simulation
capabilities of ANSYS Mechanical APDL. The guide showcases the features and effectiveness of Mechanical
APDL by presenting a series of analysis problems from a variety of engineering disciplines.

The problems are more substantive and complex than examples found in the standard documentation set.
The guide thoroughly examines the physics involved with each problem and the considerations necessary
for translating problems into numerical models. Approximation issues, accuracy considerations, and recom-
mended practices are discussed.

How Problems Are Presented

Each problem description provides information about the nature and physical characteristics of the problem,
specific modeling techniques, material properties, boundary conditions and loading, analysis details and
solution controls.

A comprehensive results and discussion section carefully examines analysis results (often comparing them
to baseline or “known good” results using more traditional analysis methods), and illustrates why specific
strategies and methods were chosen.

Each problem concludes with valuable hints and recommendations for performing a similar type of analysis.
In many cases, references are provided for additional background information. Each example presented can
therefore serve as a template for setting up similar types of simulations.

Your Results May Vary

The analyses described in this guide were run on a 64-bit Linux system. The results shown for each problem
may differ from those that you obtain depending upon the computer hardware and operating system plat-
forms in use at your site.

Use of ANSYS Mechanical APDL Assumed

The problem descriptions are presented via Mechanical APDL commands, element types, procedures, and
material models. It is entirely feasible, however, to use another ANSYS, Inc. product such as ANSYS Mechan-
ical to accomplish similar simulation goals but with a different workflow.

Obtaining the Input Files

Following product installation, the input files for all technology demonstration problems presented in this
guide are available on your local hard disk drive in \ansys_inc\v130\data\techdemo. Each folder
(subdirectory) in \techdemo contains the files for a corresponding problem; for details, see “Input Files”
in the documentation for each problem.

The input files are also available for download from the ANSYS Customer Portal. The files are stored in a
folder named \techdemo. Follow these steps to download the input files:

1. Log in to the ANSYS Customer Portal.

2. Activate the ANSYS Download Center Wizard and select your options as prompted.

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3. When prompted for the file set to download, select ANSYS Structural Mechanics Tutorial Inputs
(under ANSYS Documentation and Examples).
4. Download the compressed Tutorial_Inputs> Structural_Mechanics> Mechanical_APDL
folder to a convenient location on your local system and double-click on the file to unpack it.
5. Copy or move the \techdemo folder to a suitable location for easy access.

Problem Summary

The following analysis demonstration problems are available:

Nonlinear Analysis of a 2-D Hyperelast- A nonlinear analysis of a 2-D hyperelastic seal assembly using manual
ic Seal Using Rezoning rezoning with remeshing via the element-splitting method.The
problem shows how multiple vertical rezoning steps can be used to
ensure convergence and completion of an analysis.

Nonlinear Transient Analysis of a Shows how to easily set up and perform an analysis involving both
Camshaft Assembly axisymmetric and nonaxisymmetric components.The problem
demonstrates how modeling with general axisymmetric element
technology can reduce computational resources significantly while
maintaining the same degree of accuracy as a simulation using a full
3-D model.

Simulation of a Lumbar Motion Seg- Uses coupled pore-pressure element technology to study the creep
ment response of a lumbar motion segment under compression.The simu-
lation reveals the interaction between the solid phase and the fluid
phase in soft tissues.

Fluid-Pressure-Penetration Analysis Studies fluid-pressure-penetration effects on a sealing system.The

of a Sealing System use of seals is primarily to prevent the transfer of fluid (liquid, solid,
or gas) between two or more regions.

Delamination of a Stiffened Compos- Uses solid-shell element technology to model a layered-composite

ite Panel Under a Compressive Load structure.The problem simulates interface delamination through the
debonding capability of contact elements.

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 Chapter 1: About This Guide

Rocket Nozzle Extension Simulation Demonstrates current structural-shell element technology and illus-
trates how it can be used to accurately model the orthotropic thermal
expansion in curved-shell structures. Section offsets are applied when
connecting shell-to-shell or to shell-to-other element types.

Nuclear Piping System Under Seismic Demonstrates the advantages of elbow element technology over
Loading traditional shell and pipe element technology for modeling pipe
bends in a typical nuclear piping system.

Brake Squeal Analysis Shows how to solve a brake squeal problem. Three analysis methods
are highlighted: linear non-prestressed modal, partial nonlinear
prestressed modal, and full nonlinear prestressed modal.The problem
demonstrates sliding frictional contact and uses complex eigensolvers
to predict unstable modes.

Calibrating and Validating a Hypere- Demonstrates how hyperelastic curve-fitting is used to select con-
lastic Constitutive Model stitutive model parameters to fit experimental data. Several issues
influencing the accuracy of the curve fit are discussed. Validation of
the resulting constitutive model is demonstrated by comparison with
a tension-torsion experiment.

Reliability Study of a Composite A reliability study of a composite overwrapped pressure vessel (COPV).
Overwrapped Pressure Vessel The model uses reinforcing fibers in a layered composite. A finite-
element simulation of a COPV is performed first to gain insight into
its mechanical behaviors, then simulation results are processed using
failure analysis to determine the most vulnerable layer.The problem
generates linearized stress output for pressure-vessel design optim-
ization and code compliance.

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Chapter 1: About This Guide

Dynamic Simulation of a Nuclear A problem that accounts for the missing-mass effect and rigid-re-
Piping System Using RSA Methods sponse effects in a spectrum analysis, and how including those effects
improves results accuracy as compared to full-transient analysis res-
ults.The problem uses a piping system model from an actual nuclear
power plant.

Ring-Gear Forging Simulation with Demonstrates the efficiency and usefulness of rezoning in a simulation
Rezoning of metal-forming processes. Rezoning facilitates the convergence of
a nonlinear finite element simulation in which excessive element
distortion occurs.

Thermal Stress Analysis of a Cooled Shows how to easily set up and perform a thermal-stress analysis of
Turbine Blade a cooled turbine blade.The problem uses surface-effect capabilities
to simulate convection loading on solid regions, and one-dimensional
fluid-flow capabilities to obtain a highly accurate thermal solution
for convection loading.

Evaluation of Mixed-Mode Stress-In- Demonstrates the linear elastic fracture mechanics of 3-D structures.
tensity Factors for 3-D Surface Flaws The problem shows how fracture mechanics can be used to evaluate
mixed-mode stress-intensity factors and J-integrals. Analyses of a
simple semicircular surface flaw in a rectangular block and a warped
flaw along a tubular joint are discussed.

Centrifugal Impeller Analysis Using Uses a centrifugal impeller blade to show how to perform cyclic
Cyclic Symmetry and Linear Perturba- symmetry modal and harmonic analyses.The problem illustrates
tion cyclic modeling methods and linear-perturbation solution approaches.

Transient Dynamic Analysis of a Dig- A digger-arm assembly problem demonstrating a transient dynamic
ger-Arm Assembly analysis of a multibody system.The problem shows how to model

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 Chapter 1: About This Guide

joints and rigid/flexible parts, mitigate overconstraints, and represent

flexible parts using component mode synthesis (CMS).

Dynamic Simulation of a Printed Cir- Uses residual vectors to improve the solution accuracy in modal
cuit Board Assembly Using Modal subspace based analysis methods, such as modal superposition and
Analysis Methods power spectral density (PSD) analyses.The problem includes a study
of the computational efficiency of the results-expansion procedure
used to obtain the full model solution.

Impact of a Metal Bar on a Rigid Wall An impact simulation using a model of a 3-D metal bar hitting a
rigid wall. The problem shows the advantages of using impact
constraints for modeling contact in a nonlinear transient dynamic
analysis. Several combinations of available time-integration methods
and contact algorithms are also investigated, using different mater-
ial models to show how various choices affect the performance
and accuracy of the finite-element solution of impact problems.

Buckling and Post-Buckling Analysis A nonlinear buckling and post-buckling analysis using nonlinear sta-
of a Ring-Stiffened Cylinder Using bilization.The problem uses a stiffened cylinder subjected to uniform
Nonlinear Stabilization external pressure to demonstrate how to find the nonlinear buckling
loads, achieve convergence at the post-buckling stage, and interpret
the results.

Rotordynamics of a Shaft Assembly A rotordynamic analysis of a rotating structure. A 2-D axisymmetric

Based Representative Model of Nel- geometry is extracted from a 3-D solid model of the rotating structure.
son-Vaugh Rotor Modal, Campbell diagram, and unbalance response analyses are
performed for the 2-D and 3-D models. Results for the 2-D axisymmet-
ric model are compared to the full 3-D solid model results.

Viscoelastic Analysis of an All-Ceramic Demonstrates the fictive-temperature model using the Tool-Naray-
Fixed Partial Denture (FPD) anaswamy (TN) shift function to study residual stresses in an all-
ceramic fixed partial denture (FPD). A coupled-field solution process,
including transient thermal and nonlinear structural analyses, is used
in the problem simulation.

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Chapter 1: About This Guide

Modal Analysis of a Wind Turbine Effectively uses a current-technology beam element to simulate a
Blade Using Beam Elements wind turbine blade, a slender composite structure. A simplified 1-D
beam-based model of the typically complex blade geometry is espe-
cially useful in the early design stage, when small design variations
can lead to partial or even complete reconstruction of a 3-D model,
generally an impractical solution given the difficulty of building the
model.

Modal and Harmonic Frequency Demonstrates modal and full harmonic analyses of an automotive
Analyses of an Automotive Suspen- suspension assembly exhibiting harmonic displacement excitation
sion Assembly Using CMS at the wheel bottoms. Component mode synthesis (CMS) is used to
generate dynamic superelements for use in downstream linear dy-
namics analyses. Analysis results from the full (non-substructure) and
the CMS generated models are compared to highlight the benefits
of CMS technology.

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Chapter 2: Nonlinear Analysis of a 2-D Hyperelastic Seal Using
Rezoning
This example problem is a nonlinear analysis of a 2-D hyperelastic seal assembly using rezoning via the
element-splitting method. The problem shows how multiple vertical rezoning steps can be used to ensure
convergence and completion of an analysis.

Topics related to this example problem follow:

2.1. Introduction
2.2. Problem Description
2.3. Modeling
2.4. Material Properties
2.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
2.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
2.7. Results and Discussion
2.8. Recommendations
2.9. References and Acknowledgements
2.10. Input Files

2.1. Introduction
Seals create a mating region between two connecting parts so that the complete assembly can transfer
forces and motion without separation. For typical seals, the seal material must:

• Conform to all irregularities of the mating surface and prevent any fluid passage or leakage
• Adapt to the clearance gap changes in the gland in response to loads
• Resist extrusion (caused by shear forces) due to pressure differential between the pressured and non-
pressured sides of the seal.

The most common sealing applications are rotating-shaft sealing, elastomeric compressive sealing, and
flange sealing. Sealing applications can be classified into two types: static and dynamic sealing. This problem
focuses on a static elastomeric sealing application modeled as a 2-D nonlinear finite-element problem.

Static elastomeric seals are characterized by a fixed mating surface, a moving mating surface, and the bead
(seal material). The bead is typically compressed between the mating surfaces, providing a fluid-tight interface
between them, as shown:

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Chapter 2: Nonlinear Analysis of a 2-D Hyperelastic Seal Using Rezoning

Figure 2.1 Schematic of a Static Elastomeric Seal Assembly [1 (p. 33)]

2.2. Problem Description

The following static elastomeric seal assembly is considered for analysis:

Figure 2.2 Schematic of Finite-Element Static Elastomeric Seal Assembly with Dimensions

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 2.2.1. Understanding Requirements and Physical Behaviors

2.2.1. Understanding Requirements and Physical Behaviors

The following requirements and physical behaviors are considered in the finite-element model and solution
procedure for this problem [1 (p. 33)]:

• The coefficient of friction (between the bead and the mating surface) is not critical for static seals.

The coefficient is therefore not modeled here.

• A fluid pressure of 4000 psi is applied.

The pressure improves seal integrity, but can also create extrusions of the bead. The extrusions are due
to shear stresses (caused by differential axial pressure created by the fluid, as an extrusion gap is
provided).
• As fluid pressure increases, sealing capacity improves but bead extrusion can occur.

The fluid pressure on the seal surfaces tends to compress the seal axially, forcing the deformed bead
further into the gland thus improving contact. As the fluid pressure increases, the seal's internal shear
stresses also increase slowly, driving the seal material into the extrusion gap.

The degree and severity of the extrusion depends on the operating pressures, operating temperatures,
geometry of the clearance gap, and seal shape and material.
• It is of critical importance for the model to predict any bead extrusion.

This type of extrusion typically causes nibbling damage [2 (p. 34)] to the seal, caused by large tensile
stresses close to the free surface of the extruded material.

The following figure illustrates the progression of seal deformation, showing the seal gland being filled and
the corresponding bead extrusion as fluid pressure is applied:

Figure 2.3 Progression of Seal Deformation

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Chapter 2: Nonlinear Analysis of a 2-D Hyperelastic Seal Using Rezoning

2.2.2. Using Rezoning to Repair Mesh Distortions

The action of the seal assembly and functional loads on the seal can cause large deformations and strains,
in turn causing severe mesh distortions and leading to convergence failure in the nonlinear analysis. In such
situations, rezoning can repair the mesh, map results from the old (distorted) mesh to the new mesh, and
allow the analysis to continue.

Convergence failure caused by material or geometric instability cannot be remedied by rezoning.

2.2.2.1. Horizontal vs. Vertical Rezoning

Rezoning can occur on the entire domain or on specific regions within the domain.

If one or more regions are selected for rezoning at the same time during the analysis, the process is called
horizontal rezoning.

If one or more rezoning operations are performed at different times during the analysis, the process is called
vertical rezoning.

2.2.2.2. Understanding the Rezoning Process

Following are the general steps in the rezoning process:

1. Within a given load step, select the substep at which rezoning should be initiated.
2. Select the region(s) to be rezoned.
3. Remesh the selected region(s), replacing the old (distorted) mesh with a new mesh.

After remeshing has occurred, boundary conditions and loading from the old mesh are mapped to
the new mesh.
4. Map state variables from the old mesh to the new mesh.

This step establishes equilibrium in the new mesh by balancing residual forces.
5. Continue the analysis with the new mesh via a restart.

2.2.2.3. Understanding the Remeshing Phase of the Rezoning Operation

During the remeshing phase of a rezoning operation, a new mesh is created in the distorted geometry and
replaces the old mesh.

Remeshing can occur by reading in a generated mesh or a generic third-party mesh (CDB file), or by using
element-splitting refinement of selected regions of the distorted mesh.

In this example, remeshing via the element-splitting method is used because splitting increases the number
of degrees of freedom in a given region without changing mesh topology. This remeshing method is especially
useful for modeling material flow through confined cavities (the primary physical behavior of hyperelastic
seals).

With element splitting, the mesh topology does not change in the interior of the selected regions where
elements are simply split evenly. In the transition region between the refined (new mesh) and the old mesh,
however, layers of transition of elements are generated, changing the mesh topology in these regions. The
transitions can be all quadrilateral or can be composed of degenerate quadrilaterals.

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 2.3.1. Specific Modeling Details

Typically, an all-quadrilateral transition requires more than one element layer to create a compatible mesh
between the split and unsplit regions. The degenerate elements can do the same in just one element layer;
however, a degenerate element transition is more prone to locking than a quadrilateral element transition
zone.

2.3. Modeling
This example is modeled as a plane strain problem.

The moving and static mating parts are considered to be rigid. The seal bead is modeled as a hyperelastic
material.

The seal is chemically bonded (zero applied displacement) to the static rigid mating part, as shown in Figure
2.2 (p. 8).

The pressurization gap is the location for the fluid insertion. The moving rigid mating part moves downward,
reducing the 0.02-inch gap to a 0.002-inch gap, at which an extrusion may form.

The notch indicates the region where self-contact in the seal bead is expected to occur.

Three load steps are applied to secure the seal:

1. The top of the seal is compressed first by moving the rigid part downward by 0.018 inches, leaving a
small gap of 0.002 inches at the top (TIME = 0 - 1 s). This load step simulates the first phase of the seal
assembly where the rigid mating parts come together to form the seal gland which the seal bead must
eventually fill.
2. The temperature of the seal is increased from the current room temperature (72° F) to 302° F (TIME =
1 - 2 s).

This load step simulates the thermal loading phase, where the seal is allowed to expand laterally, filling
most of the clearance gaps.
3. A uniform pressure of 4000 PSI is applied in the pressurization gap (to all open status contact elements),
effectively pressurizing the seal (TIME = 2 - 3 s). This is the pressure exerted by the sealing fluid in the
pressurization gap.

This load step simulates the injection of the fluid, which pressurizes the seal laterally. The seal fills all
clearance gaps and possibly creates some material extrusion.

The nonlinear sparse solver is used for the solution. A static analysis is required when geometric nonlinearity
is present (NLGEOM,ON).

2.3.1. Specific Modeling Details

The seal bead is modeled by PLANE182 plane strain (KEYOPT(3) = 2) elements. The elements have full integ-
ration with B-Bar formulation (KEYOPT(1) = 0). Mixed u-P formulation (KEYOPT(6) = 1) is specified to counter
any chance of volumetric locking (which can occur at high strains).

The contact elements are modeled with CONTA171 with augmented Lagrangian formulation (KEYOPT(2) =
0). The stiffness updates of the contact elements are done at each iteration, based on the mean stress of
the underlying solid element (KEYOPT(10) = 2).

The target elements are modeled with TARGE169 elements.

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Chapter 2: Nonlinear Analysis of a 2-D Hyperelastic Seal Using Rezoning

The fixed mating part is chemically bonded to the seal bead, as shown in Figure 2.2 (p. 8). The bonding is
modeled by constraining the displacements on the seal bead in the chemically bonded boundaries (D).

The seal bead material is modeled using an Ogden hyperelastic material, as shown in this input fragment:
TB,HYPE, 1, 1, 2, OGDEN
TBTEMP,0.000000
TBDATA, 1, 2.80000e+00, 7.90000e+00, -1.86000e+02,
TBDATA,4,-1.85000e+00, 1.00000e-05, 0.00000e+00,

For more information about the seal bead material, see Material Properties (p. 13).

In load step 3, the fluid-penetration loads are applied as a uniform element pressure in the pressurization
gap (shown in Figure 2.2 (p. 8)). The fluid-penetration loads are applied via the following command se-
quences:

• Specific contact elements (on which the fluid penetration loads are to be applied) are selected as follows:
esel,s,,,2166,2186
esel,a,,,2248
esel,a,,,2250,2261
esel,a,,,2556

• The default fluid-penetration starting points are selected as follows:

sfe,all,2,pres,,-1

The third argument is set to 2 to allow the SFE command to specify the starting points for the fluid
penetration. The argument -1 specifies that none of the selected element nodes can be considered a
starting point for fluid penetration.
• The fluid pressure magnitude is specified as follows:
sfe,all,1,pres,,4000

The command specifies a pressure magnitude of 4000 PSI on face 1 (the default face for 2-D contact
elements) of the selected elements.
• The specific fluid-penetration starting points are specified as follows:
sfe,2186,2,pres,,1
sfe,2248,2,pres,,1
sfe,2556,2,pres,,1

The input specifies that the nodes of the contact elements 2186, 2248, and 2556 are starting points, as
they are initially exposed to the fluid. Also, depending on the contact status (open or closed), the node
can either be a fluid penetrating point (for “open” contact) or can no longer be a starting point (if
contact closes).

2.3.1.1. The Rezoning Process

The manual rezoning process occurs as follows:
/clear,nostart ! clear environment
/file,base ! load the database named 'base'
/solu ! enter solution processor
rezone,manual,2,10 ! start rezoning at load step 2
remesh,start ! start the remeshing

! select a group of elements which need to be refined by

splitting

ESEL,S,ELEM,,6169 ! elements 6169,6175,6182 and 6185 are

ESEL,A,ELEM,,6175 ! are selected. They may be contiguous
ESEL,A,ELEM,,6182 ! or isolated from each other

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 2.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

ESEL,A,ELEM,,6185

remesh,split ! split the selected elements and

! automatically create quad transitions

remesh,finish ! automatically generate BC, loads, temp

! etc on new mesh and generate new contact
! or target elements on new mesh as needed

mapsolve,500, pause ! mapping of state variables and

! residual balancing

finish

In this case, the load step selected to start rezoning is 2. Element-splitting refinement is used to increase
the number of degrees of freedom in the selected region to enhance flexibility. All-quadrilateral transition
elements are generated to connect the new refined mesh to the old unrefined mesh.

After every rezoning, a multiframe restart is necessary. Issuing a (RESCONTROL,DEFINE,ALL,1) command

ensures that restart files are written at all substeps, which potentially enables rezoning at any substep. Issuing
an (OUTRES,ALL,ALL) command ensures that the results file is written at every substep; the results at each
substep are viewable from within the GUI to determine where the rezoning needs to be done.

Vertical rezoning is used for this problem. Three nested rezonings occur at:

• Load step 1, substep 20 (TIME = 0.4 s),

• Load step 1, substep 50 (TIME = 0.8996 s), and
• Load step 2, substep 10 (TIME = 1.145 s).

2.4. Material Properties

The seal bead material is modeled as a three-parameter Ogden hyperelastic material.

Material properties are provided for one temperature data point. The material properties are assumed not
to change with temperature.

For details about this material model's strain-energy function, see Ogden Hyperelastic Material Constants in
the Element Reference.

2.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

Contact pressures developed in the mating surface-bead interface provide seal integrity. From the finite-
element modeling perspective, the bead is usually modeled with a hyperelastic material and the mating
surfaces are assumed to be rigid.

Loads are generally applied as pressure/displacement on the moving mating surface, as temperature on the
seal bead, and sometimes as fluid pressure in the seal cavity. The loads cause progressive deformation, as
seen in Figure 2.1 (p. 8).

Although a moving mating part exists, the analysis is considered to be quasi-static; that is, velocity of the
moving mating part is very small, constant, and does not change direction.

2.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

The following topics concerning the analysis and solution controls for this problem are available:
2.6.1. Common Solution Controls

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Chapter 2: Nonlinear Analysis of a 2-D Hyperelastic Seal Using Rezoning

2.6.2. Solution Controls for Each Load Step

2.6.3. Rezoning Considerations

2.6.1. Common Solution Controls

The common solution parameters used in all load steps of the analysis are as follows:
antype,static ! Static / quasi-static analysis type
rescontrol,define,all,1 ! Restart files available at every substep
nlgeom,on ! Allow large deformation
eqslv,sparse ! Direct sparse solver
outres,all,all ! Write out RST files for each substep

2.6.2. Solution Controls for Each Load Step

For each of the three load steps, specific solution controls are added, as follows:

• Load Step 1:
time,1.0 ! analysis upto 1.0s
nsubst,50,2000,50 ! initial, maximum and minimum number of
! substeps

The corresponding time step sizes are 0.02s, 5.0E-04s, and 0.02s, respectively. To ensure solution accuracy,
the smallest time step is given.
• Load Step 2:
time,2.0 ! analysis upto 2.0s
deltim, 0.01, 1.e-05, 0.1 ! initial, minimum and maximum time step

• Load Step 3:
time,3.0 ! analysis upto 3.0s
deltim, 0.001, 1.e-05, 0.01 ! initial, minimum and maximum timestep

To minimize the possibility of convergence issues, the initial time step for load step 3 is the smallest. Con-
vergence with fluid penetration loads is more difficult to achieve because, depending on the contact status,
loaded contact surfaces may become unloaded and reloaded during solution.

2.6.3. Rezoning Considerations

The rezoning process itself has several steps which must be performed for a successful analysis. The most
important steps relate to remeshing using the element-splitting method, as follows:
2.6.3.1. Step 1. Select the Optimal Substep for Rezoning
2.6.3.2. Step 2. Select a Region and Remesh
2.6.3.3. Step 3. Map Quantities from Old to New Mesh and Rebalance Residuals
2.6.3.4. Step 4. Perform the Multiframe Restart

2.6.3.1. Step 1. Select the Optimal Substep for Rezoning

Determining the specific substep at which rezoning should be performed is a nontrivial, problem-dependent
task.

Remeshing is usually necessary when the mesh becomes too distorted (when element angles approach 180
degrees). If old elements are too distorted at the rezoning step, however, mapping variables from the old
mesh to a new mesh can be difficult. At extreme distortions, it is not possible to map new nodes at the

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 2.6.3. Rezoning Considerations

corners of old elements accurately, affecting boundary condition mapping. This concern is critical in element
splitting because old nodes are shared in new elements generated by splitting.

Element splitting does not change the mesh topology in the interior of the rezoned domain. The element
angles before and after splitting remain the same, and the element aspect ratios remain the same; therefore,
a badly shaped element cannot be improved by splitting alone. For best results, element splitting should
occur a few substeps before the elements angles approach 180 degrees.

Mapping on state variables and residual equilibration can be difficult if the remeshing is done in the presence
of very high stress/strain gradients. Remeshing should therefore be attempted at substeps where the
gradients are not so high.

In general, the earlier remeshing is done in a load step, the more difficult it becomes for the problem to
converge during restart. (It is also difficult to determine the correct rezoning region in the beginning of a
loadstep, especially if it is the first loadstep.) Conversely, if remeshing occurs too late, the mapping may not
succeed because the base mesh is already too distorted or large stress/strain gradients have developed.

For best results, attempt the first remeshing at a substep (S1) toward the later stages of a load step if that
substep is not very close to divergence and where rezonable regions in the problem are clear. If successful,
the solution can proceed; otherwise, attempt another remeshing at a different substep (S0) prior to S1, which
reduces the element sizes by the time the remeshing at S1 can occur. This size reduction smooths out possible
gradients and creates less element distortion by the time the solution reaches S1.

In this problem, the first rezoning is attempted first at load step 1, substep 20 (TIME = 0.4 s), which corresponds
to substep S0. The next rezoning is done at load step 1, substep 50 (TIME = 0.8996 s) which corresponds to
substep S1. If rezoning at S1 is attempted on its own, convergence does not improve (because at 0.8996
seconds, the seal bead already deforms to a large degree and creates mapping difficulties).

The focus of rezoning should be to perform the minimum number of remeshing steps possible while ensuring
that the simulation results and the model mirror the actual physical problem behavior as closely as possible.
It is possible that a nonlinear problem may converge without rezoning; however, the results may not be
indicative of true physical behavior. For example, this seal problem was run without rezoning, producing
the following results:

Figure 2.4 Deformed Mesh Plot of Seal After Third Load Step Without Rezoning

Because an extrusion gap is present and the problem is classified as a medium-to-low pressure seal, the
extrusion is expected to occur. Without rezoning, a successful convergence in this case fails to provide a
physically meaningful solution, as the mesh size is greater than the extrusion gap and therefore extrusion
does not occur.

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Chapter 2: Nonlinear Analysis of a 2-D Hyperelastic Seal Using Rezoning

Using rezoning in the third load step (where fluid pressure is applied) causes convergence difficulties during
remapping. Large shear-strain gradients develop near the extrusion due to the pressure differential caused
by the fluid pressure. It is therefore necessary that remeshing occur before the fluid pressure is applied so
that mapping does not occur when large strain gradients are present. To enable material flow in the extrusion
gap, however, element sizes near the gap should be sufficiently small by the time the third load step is applied.

For this problem, optimal rezoning substeps occur in load steps 1 and 2. The magnitude of deformation in
the seal bead is much larger in load step 1 (where the mating parts move) as opposed to load step 2 (a
uniform temperature load). Because most of the deformation occurs in load step 1, remeshing is more crit-
ical there than in load step 2 (and two vertical rezonings in load step 1 are justified).

Load step 2 is a temperature load which expands the seal axially, thereby filling up most of the clearance
gaps. The thermal expansion also contributes to the seal bead material being pushed through the extrusion
gap. At least one local rezoning is required (around the extrusion) at load step 2 so that the incipient extrusion
behavior can be modeled, and so the third and final rezoning is done in load step 2, substep 10 (TIME =
1.145s).

2.6.3.2. Step 2. Select a Region and Remesh

When a substep at which to remesh is identified, select the region(s) to be remeshed. The following
remeshing topics are available:
2.6.3.2.1. Selecting Elements for Splitting
2.6.3.2.2. Methods for Remeshing Using Element Splitting
2.6.3.2.3. Using Nesting to Control Split Element Size

2.6.3.2.1. Selecting Elements for Splitting

The element-selection process for splitting can be done in any of the following ways:

• Manually (ESEL)
• By generating element-based components (CM) which can then be selected (CMSEL)
• By graphical picking in the GUI.

Only solid elements are candidates for splitting. Contact and target elements are ignored.

If no elements are selected prior to mesh splitting (REMESH,SPLIT), all solid elements in the model are split
and no transition elements are created.

Existing contact and target elements attached to base solid elements which have been split, and those which
have been replaced by smaller transition elements, are automatically deleted.

2.6.3.2.2. Methods for Remeshing Using Element Splitting

Two methods for remeshing using element splitting are available:

• Create all quad transitions between split and unsplit elements:

REMESH,SPLIT

or
REMESH, SPLIT,,,,TRAN,QUAD

• Create degenerate (triangular) transitions between split and unsplit elements:

REMESH,SPLIT,,,,TRAN,DEGE

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 2.6.3. Rezoning Considerations

An all-quad transition is usually more than a single element layer deep. It is topologically difficult to resolve
nodal incompatibilities from the split to the unsplit elements in a single-element layer, especially in an un-
structured quad mesh.

Using degenerate transitions between the split and unsplit elements usually resolves nodal incompatibilities
in a single element layer. Triangular elements tend to lock, however.

Provided that the transition elements are not too distorted and do not overlay other transition elements, it
is preferable to use an all-quad transition for nonlinear problems. The degenerate transition is useful in cases
where the quad transitions becomes too distorted or where the problem is not bending- or compression-
dominated. In this problem, an all-quad transition is used to prevent volumetric locking. With nested splitting
schemes, it is possible to prevent the all-quad transition regions from intersecting.

2.6.3.2.3. Using Nesting to Control Split Element Size

Relative size control of split elements is of prime importance to remeshing by element splitting.

The splitting operation subdivides a quad element into four quad elements, a triangular element into four
triangular elements, and a degenerate element into three quadratic elements. After one cycle of splitting a
quad base element, therefore, the split elements are 1/4 the area of the base element.

If N such splittings occur, the final split elements have an area of (1/4)N of that of the base element. If multiple
horizontal rezonings overlap or multiple vertical rezonings are done on the same region, it becomes increas-
ingly difficult to generate proper transitions due to the increasing size disparity of the split and unsplit ele-
ments.

One method for overcoming the size disparity between split and unsplit elements is to design a nesting
scheme for splitting during vertical rezoning. The nesting should allow the Nth remeshing region to be
sufficiently larger than the (N+1)th remeshing so that the transitions between the two regions do not overlap.

Using such nesting schemes, it is possible to design mesh grading from coarse to fine, improving solution
performance. In this problem, the nesting scheme allows the remeshed regions in the first, second and third
rezonings to be successively reduced while overlapping, thus creating a good gradation of the mesh.

Nesting schemes can also alleviate the effect of large tensile strains on element splitting strategies, where
aspect ratios of split elements can be adversely affected.

2.6.3.3. Step 3. Map Quantities from Old to New Mesh and Rebalance Residuals
After remeshing (REMESH,FINI), corresponding new contact and target elements which respect the topology
of the split solid elements are generated automatically for the meshed region. Isolated rigid target elements
(as done in the modeling of the moving mating part) cannot be remeshed and persist throughout the life
cycle of the analysis.

At this stage, it is necessary to map boundary conditions, loads, and temperatures from the old mesh to the
new mesh.

The MAPSOLVE command maps the state variables from the old mesh to the new mesh and balances the
residuals by modifying the displaced state of the new mesh. The presence of large stress or strain gradients
in the old mesh may cause nonconvergence of the residuals in the new mesh. View the result plot to de-
termine if the mesh substep can be split depending on the presence of stress/strain gradients.

Convergence problems during mapping can also occur if a very large size difference exists between the
elements of the old and new meshes. Regions are allowed to overlap during horizontal splitting operations,

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Chapter 2: Nonlinear Analysis of a 2-D Hyperelastic Seal Using Rezoning

so it is possible to generate an arbitrarily small element size if many such regions overlap (given that the
new element area after N such overlapped horizontal splitting operations is (1/4)N of the old element size).
Nesting the remeshed regions can alleviate this problem.

In most cases, convergence difficulties during mapping also indicate convergence difficulties during the
analysis restart. It is therefore good practice to remesh a few substeps earlier (if possible) if MAPSOLVE re-
quires a large number of bisections to converge.

The Degree of Element Deformation Affects Mapping

For contact-element generation and remapping, the program attempts to detect a new node (of a split
element) in an old element. Because element splitting retains the nodes of the old element in the new
elements, the algorithm often involves detecting a new node at the corner of an old element. Element
splitting also retains the element angular values, so for badly skewed elements, it is difficult to map a
corner node of a new element to the corresponding parent element. This mapping difficulty can cause
the creation of new contact elements to fail, and boundary conditions may not be properly generated
for the new mesh.

It is therefore important to perform element splitting before the element becomes too badly skewed. The
guidelines used to select the substep and region for splitting also apply when considering how base
element skewness may affect contact- and boundary-condition generation.

2.6.3.4. Step 4. Perform the Multiframe Restart

After mapping quantities from the old to the new mesh and rebalancing the residual forces, a multiframe
restart (ANTYPE,,RESTART,,,CONTINUE) resumes the nonlinear solution with the new mesh.

It is possible to readjust the number of substeps at this stage to improve convergence.

2.7. Results and Discussion

In this problem, element-splitting methodologies are used during rezoning to ensure proper seal assembly
behavior, including gland filling and extrusion detection. The following results are obtained at various load
steps:

Figure 2.5 Deformation Profile at Load Step 1 -- Substep 20 (First Rezoning)

(a)

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 2.7. Results and Discussion

Deformation profile at load step 1, substep 20, time = 0.4 sec, at which the first rezoning occurs

(b) Selected elements from (a) refined by splitting

Close-up view of the refined region in (b), showing the element edge pivot at the corner around which
(c) the mesh must “rotate”

At the first rezoning, shown by (a) in the figure, the mesh is split around the region where the extrusion is
expected to take place. The mesh topology is adjusted so that there is an edge pivot at the corner, around
which the material is expected to flow into the extrusion gap (c).

A slightly larger area in (a) is selected for refinement because subsequent rezoning refinements are intended
(using nesting). The larger area ensures better self contact in the notch in later stages, as shown:

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Chapter 2: Nonlinear Analysis of a 2-D Hyperelastic Seal Using Rezoning

Figure 2.6 Deformation Profile at Load Step 1 -- Substep 50 (Second Rezoning)

(a) Deformation profile at step 1, substep 50, (time = 0.8996 sec), at which the second rezoning occurs

(b) Selected elements from (a) refined by splitting

(c)

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 2.7. Results and Discussion

Close-up view of the refined region in (b) showing the start of material flow into the extrusion gap about
the pivot

In the absence of the edge pivot at the corner of the extrusion gap (shown by (c) in Figure 2.5 (p. 18) and
Figure 2.6 (p. 20) the element at that location would collapse from compression as the seal material begins
to flow into the extrusion gap.

The nested element-splitting scheme gradually increases the number of degrees of freedom in the extrusion
region to model the material flow in that region with increasing loads, as shown:

Figure 2.7 Deformation Profile at Load Step 2 -- Substep 10 (Third Rezoning)

(a) Deformation profile at load step 21, substep 10, time = 1.145 sec, which the third rezoning occurs

(b) Selected elements from (a) refined by splitting

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Chapter 2: Nonlinear Analysis of a 2-D Hyperelastic Seal Using Rezoning

Close-up view of the refined region in (b), showing the material flow into the extrusion gap about the
(c) pivot

As shown in (b) and (c), the nested refinement by element splitting can gradually increase the number of
degrees of freedom in the region of the extrusion gap and correctly predict the material flow. The nested
refinement creates a thin layer of transition elements for each block of split elements and places them far
from each other, preventing the formation of badly shaped elements close to this high strain zone (which
can lead to premature convergence).

After the three rezoning operations have been performed, the problem converges correctly at the end of
the third load step. The following figure shows the final meshes:

Figure 2.8 Final Mesh (After Third Load Step)

(a) Final mesh after load step 3, time = 3.0 sec

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 2.7. Results and Discussion

Close-up view of the refined region in (a), showing the extent of extrusion of the seal bead through the
(b) extrusion gap

As shown by (a) and (b), the primary objectives of the seal assembly simulation have been met:

• The seal bead model is adequate to enable it to establish proper contact and fill the seal gland.

Subsequent results (shown below) quantify the extent of fluid sealing capacity and the uniformity of
the contact pressures.
• The seal bead model predicts the formation of an extrusion.

Depending on the seal pressure, the extrusion may or may not damage the material. The addition of
extra degrees of freedom (via multiple vertical nested rezonings) allows the material enough flexibility
to flow through the extrusion gap.

To determine if the seal assembly analysis predicts the extent of the seal's integrity (that is, the capacity to
successfully fill the gland and develop sufficient pressure to prevent fluid leakage), the contact pressure
distribution must be evaluated at the three load steps. Because the seal is molded in the metal groove in
the bottom and sides, it is necessary to consider only the contact conditions on the top part of the seal.

The following figure shows the contact pressure-distribution trends at the load steps:

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Chapter 2: Nonlinear Analysis of a 2-D Hyperelastic Seal Using Rezoning

Figure 2.9 Contact Pressure-Distribution Trends

(a) Contact pressure distribution after load step 1

(b) Contact pressure distribution after load step 2

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 2.7. Results and Discussion

(c) Contact pressure distribution after load step 3

(d) Fluid pressure distribution after load step 3

As shown by (a), at the end of load step 1 (where the moving rigid mating part descends by 0.018 inches),
the maximum contact pressure of 960 psi develops as expected at the region where the maximum geometry
change occurs. The incomplete and uneven distribution of the contact pressure indicates that the seal as-
sembly forces are not yet activated. The notch is not completely closed at this stage, providing incomplete
sealing capacity.

As shown by (b), at the end of load step 2 (where the seal temperature is raised from 720 F to 3020 F), the
maximum contact pressure of 1812 PSI now develops at a self-contact zone bounding the pressurization
gap. The reason for this behavior is that load step 2 is a temperature load, where the temperature of the
seal bead is raised uniformly by 2300 F. The uniform temperature increase expands the seal into the pressur-

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Chapter 2: Nonlinear Analysis of a 2-D Hyperelastic Seal Using Rezoning

ization gap (and, to a smaller extent, the extrusion gap). As the seal expansion occurs, some pressure releases
from the crown region, and contact pressure increases in the self-contact zone, as the material tries to close
the pressurization gap.

Compared to load step 1 (shown by a), the contact pressures are better distributed at the rigid flexible inter-
face between the mobile mating part and the seal bead. The notch is closed better than in load step 1, and
the self-contact developed in the closed notch is approximately 1400 psi (about twice that of load step 1).
In order to maintain seal integrity in case the rigid mating parts move during operation, it is essential that
the self-contact pressures in the notch are high.

Parts (c) and (d) of the figure show the final contact pressure distribution and the corresponding fluid pressure
distribution (in the pressurization gap) at the end of the third load step (fluid pressure in the pressurization
gap). The action of the applied fluid pressure is to expand the pressurization gap, which in turn creates an
axial (along the X axis) pressure on the seal. The axial pressure causes the maximum contact pressure to
develop in the notch, thereby creating better seal integrity. The application of fluid pressure also causes a
pressure differential, leading to the extrusion. Some contact pressure is created at the neck of the extrusion
(which by design should not rupture the seal material). The interface pressure (as shown in (c)) indicates the
contact pressure at the interface of the penetrated fluid and the solid material. The interface pressures range
from 4300-4500 psi; the pressures are greater than the applied fluid pressure of 4000 psi, implying that the
seal will not leak under the present set of loads. Downstream of the interface pressure regions, the contact
pressure increases, guaranteeing the fluid-sealing capacity.

The overall contact pressure profile (at the seal-mating surface boundary) after load step 3 is more uniform
than that in load steps 1 or 2 (as shown in (a) and (b)), so the seal integrity is established at this point. Local
high-contact pressure peaks can cause surface damage to the seal. The evolution of the contact pressures
show that local high-contact pressures have not developed except in the extrusion region.

To ensure seal bead life, the assembly and functional loads on the seal must not create large pressure differ-
entials in the seal bead. Pressure differentials cause large shear stresses which can rupture the material, so
be sure to check the hydrostatic pressure development in the seal. Unusually high hydrostatic pressures at
finite deformation may also indicate volumetric locking in the element.

Figure 2.10 Seal Hydrostatic Pressures

(a)

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 2.7. Results and Discussion

Seal hydrostatic pressure after load step 1

(b) Seal hydrostatic pressure after load step 2

(c) Seal hydrostatic pressure after load step 3

As shown by (a) and (b), pressure differentials exist (especially around the notch and the pressurization gaps),
indicating incomplete seal assembly. At the end of load step 3 (c), the addition of fluid pressure causes a
nearly uniform pressure in the seal, except for a peak in the vicinity of the extrusion. The peak pressure near
the extrusion and the free surface of the seal bead at the extrusion gap actually drives the extrusion and
causes shearing strains.

The largest assembly forces in the seal are applied vertically via the rigid mating surfaces. For optimal seal
stresses, the σYY profile inside the seal must be as uniform as possible when all assembly loads have been
applied. The following figure shows the σYY profile of the seal bead under the three load steps, respectively:

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Chapter 2: Nonlinear Analysis of a 2-D Hyperelastic Seal Using Rezoning

Figure 2.11 Seal σYY Profile

(a) σYY profile for seal at load step 1

(b) σYY profile for seal at load step 2

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 2.7. Results and Discussion

(c) σYY profile for seal at load step 3

As shown by (a) in the figure, the maximum tensile stress occurs at the extrusion, and the maximum com-
pression occurs at the crown region where maximum geometry change has occurred. The tensile stress occurs
because the extrusion gap causes a reentrant corner to be formed at the seal (where stress concentrations
may occur).

At the stage shown by (b), the temperature increase tries to expand the seal through the pressurization and
the extrusion gaps, thereby moving the maximum compressive stress to a location close to the extrusion.

At (c) in the figure, fluid pressure is applied and the overall stress distribution is nearly uniform, creating
near-optimal sealing conditions. Maximum tensile and compressive stresses are localized near the extrusion.

At the end of the third load step, the rigid-flexible contact pressures are near-uniform, preventing fluid
leakage. The overall pressure and the σYY stresses are near-uniform in the seal bead, indicating optimal seal
assembly loading.

Following is an animation of the σYY plot:

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Chapter 2: Nonlinear Analysis of a 2-D Hyperelastic Seal Using Rezoning

Figure 2.12 Seal σYY Plot Animation

Evidence of shearing-contact pressure spikes due to pressure differentials exists and is localized near the
extrusion. This condition has been modeled adequately by the nested step-wise rezoning with element-
splitting refinement used in this problem.

The following figure shows the σYY profile at the extrusion after the third load step:

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 2.7. Results and Discussion

Figure 2.13 Extrusion σYY Profile

The maximum tensile and compressive stress peaks at the end of the third load step are due to the singu-
larity near the reentrant corner. Thus, with reference to (c) in Figure 2.10 (p. 26), the σYY profile is virtually
uniform in the seal bead.

The following figure shows the σXY profile at the extrusion after the third load step:

Figure 2.14 Extrusion σXY Profile

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Chapter 2: Nonlinear Analysis of a 2-D Hyperelastic Seal Using Rezoning

The maximum and minimum shearing stresses occurring at the location shown are caused by the pressure
differential between the free surface of the seal bead and the seal bead itself. The shearing stress occurs as
a result of the shearing strain created by the extrusion.

2.8. Recommendations
To perform a similar type of analysis, consider the following recommendations:

• Rezone using element-splitting refinement.

Rezoning with element splitting is essential for solving this type of problem properly. Extrusion modeling
is critical for simulating accurate physical behavior of the seal. A gradual reduction of element size in
the vicinity of the extrusion gap is necessary as the material flow into the gap increases over time.
• Use element edge pivots to facilitate extrusion flow.

See the edge pivot shown by (c) in Figure 2.5 (p. 18). The pivot prevents the elements at the reentrant
corner from deforming too severely under compression and can, in general, improve convergence.
Providing for a pivot in the starting mesh allows it to remain until the end of the analysis, as element
splitting does not change mesh topology.
• Perform rezoning early to minimize convergence issues during mapping.

Large stress and strain gradients are not easily equilibrated (MAPSOLVE) and can cause nonlinear
convergence issues. The problem may converge better if rezoning is done early enough when the
gradients have a lesser chance of occurring.

Performing rezoning too early in the analysis process, however, may be counterproductive as the mesh
may not have sufficiently deformed, possibly causing the rezoned mesh itself to deform later in the
analysis. It is also difficult to discern regions likely to benefit from rezoning too early in the analysis.
• Minimize intersections of transition regions for overlapped meshes.

When element-splitting refinement is used for rezoning, ensure that the transition regions of overlapped
rezoned meshes do not intersect to a great degree. Excessive intersections can cause badly shaped
elements.
• Use nesting during vertical rezoning.

If using vertical rezoning with element splitting, nesting the refinements ensures that transition regions
do not overlap, resulting in better element quality. Maintain mesh gradation during the vertical rezoning
process to avoid mesh distortion in large strains and to better resolve large stress/strain gradients.

The following figure shows the mesh gradation obtained from nesting the remeshing zones properly:

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 2.9. References and Acknowledgements

Figure 2.15 Mesh Gradation Created with Nested Element Splitting During Vertical Rezoning

The mesh area reduces from h to h/64 in three rezoning steps. The nesting scheme ensures that the
transition zones do not overlap, and no badly shaped elements occur. Despite the presence of large
strains, a remeshing strategy using only element splitting refinement does not create elements with
bad aspect ratios, or skew.

Rezoning Hints:

• Remeshing generates contact and target elements automatically.

Contact elements (rigid-flex contact, self-contact, and flex-flex contact) and target elements (for self-
contact and flex-flex contact) for the rezoned solid elements are generated automatically at the end
of the remeshing operation (REMESH,FINISH).
• Rezoning around a reentrant corner does not improve convergence.

Excess rezoning around a reentrant corner does not improve convergence due to the effect of the
singularity.

2.9. References and Acknowledgements

The following references are cited in this example problem:

1. Hydraulics and Pneumatics. High-Pressure Sealing. <http://www.hydraulicspneumat-

ics.com/200/TechZone/Seals/Article/True/6443/TechZone-Seals >.

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Chapter 2: Nonlinear Analysis of a 2-D Hyperelastic Seal Using Rezoning

2. Muller, H. K., B.S. Nau.Fluid Sealing Technology, Principles and Applications. Mechanical engineering: 117.
Marcel Dekker. 1998.

ANSYS, Inc. gratefully acknowledges Parker Hannifin Corporation for providing the initial mesh, material
description, loading information, and illustrations for the seal used in this problem.

2.10. Input Files

The following files were used in this problem:

• seal_assembly.dat -- Parker seal assembly input file.

• seal_assembly.cdb -- Common database file for the Parker seal assembly model (called by the
seal_assembly.dat file).

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-2). See Obtaining the Input Files for more in-
formation.

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Chapter 3: Nonlinear Transient Analysis of a Camshaft Assembly
This example problem demonstrates the ease with which you can set up and perform an analysis involving
both axisymmetric and nonaxisymmetric components. The problem shows how modeling with general
axisymmetric element technology can reduce computational resources significantly while maintaining the
same degree of accuracy as a simulation using a full 3-D model.

The following features and capabilities are highlighted:

• Use of general axisymmetric element technology and 3-D element technology in a model consisting of
both axisymmetric and nonaxisymmetric parts.
• Generating axisymmetric elements in an assembly having more than one axisymmetric part with multiple
axes of symmetry and subjected to nonaxisymmetric loading.
• Use of contact element technology to couple general axisymmetric elements with standard 3-D elements.
• Use of joint element technology for applying loading.

Topics related to this example problem follow:

3.1. Introduction
3.2. Problem Description
3.3. Modeling
3.4. Material Properties
3.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
3.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
3.7. Results and Discussion
3.8. Recommendations
3.9. Input Files

3.1. Introduction
Axisymmetric modeling greatly reduces modeling and analysis time when compared to equivalent 3-D
modeling. In some cases, however, certain components of the model may be nonaxisymmetric, or the geo-
metry may be axisymmetric but loading is nonaxisymmetric. Until recently, modeling with axisymmetric
elements was not possible in such cases, and the only practical option was full 3-D modeling at a significant
computational cost.

With the introduction of general axisymmetric element technology, prior limitations no longer apply. The
general axisymmetric elements can model general 3-D deformation and can be used with standard 3-D
elements.

3.1.1. Differences Between General Axisymmetric and Harmonic Axisymmetric

Elements
General axisymmetric elements offer much more utility than standard harmonic axisymmetric elements. For
example, the elements:

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Chapter 3: Nonlinear Transient Analysis of a Camshaft Assembly

• Introduce the Fourier series into interpolation functions to describe the change of displacements in the
circumferential (θ) direction. (The elements can therefore apply to any analysis type, including geometric
nonlinear analyses, and can support any load and deformation mode.)
• Can have any axis as the axisymmetric axis.
• Do not require the input of peak loads and multiple load steps for each Fourier term. (Loads can
therefore be applied anywhere in 3-D space and only one solve operation is required to obtain the
solution.)

With general axisymmetric elements, it is necessary only to define base elements (quadrilaterals or triangles)
on a master plane. (See General Axisymmetric Element Terminology.) The program generates a 3-D mesh
(based on a 2-D mesh) on the master plane, after which boundary conditions and loading can be applied
at nodes in 3-D space.

3.1.2. Where to Find More Information

For more information, see the following resources:

• General Axisymmetric Elements in the Element Reference.

• SOLID272 and SOLID273 documentation in the Element Reference.
• SOLID272 - General Axisymmetric Solid with 4 Base Nodes and SOLID273 - General Axisymmetric Solid
with 8 Base Nodes in the Theory Reference for the Mechanical APDL and Mechanical Applications.

3.2. Problem Description

The following model is a camshaft assembly, consisting of four cams connected to a shaft:

Figure 3.1 Full 3-D Geometry of a Camshaft Assembly

One of the cams is in contact with a valve. As the shaft rotates, the motion of the valve is controlled by the
cam, which pushes the valve according to the cam profile.

A transient analysis of the assembly is performed by rotating the shaft for one full rotation.

3.3. Modeling
This section covers the following modeling topics:
3.3.1. Camshaft Modeling
3.3.2. Contact Modeling

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 3.3.1. Camshaft Modeling

3.3.1. Camshaft Modeling

To better demonstrate the benefits of using general axisymmetric elements in models having both axisym-
metric and nonaxisymmetric components, two models are analyzed and compared:
3.3.1.1. General Axisymmetric Element Model
3.3.1.2. Full 3-D Model

3.3.1.1. General Axisymmetric Element Model

Because the shaft and valve components of the camshaft are axisymmetric, but the cams are not, the model
is simplified by combining axisymmetric and full 3-D modeling concepts. The following model shows the
geometry of the simplified camshaft assembly, which now has a 2-D shaft and a 2-D valve:

Figure 3.2 Simplified Geometry of a Camshaft Assembly

The 2-D valve and 2-D shaft are modeled with general axisymmetric SOLID272 elements. Because the valve
and shaft should not have high localized deformation in the circumferential direction (θ), the number of
Fourier nodes is set to 3. (The SOLID272 element's KEYOPT(2) option controls the number of Fourier nodes
in the circumferential direction.)

The remaining parts of the assembly such as the valve ball and cams are modeled with standard 3-D elements
(SOLID187 in this case), as shown:

Figure 3.3 Meshed Camshaft Model Prior to Generating the 3-D Mesh

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Chapter 3: Nonlinear Transient Analysis of a Camshaft Assembly

Before generating the 3-D mesh (based on the 2-D mesh) on the master plane, axes of symmetry for the
valve and shaft are defined separately (via SECTYPE and SECDATA commands), as follows:

Defining valve axis of symmetry:

SECTYPE,1,AXIS,,valve ! Here "valve" is a user-specified name
SECDATA,x1,y1,z1,x2,y2,z2 ! Coordinates of two points to define axis of valve

Defining shaft axis of symmetry:

SECTYPE,2,AXIS,,shaft ! Here "shaft" is a user-specified name
SECDATA,X1,Y1,Z1,X2,Y2,Z2 ! Coordinates of two points to define axis of shaft

After defining the axes of symmetry, the NAXIS command generates the 3-D mesh, as shown:

Figure 3.4 Meshed Camshaft Model After Generating the 3-D Mesh

3.3.1.2. Full 3-D Model

This model uses the full camshaft assembly as shown in Figure 3.1 (p. 36). The purpose for analyzing the full
3-D model is simply to better illustrate the efficiency, and to verify the accuracy, of the general axisymmetric
model.

All components of the assembly are modeled with standard 3-D elements (SOLID187 in this case), and all
boundary conditions, loadings, material properties, solution settings and hardware settings are identical to
the general axisymmetric model.

A comparison of the analysis results based on the general axisymmetric model and the full 3-D model appears
in Results and Discussion (p. 42).

3.3.2. Contact Modeling

Contact pairs couple general axisymmetric elements with standard 3-D elements. A node-to-surface contact
element represents contact between two surfaces by specifying one surface as a group of nodes.

Because the SOLID272 general axisymmetric element has nodes (and not elements) in 3-D space after the
NAXIS command has generated the 3-D mesh, the CONTA175 2-D / 3-D node-to-surface contact element
is a good choice for making contact pairs.

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 3.3.2. Contact Modeling

As shown in the following figure, bonded contact pairs with the MPC algorithm are defined to couple the
shaft with the cams and the valve ball with the valve. The bonded contact pairs connect the general
axisymmetric elements SOLID272 with the standard 3-D elements SOLID187.

Figure 3.5 Bonded Contact Pairs

The following example input shows how to create the contact pairs between the shaft and cams:
ET,1,175 ! Define CONTACT175 element
ET,2,170 ! Define TARGET170 element
KEYOPT,1,12,5 ! Bonded Contact
KEYOPT,1,2,2 ! MPC style contact
CMSEL,S,SHAFT_NODES ! "SHAFT_NODES" is the user-defined nodal component
! which has all the nodes of the shaft that are in
! contact with cams
TYPE,1
REAL,1

! Small loop to create contact elements on selected nodes

NN=0
*GET,NUMN,NODE,,COUNT
*DO,I,1,NUMN
NN=NDNEXT(NN)
E,NN ! Create contact elements on nodes one by one.
*ENDDO

CMSEL,S,CAM_NODES ! Select cam nodes and elements at the contact region

ESLN
TYPE,2
REAL,1
ESURF ! Create contact pair between shaft and cams

Similarly, the other bonded contact pair is defined between the valve and valve ball.

A spring is modeled using the COMBIN14 element (as shown in Figure 3.4 (p. 38)). The spring ensures that
the valve maintains contact with the shaft during analysis. One end of the spring is attached to the valve
via the bonded contact pair; the other is fixed in all degrees of freedom.

In the following figure, a standard surface-to-surface contact pair with a penalty algorithm is defined between
the cam and valve ball. Also shown are two revolute joints (one at each end of the shaft).

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Chapter 3: Nonlinear Transient Analysis of a Camshaft Assembly

Figure 3.6 Revolute Joints and Surface-to-Surface Contact Pair

Shown are two revolute joints (one at each end of the shaft) and a surface-to-surface contact
pair between the cam and valve ball.

CONTA174 and TARGE170 elements are used in the contact pair between the cam and valve ball. The status
of this contact pair changes during analysis.

3.4. Material Properties

Material properties considered for the shaft, cams and valve are elastic, as follows:

Shaft, Cams and Valve Material Properties

Young's Modulus (Nm-2) 2.00E + 11
Poisson's Ratio 0.3
-3
Density (Kgm ) 7850

Spring properties are as follows:

Spring Material Properties

Spring Constant (N / m) 1.00E + .05
Initial Force (N) 1000

3.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

The shaft is allowed to rotate by 360 degrees. Revolute joints are defined at the ends of the shaft with
MPC184 joint elements, as shown in Figure 3.6 (p. 40). The joints in the shaft allow rotational loading on the
shaft to be applied uniformly.

The following example input shows how to create the joint elements:
! Creating joint elements

ET,3,184 ! Defines MPC184 element

KEYOPT,3,1,6 ! Selects revolute joint type
KEYOPT,3,4,1 ! Selects Z axis as revolute axis
LOCAL,11,x1,y1,z1... ! Creates local coordinate system at one end of the shaft
! such that axis of shaft becomes the local z axis
N,99,X1,Y1,Z1 ! Creates node at the centre of the cross section of the shaft at one end.

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 3.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

ET,4,175 ! Defines CONTACT175 element

ET,5,170 ! Defines TARGET170 element
KEYOPT,4,12,5 ! Bonded Contact
KEYOPT,4,4,2 ! Rigid CERIG style load
KEYOPT,4,2,2 ! MPC style contact
KEYOPT,5,2,1 ! Don't fix the pilot node
KEYOPT,5,4,0 ! Activates all DOF's due to CERIG style
CMSEL,S,SHAFT_NODES ! Selects all nodes at one end of the shaft.
TYPE,4,
REAL,4

! Creating bonded contact pairs for defining joints

NN=0
*GET,NUMN,NODE,,COUNT
*DO,I,1,NUMN
NN=NDNEXT(NN)
E,NN
*ENDDO
ALLSEL,ALL
TYPE,5
REAL,4
TSHAPE,PILOT
EN,999,99 ! Creates target element with pilot node
TSHAPE
CSYS,11
NROT,99
CSYS,0
ALLSEL,ALL
SECTYPE,3,JOINT,REVO, ! Creates section type for joint elements
SECJOINT,,11,11 ! Defines local coordinate systems at joint element nodes
REAL,3
TYPE,3
SECNUM,3
EN,888,,99 ! Defines body to ground joint (revolute joint)

After the joints are defined at both ends of the shaft, loading (360-degree rotation) is applied on the revolute
joint at one end of the shaft (via the DJ command), as follows:
ESEL,S,TYPE,,3 ! Selects joint elements
DJ,ALL,ROTZ,%LOAD% ! Applies load on joint elements

When the shaft rotates, the cams attached to the shaft also rotate. The cam in contact with the valve ball
(via the surface-to-surface contact pair) pushes the valve along its axial direction.

The valve moves along its axial direction only and, due to the spring force, it returns to its original position
when the cam does not push it further.

To control the movement of the valve, all valve nodes are constrained so that it moves along its axial direction
only. To do so, a local coordinate system is defined at the valve such that the local z axis is along the valve
axis.

3.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

A nonlinear transient analysis is performed on the camshaft assembly.

Large-deflection effects and transient effects are included in the analysis (via NLGEOM,ON and TIMINT
commands, respectively).

Automatic time stepping is used, with an initial time increment of 3.3 milliseconds.

Solution items are stored in the .rst results file for 20 equally spaced time steps.

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Chapter 3: Nonlinear Transient Analysis of a Camshaft Assembly

3.7. Results and Discussion

The following illustration shows the deformation plots (USUM) of the camshaft assembly at various time
steps during one full rotation (θ = 360 degrees) of the shaft:

Figure 3.7 USUM Plots of Camshaft Assembly During Analysis

The plots show that the valve always remains in touch with the cam throughout the analysis.

The following figure shows the maximum and minimum principal stress plots of the valve and shaft at the
end of the analysis:

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 3.7.1. Results Comparison: General Axisymmetric Model and Full 3-D Model

Figure 3.8 Maximum and Minimum Principal Stress Plots

The shaft and valve are subjected to nonaxisymmetric deformation. The results show that general axisym-
metric elements are capable of modeling nonlinear general 3-D deformation. The problem also demonstrates
how general axisymmetric elements can have any axis as the axisymmetric axis.

3.7.1. Results Comparison: General Axisymmetric Model and Full 3-D Model
To verify the accuracy and efficiency of the general axisymmetric element model, a transient analysis was
performed on the full 3-D model of the crankshaft assembly. Both the general axisymmetric model and the
full 3-D model simulations were run on the same computer. Solution settings for both models were
identical.

The following figure shows a direct comparison of results between the full 3-D model and the general
axisymmetric model:

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Chapter 3: Nonlinear Transient Analysis of a Camshaft Assembly

Figure 3.9 Comparison of USUM Plots: General Axisymmetric Model and Full 3-D Model

In the full 3-D model, the number of degrees (DOFs) of freedom is approximately 300,000. In the general
axisymmetric model, the number of DOFs is only 18,000. The smaller number of DOFs in the general
axisymmetric model is possible due to the combination of axisymmetric and 3-D modeling.

Fewer DOFs in the general axisymmetric model result in about a 58 percent reduction in simulation time,
as shown:

FEA Model Details General Axisymmet- Full 3-D Model [2]

ric Model [1]
Number of elements in FEA model 4104 8473
Number of elements in valve compon- 69 1632
ent
Number of elements in shaft compon- 102 3453
ent
Number of elements in valve ball 1158 1122
component
Number of elements in cams 1769 1769
Simulation time 20407 seconds 49391 seconds

1. In the general axisymmetric model, the valve and shaft components are meshed with
general axisymmetric SOLID272 elements. The remaining components consist of
standard 3-D elements.
2. In the full 3-D model, all components are meshed with 3-D elements.

The analyses show that using general axisymmetric elements can reduce computational time significantly
with no loss of accuracy.

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 3.9. Input Files

3.8. Recommendations
To perform a similar type of analysis, keep the following hints in mind:

• For every axisymmetric part of the assembly, define a separate axis of symmetry (SECDATA) before
generating nodes around the axis of an axisymmetric section (NAXIS).
• Choose an appropriate number of Fourier nodes in the circumferential direction to ensure better accuracy
and to minimize computational cost.

The KEYOPT (2) option for the general axisymmetric elements (SOLID272 and SOLID273)
controls the number of Fourier nodes in the circumferential direction.

If any part of your model which uses general axisymmetric elements does not have high
localized deformation in the circumferential direction, the number of Fourier nodes can
be set as low as 3.

In the case of high localized deformation in the circumferential direction, the number
of Fourier nodes can be set as high as 12, according to your requirements.

• Use a node-to-surface contact pair to connect general axisymmetric elements to standard 3-D elements.

Always create target surfaces on standard 3-D elements.

3.9. Input Files

The following files were used in this problem:

• camshaft_assembly.inp -- Input file for the transient analysis (used for both the general axisym-
metric and the full 3-D models)
• general_axisymmetric_model.cdb -- The common database file for the general axisymmetric
model (called by the camshaft_assembly.inp file).
• full_3d_model.cdb -- The common database file for the full 3-D model (called by the camshaft_as-
sembly.inp file).

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-7). See Obtaining the Input Files for more in-
formation.

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Chapter 4: Simulation of a Lumbar Motion Segment
This example problem demonstrates the use of coupled pore-pressure element technology to study the
creep response of a lumbar motion segment under compression. The simulation reveals the interaction
between the solid phase and the fluid phase in soft tissues.

Topics related to this example problem follow:

4.1. Introduction
4.2. Problem Description
4.3. Modeling
4.4. Material Properties
4.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
4.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
4.7. Results and Discussion
4.8. References and Acknowledgements
4.9. Input Files

4.1. Introduction
Approximately 26 million Americans between the ages of 20 and 64 are affected by frequent lower back
pain [1 (p. 52)], one of the major causes of worker disability. The problem costs the economy roughly $50-
100 billion each year [2 (p. 52)].

Most lower back problems involve the intervertebral disc (IVD), shown in this illustration [4 (p. 52)]:

Figure 4.1 Vertebral Body Components

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Chapter 4: Simulation of a Lumbar Motion Segment

The IVD is the smallest segment of the spine that exhibits biomechanical characteristics similar to that of
the entire spine [3 (p. 52)]. The IVD is composed of annulus bulk and nucleus pulposus, both soft tissues.

Finite element analysis (FEA) has been applied in orthopedic biomechanics and spine biomechanics research
since 1983. Typically, the IVD is modeled by solid elements. Many experimental observations, however,
suggest that it is more realistic to consider soft tissue in the IVD as a biphasic model. For example, when
the disc is compressed, fluid flows out from either the entire disc [5 (p. 52)] or from disc slices; therefore,
one can consider the soft tissues in IVD to be a multiphase system.

Clinical studies shows that back pain is associated with the mechanical behavior of the intervertebral disc.
A significant finding is that the degenerated intervertebral disc has lower permeability than a normal disc
[3 (p. 52)]; therefore, using coupled pore-pressure elements in a lumbar motion segment simulation provides
a realistic model for clinical study of degenerated intervertebral discs.

4.2. Problem Description

A human vertebral motion segment from in vitro measurements is examined. A constant axial force of 500N
is applied at the top of the upper vertebra while the lower vertebra is fixed at the bottom. Initially, the full
load is applied instantly and maintained in the subsequent creep stage. During the entire loading period,
the lateral surfaces of the IVD are permeable [6 (p. 52)].

4.3. Modeling
Following is finite element model of a lumbar motion segment:

Figure 4.2 Finite Element Model of a Human Lumbar Motion Segment

Because the IVD is composed of soft tissue, it is modeled using CPT217 coupled pore-pressure elements.
Bones in the segment are modeled using SOLID187 solid elements.

4.4. Material Properties

Following are the material properties [6 (p. 52)] used in the lumbar motion segment analysis:

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 4.7. Results and Discussion

Human Vertebral Motion Segment Material Properties

Annulus Bulk Nucleus Pulposus Bone
Elastic Modulus (MPa) 2.5 1.5 3500
Poisson's Ratio 0.1 0.1 0.2
4 -1 -1
Permeability (m N s ) 3.0E - 16 3.0E - 16 ---

The permeating fluid and the solid phase are both assumed to be incompressible, so the Biot modulus α is
set to 1.

4.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

The lower vertebral body is constrained with all degrees of freedom. The central node in the top surface of
the upper vertebral body is given step load 500N.

4.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

A nonlinear static analysis is performed using the unsymmetric Newton-Raphson option.

Creep is studied over a period of five days (about 4.26E4 seconds). Results show that small time steps induce
nonphysical pressure oscillations in the computation; therefore, the entire solution is completed in 100
substeps with no oscillation present.

4.7. Results and Discussion

The following figure show the bulging of the IVD, one of the primary deformation modes of an IVD under
compression in clinical studies:

Figure 4.3 IVD Deformation

For IVD stresses, the annulus bulk takes more load than the nucleus since it has higher stiffness, as shown
in this figure:

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Chapter 4: Simulation of a Lumbar Motion Segment

Figure 4.4 IVD von Mises Stresses

With the IVD modeled using coupled pore-pressure elements, vertical displacement gradually increases with
time, as shown in this animation:

Figure 4.5 Lumbar Motion Segment Animation of Vertical Displacement Increasing with Time

The animation also illustrates the difference between solid elements and coupled pore-pressure elements.
With the same loading and boundary conditions, the upper vertebral body modeled with coupled pore-
pressure elements drops gradually under compression, as compared to the constant displacement of solid
elements. For soft-tissue modeling, coupled pore-pressure elements provide a more realistic simulation.

As vertical displacement increases with time, pore pressure dissipates:

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 4.7. Results and Discussion

Figure 4.6 Displacements of Vertebral Body Over Time

The creep response of the lumbar motion segment is due to fluid flowing out of the IVD, as shown:

Figure 4.7 Lumbar Motion Segment Creep Response

When the fluid is exhausted, the final displacement is equal to that of an IVD modeled by solid elements
only:

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Chapter 4: Simulation of a Lumbar Motion Segment

Figure 4.8 IVD Pore-Pressure Dissipation

The creep response under compression demonstrates the diffusive interaction between the solid matrix and
the interstitial fluid in soft tissues.

4.8. References and Acknowledgements

The following references are cited in this example problem:

1. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Tissue (Biology). <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_tissue >.

2. Paremer, A., S. Fumer, D. P. Rice. Musculoskeletal Conditions in the United States. 1st ed. Park Ridge:
American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 1992.
3. Gilbertson, L. G. et al. “Finite Element Methods in Spine Biomechanics Research.” Critical Reviews in
Biomedical Engineering. 23.5-6 (1995): 411-473.
4. Bridwell, K. “Intervertebral Discs.” Spine Universe. 12 May 2009. <http://www.spineuniverse.com/displa-
yarticle.php/article1267.html>.
5. Charnley, J. “Imbibation of Fluid as a Cause of Herniation of the Nucleus Pulposus.” Lancet. 6699 (1952):
124–127.
6. Argoubi, A., A. Shirazi-Adl. “Poroelastic Creep Response Analysis of a Lumbar Motion Segment in
Compression.” Journal of Biomechanics. 29.10 (1996): 1331-1339.

ANSYS, Inc. gratefully acknowledges Materialise NV for providing the vertebral body geometry for this example
problem.

4.9. Input Files

The following files were used in this problem:

• vertebral_body_input.dat -- Input file for the lumbar motion segment simulation.

• vertebral_body.cbd -- Common database file for the lumbar motion segment model (called by
the vertebral_body_input.dat file).

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 4.9. Input Files

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-10). See Obtaining the Input Files for more
information.

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Chapter 5: Fluid-Pressure-Penetration Analysis of a Sealing System
This example problem demonstrates a method for examining fluid-pressure-penetration effects on a sealing
system. The use of seals is primarily to prevent the transfer of fluid (liquid, solid, or gas) between two or
more regions.

The following features and capabilities are highlighted:

• Use of 2-D axisymmetric finite element technology

• Use of 2-D surface-to-surface contact-pair element technology
• Frictional contact
• Fluid-penetration loading
• Ogden hyperelasticity (curve fitting) and MISO plasticity
• Nonlinear stabilization

Topics related to this example problem follow:

5.1. Introduction
5.2. Problem Description
5.3. Modeling
5.4. Material Properties
5.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
5.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
5.7. Results and Discussion
5.8. Recommendations
5.9. Acknowledgements
5.10. Input Files

5.1. Introduction
The applications of mechanical seals are numerous. The most common sealing systems involve rotating-shaft
sealing, elastomer sealing, and flange sealing.

The sealing capability of an elastomeric seal depends upon the contact stresses that develop between the
seal and the surfaces with which it comes into contact. Leakage may occur when the pressure differential
across the seal exceeds the contact stress. As a general nonlinear finite element tool, the ANSYS Mechanical
APDL program can predict seal-deformation shapes and stress distributions, and contact stress profiles after
installation, in operation, and under various loading conditions. The program can also take into account the
effects of fluid pressure penetration between seals and other structural components in the analysis. All of
this information is crucial to understanding how mechanical seal systems are designed, how they operate,
and how best to apply them to prevent fluid leakage.

The fluid-pressure-penetration capability is used to simulate pressure penetration between contacting surfaces
based on the contact status (described in Applying Fluid Pressure-Penetration Loads in the Contact Technology
Guide). The fluid penetration pressure load has a path-dependent nature. The penetrating path can
propagate and vary, and is determined iteratively.

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Chapter 5: Fluid-Pressure-Penetration Analysis of a Sealing System

At the start of each iteration, the program finds all possible starting points which are exposed to the fluid
pressure. Among the starting points, the program then finds fluid penetrating points where the contact
status is open or lost, or where the contact pressure is smaller than the user-defined pressure penetration
criterion. When a contact-detection point has a contact condition of “penetrating,” it is subjected to the
fluid pressure, and its nearest neighboring nodes are considered to be the starting points which are exposed
to the fluid pressure as well. The fluid pressure begins to penetrate into the interface between contact and
target surfaces from the starting points. The fluid penetration can be cut off when contact between the
surfaces is reestablished or when contact pressure is larger than the fluid penetration criterion.

5.2. Problem Description

An elastomeric o-ring relies on a compressive contact pressure acting on the exterior surface of the o-ring
seal to prevent fluid leakage between regions. Successful seal design ensures adequate seal compressive
pressure while optimizing the destructive stress acting on the o-ring as a result of the compression.

The components of the sealing system to be modeled are an elastomer o-ring and a rolled-shape plastic
cap. The figure below is a 3-D view of the model with a one-quarter cutout to show the o-ring configuration.

Figure 5.1 3-D View of Sealing System

5.3. Modeling
Following is an axisymmetric model of the seal components, an elastomer o-ring and a plastic cap. The rigid
surface on the right represents the groove, and the left rigid surface represents the shaft.

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 5.3. Modeling

Figure 5.2 Sealing System and Finite Element Model

(a) Initial Configuration

(b) End of Housing Compression

(c) End of fluid Penetration Pressure

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Chapter 5: Fluid-Pressure-Penetration Analysis of a Sealing System

The dimensions of the model are as follows:

Geometric Properties
O-ring radius = 0.89 mm
Cap width = 0.623 mm
Cap height = 2.123 mm

The following elements are used in this model:

Element Description Key Option (KEYOPT) Settings Total Number

of Elements
Used
PLANE182 2-D 4-Node Structural Solid KEYOPT(3) = 1 (axisymmetric behavi- 2065
or)
CONTA171 2-D 2-Node Surface-To-Surface KEYOPT(2) = 3 (Lagrange multiplier 495
Contact on contact normal and penalty on
tangent)
TARGE169 2-D Target Segment --- 290

The o-ring and cap are modeled using PLANE182 elements.

Two contact pairs are defined using CONTA171 and TARGE169 elements. One rigid-to-flexible contact pair
models the contact between the entire exterior surface of seals (o-ring and cap) and the rigid surfaces, as
shown by (a) in the following figure:

Figure 5.3 Sealing System Contact Pairs

Another flexible-to-flexible contact pair models the contact between the o-ring and the cap, as shown by
(b) in the figure.

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 5.4. Material Properties

A frictional interaction is defined for the contact pairs and the friction coefficient of 0.1 is applied (via the
MP command). The contact formulation used is the “Lagrange multiplier on contact-normal and penalty-on-
tangent” (KEYOPT(2) = 3 on CONTA171).

5.4. Material Properties

The material of the o-ring is taken to be an incompressible elastomer material modeled by the Ogden first-
order hyperelastic form. Three material constants which represent an initial shear modulus of 1.99408 MPa
are input via the TB,HYPE,,,,OGDEN command. Part (a) of the following figure displays the original uniaxial
test data and fitted curve with the Ogden first-order hyperelastic form. The plastic cap is modeled by an
elastic-plastic material which is softer than the o-ring material. The isotropic hardening stress-strain curve
(initialized via the TB,PLAS,,,,MISO command) is shown by (b) in the figure.

Figure 5.4 Material Model Test Data

(a) Uniaxial Test Data and Fitted Curve with Ogden First Order

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Chapter 5: Fluid-Pressure-Penetration Analysis of a Sealing System

(b) Isotropic Hardening Strain-Stress Curve

Following is a summary of the material properties:

Material Properties
O-Ring
Coefficient of Friction
Cap
for Contact Interface (Hyperelastic Ogden
Material Constants)
µ1 = 7.5605 MPa
E = 171.47 MPa
µ = 0.1 α1 = 0.54275
υ = 0.4
d1 = 1e-4

For more information about the Ogden form, see Ogden Hyperelastic Material Constants (TB,HYPER,,,,OGDEN)
in the Element Reference.

For more information about the multilinear curve, see Multilinear Isotropic Hardening Constants (TB,MISO)
in the Element Reference.

5.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

Two load steps are defined (shown by (b) and (c) in Figure 5.2 (p. 57).)

Loading is applied as follows:

Load Step 1

Ux rigid shaft = 0.2794 mm

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 5.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

Ux rigid groove = - 0.05715 mm

The housing compression is analyzed in the first load step. The rigid shaft surface (left side)
moves 0.2794 mm in the x direction and the rigid groove surfaces (right side) move 0.05715
in the negative x direction, simulating the housing assembly.

Load Step 2

PRES = 5.171 MPa

In the second load step, a fluid penetration pressure of 5.171 MPa is applied to the contact
pairs (via the SFE command with the load key value LKEY set to 1), as shown:
esel,s,real,,6 ! select rigid-flexible contact pair
esel,r,ename,,171 ! reselect contact elements only
esel,a,real,,8 ! select flexible-flexible contact pair
sfe,all,1,pres,,5.171 ! apply fluid pressure
allsel

The following input prevents fluid penetration loads from being applied multiple times on
overlapping contact elements from different pairs:
esel,s,real,,8 ! select flexible-flexible contact pair
nsle
esln,s,1
esel,r,real,,6 ! reselect rigid-flexible contact pair
sfedele,all,all,all ! remove overlapping fluid pressure loads
allsel

The following figure displays the applied fluid pressure for each contact pair:

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Chapter 5: Fluid-Pressure-Penetration Analysis of a Sealing System

Figure 5.5 Sealing System with Applied Pressure to Contact Pairs

The fluid penetration starting points are also specified in order to model the system fluid pressure exposed
from the bottom part (the opening between the shaft and the lower part of groove). For the rigid-to-flexible
contact pair, no default starting points exist because the contact surfaces are in a closed loop, as shown in
(a). To activate the fluid penetration pressure, two contact elements are chosen as starting points initially
exposed to the fluid (via the SFE command, with the load key value LKEY set to 2 and the first starting
point status value VAL1 set to 1), as follows:
SFE,3121,2,PRES,,1 ! starting point for o-ring
SFE,3308,2,PRES,,1 ! starting point for cap

One starting point is for the contact surface of the o-ring, and the other is for the contact surface of the
cap, respectively.

For the flexible-to-flexible contact pair, the ending points of the contact and target surfaces are the default
starting points. To force the fluid to penetrate from the bottom only, the two default starting points on the
top part of the seals are suppressed (via the SFE command, with the load key value LKEY set to 2 and the
first starting point status value VAL1 set to -1), as follows:
SFE,2529,2,PRES,,-1
SFE,2625,2,PRES,,-1

5.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

A static analysis (ANTYPE,STATIC) is used for the fluid penetration simulation.

The gaps (between the o-ring and the shaft, the o-ring and the cap, and the cap and lower part of the
groove) are closed after the first load step, so the fluid does not initially penetrate into those contacting

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 5.7. Results and Discussion

regions. The fluid gradually opens the contact and penetrates into those regions with increasing pressure
loading. Since a default value of zero for the pressure penetration criterion (PPCN input via the real constant
command R) is used, the fluid pressure penetration occurs immediately as soon as the contact is open or
lost.

The entire system is very unstable during the second load step. The seals are pushed up due to the fluid
pressure. Rigid body motion may occur when the frictional stresses are not large enough to hold the seals
vertically. Convergence difficulty due to an unstable problem is usually the result of a large displacement
for smaller load increments. To overcome the instability, the nonlinear stabilization capability (STABILIZE
command) is used in the second load step, as follows:
STABILIZE, CONSTANT,ENERGY,0.01,ANYTIME

5.7. Results and Discussion

The analysis uses an automatic time-stepping scheme, performing approximately 35 substeps in the first
load step and approximately 204 substeps in the second load step. (The exact number of substeps is subject
to change depending on the hardware platform used to run the analysis.)

The deformed configuration and the contour of the contact pressures on the seals at the end of the first
load step are shown in the following figure:

Figure 5.6 Sealing System Contact Pressure Following Housing Compression (First Load Step)

Contact occurs in several areas, as follows:

• The middle part of the contact interface between the o-ring and the shaft
• The middle part of the contact interface between the o-ring and the cap
• The top and bottom part of the contact interface between the cap and the groove.

The top and bottom part of contact interfaces between the seals and the shaft remains open.

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Chapter 5: Fluid-Pressure-Penetration Analysis of a Sealing System

The fluid penetration pressure loads are applied during the second load step. The fluid pressure is active
immediately on elements near the bottom part of contact interfaces where the contact status is open.

The fluid pressure does not spread to the elements around the top part of the seals because gaps have been
closed near the middle part of the interfaces.

The propagation of the fluid penetration is captured in the following figures showing the deformed shape,
the fluid pressure contour, and the contact pressure contour corresponding to different stages of the applied
loading. The fluid pressures applied to the surfaces range from 0.052 MPa in the first substep to 5.171 MPa
in the last substep.

Figure 5.7 Sealing System fluid Penetration Pressure Distributions (During Second Load Step)

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 5.7. Results and Discussion

Following is an animation of the fluid penetration pressure distribution:

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Chapter 5: Fluid-Pressure-Penetration Analysis of a Sealing System

Figure 5.8 Animation of Fluid Penetration Pressure

The following figures show the contact pressure distributions:

Figure 5.9 Sealing System Contact Pressure Distributions (During Second Load Step)

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 5.7. Results and Discussion

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Chapter 5: Fluid-Pressure-Penetration Analysis of a Sealing System

Following is an animation of the contact pressure distribution:

Figure 5.10 Animation of Contact Pressure

Increasing pressure penetration loads applied in the second load step force the o-ring and cap to be pushed
up against the shaft, eventually causing complete contact between the seals and upper part of the shaft.
Throughout the loading history, there is no evidence of complete fluid penetration as the contact in certain
regions remains closed.

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 5.7. Results and Discussion

The following figures are contour plots of the Von Mises stress and equivalent plastic strain of the seals at
the end of the second load step:

Figure 5.11 Sealing System Von Mises Stress Contour (After Second Load Step)

Figure 5.12 Sealing System Equivalent Plastic Strain Contour (After Second Load Step)

The analysis also shows a certain degree of extrusion of the plastic cap through the extrusion gap of the
groove near the end of the second load step. Because the plastic cap is softer than the o-ring, deformations
and stresses in the cap are higher than those in the o-ring.

The following figure shows the time histories of total strain energy and stabilization energy:

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Chapter 5: Fluid-Pressure-Penetration Analysis of a Sealing System

Figure 5.13 Sealing System Total Strain Energy and Stabilization Energy Time History

In the early stages of loading (TIME < 1.27), slight strain energy is developed and the seals are pushed up
almost rigidly. The stabilization energy is developed to prevent rigid body motion; without stabilization, the
solution diverges.

In the later stage of the loading (TIME > 1.27), the seals deform as the result of compression and strain energy
is developed while the stabilization energy remains constant. Eventually, the stabilization energy is less than
the strain energy by a factor of three. The stabilization feature helps to prevent potential rigid body motion
and improves the convergence while having little effect on the final results.

5.8. Recommendations
To perform a similar type of analysis, consider the following recommendations:

• Fluid pressure penetration is a path-dependent loading. Therefore, you should define the “starting
points” with great care. In many cases, you might need to remove invalid default starting points and
properly define the physical location of the fluid penetration loading. For more information, see Specifying
Fluid Penetration Starting Points in the Contact Technology Guide.
• You should be careful not to apply fluid pressures multiple times when contact pairs overlap. Duplicate
fluid penetration loads should be removed as demonstrated in Boundary Conditions and Loading (p. 60).
• Determining an appropriate stabilization constant (STABILIZE command) may require some experiment-
ation. The defined constant should be large enough to prevent rigid body motion, but also ensure that
the resulting stabilization energy is much smaller than the strain energy. Trial and error is often required
to obtain a suitable value.

5.9. Acknowledgements
ANSYS, Inc. gratefully acknowledges Trelleborg Sealing Solutions for providing the geometry and material
properties used in this example.

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 5.10. Input Files

5.10. Input Files

The following input files were used in this problem:

• oring.dat -- Input file for the o-ring seal static analysis.

• oring.cdb -- The common database file for the axisymmetric model of the o-ring (called by
oring.dat).

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-3). See Obtaining the Input Files for more in-
formation.

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Chapter 6: Delamination of a Stiffened Composite Panel Under a
Compressive Load
This example problem demonstrates the use of solid-shell element technology to model a layered-composite
structure. The problem simulates interface delamination through the debonding capability of contact elements.

The following features and capabilities are highlighted:

• Use of the solid-shell element technology to model layered composites

• Bonded contact with a cohesive zone model to simulate delamination (also known as debonding)
• Shell section definitions
• Use of constraint equations to model periodic symmetry
• Nonlinear stabilization

Topics related to this example problem follow:

6.1. Introduction
6.2. Problem Description
6.3. Modeling
6.4. Material Properties and Section Definitions
6.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
6.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
6.7. Results and Discussion
6.8. Recommendations
6.9. Input Files

6.1. Introduction
Stiffened composite panels are ideal for aircraft fuselage construction because of their excellent durability
and optimal strength-to-mass ratios. The program provides a variety of element types for modeling layered
composite structures. In this example, the eight-node solid-shell element SOLSH190 is chosen for its general
applicability to layered structures and its continuum element connectivity that greatly simplifies the modeling
process.

The unique properties of the SOLSH190 element used in this example greatly simplify the modeling of
contact between thin parts. For example, when using SOLSH190 instead of shells, you do not have to worry
about the section offset, contact surface orientation, or thickness change in large deflection.

The stiffened panel may undergo various local and global failure modes when subjected to a service load.
This example focuses primarily on the global buckling of the panel and the progressive failure of the
bonding material between different structural components. To simulate this highly nonlinear and unstable
phenomenon, the nonlinear stabilization method and bonded contact with a cohesive zone model are used.

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Chapter 6: Delamination of a Stiffened Composite Panel Under a Compressive Load

6.2. Problem Description

The stiffened panel consists of three components: the skin, the stringer web, and the stringer flange. The
construction of stiffeners (stringer web and flange) repeats at a fixed interval, as shown in the figure below.
All three components are made of layered composite materials. An in-plane compressive load is gradually
applied, causing the panel to buckle and the bond between the skin and the flange to be damaged. The
debonding is initialized at an artificial imperfection and allowed to propagate as the load increases.

Figure 6.1 Geometry

6.3. Modeling
Due to the symmetry of the problem, it is possible to model only one representative section of the whole
panel. The representative section shown below contains a 600 mm x 160 mm portion of the panel skin and
one stiffener assembly.

Figure 6.2 Symmetry Section

The section is meshed with SOLSH190 elements, as shown below. Note that the elements on the skin and
the flange do not need to match when the interfaces are modeled with contact elements.

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 6.3. Modeling

Figure 6.3 Meshed Geometry

A secure bond is assumed between the web and the flange. This perfect bonding is simulated through the
use of common nodes for both components.

The interfaces between the skin and the flange are meshed with CONTA173 and TARGE170 elements. Two
distinct contact pairs are established, as shown in Figure 6.4 (p. 75). Since debonding is permitted in the
entire interfacing area between the skin and flange, KEYOPT(12) = 6 is set for the CONTA173 elements to
allow only an initially bonded contact, and a cohesive zone material (CZM) is assigned to these elements
for modeling any subsequent debonding. An area of artificial imperfection is introduced in the skin-flange
interface. In this area, the bonding material is completely missing and the standard contact behavior (KEY-
OPT(12) = 0) is assigned to the CONTA173 elements.

Figure 6.4 Two Contact Pair Definitions (Initial Crack and CZM Area)

The following two figures show the coordinate systems of the contact and target elements.

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Chapter 6: Delamination of a Stiffened Composite Panel Under a Compressive Load

Figure 6.5 Contact Elements

Figure 6.6 Target Elements

Please refer to the Contact Technology Guide for more information on the extensive contact options and
modeling procedures.

6.4. Material Properties and Section Definitions

Composite Materials

The properties of the two orthotropic materials used in this problem are summarized in the tables below.
They are assumed to be linear elastic and temperature independent. These materials are used to define the
layers of the composite materials that make up the skin, stringer flange, and stringer web (refer to the shell
section definitions later in this section).

Linear Elastic Material Number 1

Young's Modulus in X direc- 130000
tion (MPa)
Young's Modulus in Y direc- 8000
tion (MPa)

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 6.4. Material Properties and Section Definitions

Linear Elastic Material Number 1

Young's Modulus in Z direc- 8000
tion (MPa)
Poisson's Ratio (PRXY, PRYZ, 0.3
PRXZ)
Shear Modulus GXY (MPa) 5000
Shear Modulus GYZ (MPa) 2500
Shear Modulus GXZ (MPa) 5000

Linear Elastic Material Number 2

Young's Modulus in X direc- 68918
tion (MPa)
Young's Modulus in Y direc- 68918
tion (MPa)
Young's Modulus in Z direc- 4000
tion (MPa)
Poisson's Ratio (PRXY, PRYZ, 0.31
PRXZ)
Shear Modulus GXY (MPa) 4000
Shear Modulus GYZ (MPa) 3250
Shear Modulus GXZ (MPa) 3250

Cohesive Zone Model

The properties of the bilinear cohesive zone material model with the CBDE option are summarized in the
table below. The TB and TBDATA commands are used to define this material model. See Cohesive Zone
Material Constants for Contact Elements (TB,CZM,,,,CBDD and TB,CZM,,,,CBDE ) for details on the definition
of cohesive zone models.

Cohesive Zone Model Properties

Maximum normal contact 61
stress (σmax)
Critical fracture energy for 0.075
normal separation (Gcn)
Maximum equivalent tangen- 68
tial contact stress (τmax)
Critical fracture energy for 0.6
tangential slip (Gct)
Artificial damping coefficient 5.e-4
(η)
Flag for tangential slip under 1
compressive normal contact
stress (β)

Shell Section Definitions

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Chapter 6: Delamination of a Stiffened Composite Panel Under a Compressive Load

Shell sections are used for defining the layup of the composite materials. See the SECTYPE and SECDATA
commands for details on how to define the material, thickness, material orientation, and the number of in-
tegration points of each layer. The following tables summarize the section properties for the skin, the flange,
and the web.

Section Properties for Skin

Layer Thickness Material Orientation Angle from Integration Points
local x direction
0.14 1 45 3
0.14 1 -45 3
0.14 1 45 3
0.14 1 -45 3
0.14 1 45 3
0.14 1 -45 3
0.14 1 0 3
0.14 1 0 3
0.14 1 -45 3
0.14 1 45 3
0.14 1 -45 3
0.14 1 45 3
0.14 1 -45 3
0.14 1 45 3

Section Properties for Stringer Flange

Layer Thickness Material Orientation Angle from Integration Points
local x direction
0.36 2 45 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.36 2 45 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.36 2 45 3

Section Properties for Stringer Web

Layer Thickness Material Orientation Angle from Integration Points
Local x Direction
0.36 2 45 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.125 1 0 3

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 6.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

Section Properties for Stringer Web

Layer Thickness Material Orientation Angle from Integration Points
Local x Direction
0.36 2 45 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.36 2 45 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.36 2 45 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.36 2 45 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.125 1 0 3
0.36 2 45 3

6.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

One end of the panel is completely constrained, as shown in (a) in the figure below. The other end is assumed
rigid and allowed only uniform displacement in the longitudinal (global X) direction. To simulate these
conditions, a pilot node is created and the CP command is used to couple the X displacement of the pilot
node and the X displacement of all other nodes at this end.

Figure 6.7 Boundary Conditions

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Chapter 6: Delamination of a Stiffened Composite Panel Under a Compressive Load

The periodic symmetry requires that any node on one cut boundary of the representative model moves in
the same way as the corresponding node at the other cut boundary. The coupling condition (CP) is shown
in (b) in the above figure. APDL scripting is adopted for locating coupled nodal pairs. (See Input Files (p. 83)
for more details.)

An in-plane compressive force of 76666 N in the negative X direction is applied at the pilot node to induce
buckling and debonding.

6.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

A static analysis is performed. Large deflection effects are included (NLGEOM). To achieve a converged
solution with this unstable problem, a constant stabilization energy dissipation ratio equal to 0.1 is included
(STABILIZE).

6.7. Results and Discussion

A converged solution is obtained with the help of the nonlinear stabilization technique.

The energy dissipation ratio is carefully chosen to avoid excessive artificial stabilization energy. As shown
in Figure 6.8 (p. 80), the level of stabilization energy (STEN) is low compared to the total strain energy (SENE)
throughout the simulation; therefore, the validity of the simulation results can be guaranteed. The figure
also shows that the solution becomes increasingly unstable toward the end of simulation. If you encounter
a convergence difficulty, you can increase the energy dissipation ratio to an adequate level; however, valid-
ation of the new energy dissipation ratio is required.

Figure 6.8 Time History Plot of Strain and Stabilization Energies

The buckling of the stiffener and the separation of the skin-flange connection are clearly indicated by the
final deformed shape, shown below.

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 6.7. Results and Discussion

Figure 6.9 Global Deformed Shape (Last Substep)

This highly nonlinear deformation leads to complex overall stress distributions and a number of significant
stress concentrations, as shown below.

Figure 6.10 Equivalent Stress (Last Substep)

The following two figures show the final contact status on the skin and the flange. As expected, debonding
of the skin-flange interface starts at the edges of the imperfection and propagates further into the bonded
areas as the load increases.

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Chapter 6: Delamination of a Stiffened Composite Panel Under a Compressive Load

Figure 6.11 Contact Status at Final Substep

Figure 6.12 Contact Status for the Initial Bonded Contact Region

The figure above shows that the initial sticking status of the large skin-flange interface areas has changed
to open or near-contact status at the final converged stage. The structure may undergo catastrophic failure
and fail to withstand any further load as debonding progresses. In this case, a transient simulation would
be more suitable.

6.8. Recommendations
To perform a similar analysis, keep the following recommendations in mind:

• Consider the SOLSH190 element for modeling general layered composite structures, especially where
contact, variable thickness, 3-D constitutive relations, and/or thin to thick part transitions are present.
• Choose the proper technology (bonded contact or cohesive zone elements) for simulating interface
debonding. In this example, contact with a cohesive zone model simulates the interface debonding.
Another option is available for debonding analysis via interface elements (INTER205 in this case). See
"Interface Delamination and Failure Simulation" in the Structural Analysis Guide for more information
about both methods.
• To ensure a reliable solution, avoid an excessive energy dissipation ratio or mass damping factor in
nonlinear stabilization.

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 6.9. Input Files

6.9. Input Files

The following files were used in this problem:

• delamination.dat -- The input file used in this delamination analysis.

• delamination.cdb -- The common database file used in this analysis, called by the delamina-
tion.dat file.

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-5). See Obtaining the Input Files for more in-
formation.

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Chapter 7: Rocket Nozzle Extension Simulation
This example problem demonstrates how current structural-shell element technology can accurately model
the orthotropic thermal expansion in curved-shell structures.

Section offsets are applied when connecting shell elements to shell elements, or shell elements to other
element types. An appropriate results-storage option is selected for postprocessing the layered-element
solution.

Topics related to this example problem follow:

7.1. Introduction
7.2. Problem Description
7.3. Modeling
7.4. Material Properties
7.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
7.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
7.7. Results and Discussion
7.8. Recommendations
7.9. References
7.10. Input Files

7.1. Introduction
Thermal loading can produce different thermal strains in the in-plane and through-the-thickness directions
in shell structures with orthotropic thermal expansion coefficients. If the structure is curved, this difference
causes shell curvature changes and additional stresses.

Classic shell elements do not account for thickness strains and therefore lack the ability to account for the
orthotropic thermal expansion effect [1 (p. 95)]. Shell element technology that incorporates the thickness
strain in the shell curvature calculation is well suited for this type of simulation.

7.2. Problem Description

A thin-walled rocket nozzle extension with a reinforcing ring is first processed at a higher temperature and
assumed to be stress-free during processing. The extension is then allowed to cool down to the ambient
temperature.

The extension materials exhibit different in-plane and through-the-thickness thermal expansion properties;
therefore, the cooling process may induce significant residual stresses, particularly in parts with large
curvatures.

A linear static analysis is performed to study the residual stresses on the nozzle extension under this uniform
thermal (cooling) load. Special attention is given to the reinforcing ring at the jet exhaust where the highest
stresses are expected.

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Chapter 7: Rocket Nozzle Extension Simulation

7.3. Modeling
The nozzle extension consists of a main curved wall and a reinforcing ring close to the jet exhaust, as shown
in this figure:

Figure 7.1 Nozzle Extension Geometry

Both the wall and the reinforcing ring are made of layered composite materials. To maintain a degree of
simplicity for this example, the model uses a single orthotropic material for all layers; however, the material
orientation varies from layer to layer.

Because the model exhibits symmetry, optimal computational efficiency is achieved by modeling only a
single 1° sector (the base sector) of the entire nozzle extension. The geometry model of the 1° sector is
shown in this figure, where (a) is the global geometry and (b) is a detail view of the reinforcing ring:

Figure 7.2 Nozzle Extension 1° Base Sector Geometry

The reduced 1° geometry model is meshed with SHELL281 elements. The following figures show respectively
the mesh and the expanded solid representation of the shell mesh (/ESHAPE).

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 7.3. Modeling

Figure 7.3 Ring Element Plot

Figure 7.4 Expanded Solid Representation of the Shell Mesh

Using the SHELL281 element's option for improved shell formulation (KEYOPT(2) = 1), the element incorporates
initial curvature effects more accurately. With this option, both shell-membrane and thickness strains are
accounted for in the calculation of effective shell curvature change. This option is essential for capturing
the orthotropic thermal expansion effects in curved shell structures. To properly postprocess a layered
solution, layered data storage is set to store results for the tops and bottoms of all layers (KEYOPT(8) = 1).

Shell sections define the layers of the composite material. (The SECTYPE command specifies the section
type, and the SECDATA command specifies the material, thickness, material orientation, and the number
of integration points of each layer.) Two sections are created, respectively, for the main wall and the reinforcing
ring. The following table summarizes the shell section properties:

Section Layer Thick- Material Material Integration Offset

Number ness Number Orientation Points
0
Section 1 1/4 total 90 Top of the
1 3
(main wall) thickness 0 section
90
0
Section 2 (re- 90
1/4 total Bottom of
inforcing 1 3
thickness 0 the section
ring)
90

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Chapter 7: Rocket Nozzle Extension Simulation

Assume that the reinforcing ring is securely bonded to the outer surface of the main extension wall. The
secure bonding is easily simulated via the use of common nodes at the connection areas between the wall
and the reinforcing ring. (See Figure 7.3 (p. 87).) It is necessary to apply shell offsets, however, so that the
wall and the ring can be properly connected. This example offsets the shell section for the main wall to its
top, and the shell section for the ring to the bottom (SECOFFSET), as shown in this figure:

Figure 7.5 Nozzle Wall and Ring Connection with Shell Offsets

Without the offsets, the shell sections are offset to the midplane by default, leading to an incorrectly over-
lapped model, as shown in this figure:

Figure 7.6 Nozzle Wall and Ring Connection without Shell Offsets

To obtain an accurate reference solution, results are compared to a refined 3-D model with multiple quad-
ratic layered solid elements (SOLID186) through the wall thickness.

7.4. Material Properties

The properties of the single orthotropic material used in the rocket nozzle extension model are as follows:

Orthotropic Material Properties

Young's Modulus in x direc- 100000
tion (MPa)
Young's Modulus in y direc- 5000
tion (MPa)
Young's Modulus in z direc- 5000
tion (MPa)

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 7.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

Orthotropic Material Properties

Poisson’s Ratio PRXY 0.40
Poisson’s Ratio PRYZ 0.30
Poisson’s Ratio PRXZ 0.30
Shear Moduli GXY 3000
Shear Moduli GYZ 2000
Shear Moduli GXZ 2000
Secant coefficient of thermal 1.6E-05
expansion ALPX
Secant coefficient of thermal 1.6E-05
expansion ALPY
Secant coefficient of thermal 6.3E-05
expansion ALPZ

The material is assumed to be linear elastic and temperature-independent. The material has different thermal
expansion coefficients in the in-plane (X and Y) and through-the-thickness (Z) directions.

7.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

Two sets of boundary conditions are applied, as shown in this figure:

Figure 7.7 Nozzle Model Boundary Conditions

The first set of conditions (a) constrains rigid body motions while allowing free radial wall expansion. The
second set of conditions (b) provides necessary symmetry constraints on this reduced sector model.

For the symmetry constraints to work properly, nodal degrees of freedom must be rotated to the cylindrical
coordinate system.

Only thermal loads are considered in this simulation. The uniform cooling of 1600K is specified via the uniform
temperature command (TUNIF).

7.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

A linear static analysis is performed.

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Chapter 7: Rocket Nozzle Extension Simulation

7.7. Results and Discussion

The deformation results from the reference 3-D model (a) and the SHELL281 shell model (b) are shown in
this figure:

The maximum displacement for the shell model (26.704) nearly matches the reference value (26.667), with
an error of only 0.14%.

As expected, the highest stresses caused by the thermal load appear in the reinforcing ring, which has the
largest curvature and curvature variation. Distributions of all three normal stress components (X - radial, Y
- hoop, and Z - axial) agree closely with the reference results, as shown in the following three figures, where
(a) refers to the reference 3-D model and (b) refers to the shell model:

Figure 7.8 Nozzle Radial (X) Stress

Figure 7.9 Nozzle Hoop (Y) Stress

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 7.7. Results and Discussion

Figure 7.10 Nozzle Axial (Z) Stress

The following figures compare the detailed stress distributions from the reference model and the shell
model, at both the bottom and top of the reinforcing ring:

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Chapter 7: Rocket Nozzle Extension Simulation

Figure 7.11 Nozzle Radial Stresses (Bottom and Top Sections)

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 7.7. Results and Discussion

Figure 7.12 Nozzle Hoop Stresses (Bottom and Top Sections)

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Chapter 7: Rocket Nozzle Extension Simulation

Figure 7.13 Nozzle Axial Stresses (Bottom and Top Sections)

The generally accurate agreement between the reference and simulation stress results is clearly observable.

There are some small local differences in the stress results, particularly at the areas where the ring connects
with the main extension wall. The discrepancy is noticeable because the problem applies the SHELL281
element, which is based on the plane stress assumption, to a complex 3-D domain.

If the problem were to be simulated with standard shell elements, no residual stresses would be obtained.

The stress contour display on the SHELL281 model with the expanded solid shapes reveals one graphics ir-
regularity: result averaging may fail where the pseudo expanded interelement connectivity does not match,
as shown in the circled area of (b) in Figure 7.10 (p. 91). To overcome this issue, use the (default) simple area
element display option (/ESHAPE,0).

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 7.10. Input Files

7.8. Recommendations
To perform a similar type of analysis, consider the following hints and recommendations:

• Select a suitable shell element for simulating initially curved shell structures. Shell element technology
that incorporates the thickness strain in the shell curvature calculation (such as SHELL281) is well suited
to this type of simulation.
• Apply appropriate section offsets when connecting shell elements to shell elements, or shell elements
to other element types.
• Select the proper results-storage option for postprocessing a layered-element solution.

7.9. References
1. Sach, E. D., G. Fleischmann, W. Ulrich. “Influence of Modeling for Orthotropic Material Properties.” MSC
1999 Aerospace User’s Conference Proceedings.

7.10. Input Files

The following files were used in this problem:

• nozzle.dat -- Input file for the orthotropic thermal expansion analysis.

• nozzle.cdb -- The common database file used in the orthotropic thermal expansion analysis (called
by nozzle.dat).

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-11). See Obtaining the Input Files for more
information.

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Chapter 8: Nuclear Piping System Under Seismic Loading
This example demonstrates the advantages of elbow element technology over traditional shell and pipe
element technology for modeling pipe bends in a typical nuclear piping system.

Topics related to this example problem follow:

8.1. Introduction
8.2. Problem Description
8.3. Modeling
8.4. Material Properties
8.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
8.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
8.7. Results and Discussion
8.8. Recommendations
8.9. References
8.10. Input Files

8.1. Introduction
Nuclear piping systems under seismic loading are typically analyzed in two stages:

1. A transient analysis is performed with a simplified model of the entire piping system to obtain the
global response of the system.
2. Using the global response as the imposed boundary condition, nonlinear static analyses are performed
separately on critical parts to investigate local stress and strain responses over time. The critical parts
are typically modeled with refined 3–D elements.

This conventional global-local analysis method requires the conversion of results between the global and
local models and is usually time-consuming and computationally expensive.

Compared to the straight-pipe segments, curved-pipe bends (elbows) have much greater flexibility and can
therefore develop more significant deformation and stresses. ANSYS, Inc. elbow element technology offers
a simple 1-D geometry (similar to a standard pipe element) and excellent accuracy (matching that of a 3-D
shell element). The elbow can be used directly in both global and local simulation to avoid any cumbersome
global-to-local model and boundary-condition conversion.

8.2. Problem Description

The problem involves a large-scale nuclear piping system consisting of straight pipes, nine elbows, and a
tee:

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Chapter 8: Nuclear Piping System Under Seismic Loading

Figure 8.1 Large-Scale Nuclear Piping System

Not shown in the figure is a 1000 kg mass representing a valve.

The system is supported by nozzles, an anchor, three two-directional supports, a horizontal support, a ver-
tical support and a spring hanger [1 (p. 108)]. The following analyses are performed on the piping system to
study both global and local responses of the system when subjected to seismic loading:

• Modal analysis of the entire piping system

• Nonlinear static analysis of one of the critical elbows of the piping system using elbow element techno-
logy
• Nonlinear static analysis of one of the critical elbows of the piping system using shell element technology

8.3. Modeling
Three models are prepared for this problem:
8.3.1. Global Nuclear Piping System Model
8.3.2. Local Elbow Model Meshed with ELBOW290 Elements
8.3.3. Local Elbow Model Meshed with SHELL281 Elements

8.3.1. Global Nuclear Piping System Model

The entire piping system is examined in this model. Initially, a line diagram of the piping system is created:

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 8.3.1. Global Nuclear Piping System Model

Figure 8.2 Entire Nuclear Piping System Line Diagram

Straight segments are meshed with PIPE289 elements, and elbows are meshed with ELBOW290 elements:

Figure 8.3 Entire Nuclear Piping System Meshed with Pipe and Elbow Elements

An ELBOW290 element key option controls the level of accuracy in cross-sectional deformation. In this case,
KEYOPT(2) = 4 allows general section deformation, including nonuniform radial expansion, ovalization, and
warping.

The average diameter and average thickness of the pipes are assigned to ELBOW290 and PIPE289 elements
(via SECDATA and SECTYPE commands), as follows:
SECTYPE,1,PIPE
SECDATA,Do,T ! Where Do is the outer diameter and T is thickness of the pipe
! In this example, Do = 219.2 mm and T = 10.38 mm
SECNUM,1

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Chapter 8: Nuclear Piping System Under Seismic Loading

Subsequently, to create necessary transition zones from the elbows to straight-pipe segments, the ELBOW
command automatically converts a few PIPE289 elements adjacent to the elbows into ELBOW290 elements,
as follows:
ELBOW,ON,,,

Elbow and pipe elements must have the same pipe section ID for the pipe-to-elbow transition
to occur.

A modal analysis is performed on the global model to obtain the fundamental natural frequency. The result
is compared to the experimental result given in [1 (p. 108)].

8.3.2. Local Elbow Model Meshed with ELBOW290 Elements

The local nonlinear analysis is focused on the elbow between locations labeled A and B in Figure 8.2 (p. 99).

Following is the line diagram of this elbow model:

Figure 8.4 Elbow Model Line Diagram

The model has branches that are 645.2 mm long and an elbow with a radius of 304.8 mm (for a total
centerline length of 950 mm). The diameter of the pipe is 219.2 mm and the wall thickness is 10.38 mm.
The elbow is meshed with ELBOW290 elements:

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 8.3.3. Local Elbow Model Meshed with SHELL281 Elements

Figure 8.5 Elbow Model Meshed with ELBOW290 Elements

Time-varying-displacement boundary conditions, extracted from a transient analysis of the entire piping
system model under seismic loading, are applied at one end of the model. A nonlinear static analysis using
the Chaboche material model is performed on this elbow model to obtain the stress and strain response
over time.

8.3.3. Local Elbow Model Meshed with SHELL281 Elements

An equivalent local 3-D model of the same elbow using SHELL281 elements is used to generate a reference
solution. The 3-D surface representation of the elbow and the refined SHELL281 mesh are shown respectively
in the following figures:

Figure 8.6 Midsurface Geometry of Elbow (SHELL281 Model)

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Chapter 8: Nuclear Piping System Under Seismic Loading

Figure 8.7 Elbow Model Meshed with SHELL281 Elements

Material properties and loadings considered in this model are identical to those of the local ELBOW290
model. A conversion of boundary conditions from the global line mesh to the local 3-D shell mesh is necessary,
however. Time varying displacement boundary conditions are applied to the pilot node at one end of the
model. The pilot nodes are coupled with edge nodes at both ends via contact elements as shown in Figure
8.7 (p. 102).

8.4. Material Properties

A multilinear kinematic hardening material model is used in the analysis of the entire nuclear piping system
(for both modal and transient analyses).

Following are the material properties for the entire system:

Nuclear Piping System Material Properties

Young's Modulus (MPa) 1.89E+05
Poisson's Ratio 0.3
Multilinear Kinematic Hardening Material Model
Strain Stress (MPa)
0.00146 275.942
0.02184 280.14
0.02701 312.55
0.05 379.34

A Chaboche nonlinear kinematic hardening material model is used in the nonlinear static analysis of the elbow
model (for both the ELBOW290 and SHELL281 models).

Following are the material properties for the elbow model:

Elbow Model Material Properties

Young's Modulus (MPa) 2.03E+05
Poisson's Ratio 0.3
Chaboche Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening Mater-
ial Model
Yield Stress (σy) 275.92 MPa

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 8.5.1. Global Nuclear Piping System Model

Elbow Model Material Properties

Material Constant for First 65191.29 MPa
Kinematic Model (c1)
Material Constant for First 1044.83
Kinematic Model (γ1)
Material Constant for Second 14909.91 MPa
Kinematic Model (c2)
Material Constant for Second 177.06
Kinematic Model (γ2)
Material Constant for Third 1653.9 MPa
Kinematic Model (c3)
Material Constant for Third 2.2
Kinematic Model (γ3)

The mass density of the pipe material for all models is 12388 kg / m3. All material properties shown are
taken from Nie.

8.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

Boundary conditions for the three models follow:
8.5.1. Global Nuclear Piping System Model
8.5.2. Local Elbow Model Meshed with ELBOW290 Elements
8.5.3. Local Elbow Model Meshed with SHELL281 Elements

8.5.1. Global Nuclear Piping System Model

To simulate various types of supports in the system, the following boundary conditions and equivalent
loading are applied:

• To simulate the nozzles and anchor supports, the nodes at all three ends of the system are completely
constrained.
• To simulate the three two-directional supports, three nodes are constrained in either the Y and Z direc-
tions or the X an Z directions.
• To simulate a horizontal support and a vertical support, two nodes are constrained respectively in the
X and Z directions.
• A spring hanger support is replaced by an equivalent concentrated force.
• A 1000 kg mass representing a valve is simulated by a MASS21 element.

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Chapter 8: Nuclear Piping System Under Seismic Loading

Figure 8.8 Boundary Conditions of Entire Nuclear Piping System

Internal pressure and gravity load are applied in the model as follows:
SFE,ALL,1,PRES,,10.7 ! P (internal pressure) = 10.7 MPa
ACEL,,,9.8 ! G = 9.8 m/sec^2

8.5.2. Local Elbow Model Meshed with ELBOW290 Elements

One end of this model is fixed in all degree of freedoms and time varying displacements, representing the
seismic loading condition, are applied at the other end of the elbow model, as shown in Figure 8.5 (p. 101).

Cross-section deformation is not allowed at both ends (D). The input file for this model shows the time-
varying-displacement data.

Internal pressure and gravity loads are identical to those applied in the global model.

8.5.3. Local Elbow Model Meshed with SHELL281 Elements

Boundary conditions for this model are identical to those applied on the local elbow model meshed with
ELBOW290 elements. In this model, however, the method for applying displacement-time-history data is
different.

Pilot nodes are created both ends of the model, at the center of the cross-sections. The pilot nodes are
coupled with the edge nodes of the cross-sections via contact pairs. One pilot node is fixed in all degrees
of freedoms and time-varying-displacement data are applied at the other pilot node, as shown in Figure
8.7 (p. 102).

8.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

This example problem involves the following analyses:
8.6.1. Modal Analysis of the Global Piping System Model
8.6.2. Nonlinear Static Analyses of the Local Elbow Models

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 8.7.1. Global Piping System: Modal Analysis Results

8.6.1. Modal Analysis of the Global Piping System Model

A prestressed (PSTRES) modal analysis is conducted on the global model.

Initially, a large-deflection (NLGEOM) static analysis is performed, followed by the prestressed modal analysis
(PSOLVE). The Block Lanczos solver (MODOPT) extracts the first fundamental mode.
PSTRESS,ON
MODOPT,LANB,1
MXPAND,1, , ,0
PSOLVE,EIGLANB

To examine the effect of the prestressed analysis, a modal analysis without prestress effects is performed on
the same model, as follows:
MODOPT,LANB,1
MXPAND,1, , ,0
SOLVE

8.6.2. Nonlinear Static Analyses of the Local Elbow Models

A nonlinear static analysis is performed on both of the local elbow (ELBOW290 and SHELL281) models.

A constant time increment of 5 ms is specified to obtain the stress and strain response over a period of 20
seconds.

Large-deflection effects are included.

Results are stored (in the RST file) for all substeps.

8.7. Results and Discussion

This section examines the results of both the modal analysis of the global piping system and the nonlinear
static analysis of the local elbows:
8.7.1. Global Piping System: Modal Analysis Results
8.7.2. Local Elbow Models: Nonlinear Static Analysis Results

8.7.1. Global Piping System: Modal Analysis Results

Following is a comparison of the fundament natural frequency of entire piping system with the expected
experimental result [1 (p. 108)]:

Fundamental Frequency of Entire Nuclear Piping

System
Modal Analysis Results
Measured Value
With Prestress Ef- Without Prestress in Experiment
fects Effects
6.3 Hz 6 Hz 5.9 - 6.3 Hz

The close agreement between the simulation and the expected results validates the methods used in this
analysis:

• Using PIPE289 and ELBOW290 separately for the straight and curved segments, respectively.
• Defining transition zones (ELBOW) for building the global piping system model.

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Chapter 8: Nuclear Piping System Under Seismic Loading

8.7.2. Local Elbow Models: Nonlinear Static Analysis Results

The final deformed shape of the local ELBOW290 model matches closely with that of the local SHELL281
model, as shown:

Figure 8.9 USUM Plot Comparison: Local ELBOW290 and SHELL281 Models

Von Mises stress and total mechanical strain for both models are shown respectively in the following figures:

Figure 8.10 Von Mises Stress Comparison: Local ELBOW290 and SHELL281 Models

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 8.8. Recommendations

Figure 8.11 Von Mises Strain Comparison: Local ELBOW290 and SHELL281 Models

Again, the close agreement between the stress and strain results from the two models is apparent.

Following is a comparison of the local ELBOW290 and SHELL281 elbow models in terms of computational
efficiency:

ELBOW290 Loc- SHELL281 Local

al Elbow Model Elbow Model
Number of elements in the FEA 100 3009
model
Simulation time required 23,706 sec 44,346 sec
Disk usage 27 GB 71 GB

Simulation time for the ELBOW290 model is approximately 46 percent less than that of the SHELL281 model.
Disk space usage for the ELBOW290 model is approximately 62 percent less than that of the SHELL281
model.

While offering simplicity for line-based modeling, the ELBOW290 element is capable of producing an accurate
global response as well as detailed local solutions for a piping system. ELBOW290 is ideal for modeling bends
in the pipe systems or straight-pipe segments that may undergo significant cross-section deformation.

8.8. Recommendations
To perform a similar type of analysis, consider the following hints and recommendations:

• Results accuracy increases as the number of Fourier terms specified increases.

Computational costs also rise sharply as the number of Fourier terms increases.

The ELBOW290 element's KEYOPT(2) setting controls the number of Fourier terms. See
the element documentation for more information about specifying an appropriate
number of Fourier terms.

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Chapter 8: Nuclear Piping System Under Seismic Loading

• To minimize computational costs, use the PIPE289 element to model straight-pipe segments.

If a straight-pipe segment may be subjected to large cross-sectional deformation, the

ELBOW290 element is a better choice.

• Transition zones (ELBOW) between the curved ELBOW290 and straight PIPE289 elements are generally
desirable for obtaining a smooth solution.
• Because the ELBOW290 element is based on shell theory, its applicability is limited to pipes with thin
to moderately thick walls.

8.9. References
The following references are cited in this example problem:

1. Nie, J. et al. “Nonlinear Seismic Correlation Analysis of the JNES/NUPEC Large-Scale Piping System
Tests.” 2008 ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Division Conference. PVP2008 Proceedings. CD-ROM.
ASME. 2008.

8.10. Input Files

The following input files are used in this problem:

• nuclear_piping_system.dat -- Combined input file for performing the modal and static analyses
of the nuclear piping system.
• input_file_for_time_varying_displacement_boundary_conditions.dat -- The input
file for the time-varying-displacement boundary conditions.
• modal_analysis_whole_nuclear_piping_system.cdb -- The common database file for the
modal analysis on the entire piping system.
• static_analysis_elbow_model_with_ELBOW290.cdb -- The common database file for the
nonlinear static analysis of the elbow model using the ELBOW290 element.
• static_analysis_elbow_model_with_SHELL281.cdb -- The common database file for the
nonlinear static analysis of the elbow model using the SHELL281 element.

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-8). See Obtaining the Input Files for more in-
formation.

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Chapter 9: Brake Squeal Analysis
This example problem shows how to solve a brake squeal problem. Three analysis methods are highlighted:
linear non-prestressed modal, partial nonlinear perturbed modal, and full nonlinear perturbed modal. The
problem demonstrates sliding frictional contact and uses complex eigensolvers to predict unstable modes.

Topics related to this example problem follow:

9.1. Introduction
9.2. Problem Description
9.3. Modeling
9.4. Material Properties
9.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
9.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
9.7. Results and Discussion
9.8. Recommendations
9.9. References
9.10. Input Files

9.1. Introduction
Eliminating brake noise is a classic challenge in the automotive industry. Brake discs develop large and
sustained friction-induced oscillations, referred to simply as brake squeal.

Two common theories describe brake squeal phenomena:

• Stick-Slip Theory -- The self-excited vibration of a brake system occurs when the static friction coefficient
is greater than the sliding friction coefficient. Variable friction forces introduce energy into the system
which is not properly dissipated during the squealing event, resulting in large vibration.
• Mode-Coupling Theory -- When two similar characteristic modes couple with each other, instability is
introduced to the braking system. This instability is caused primarily by improperly selected geometric
parameters.

Both theories attribute brake squeal to variable friction forces at the disc-pad interface.

Brake noise is generally categorized as follows:

• Low-frequency noise -- An example of a low-frequency noise is the “groaning” noise which occurs in
the frequency range between 100 and 1000 Hz. Any noise having a frequency above 1000 Hz is con-
sidered a squeal.
• Low frequency squeal -- This squeal is a result of mode coupling occurring between the out-of-plane
modes of the rotor and the bending modes of the brake pad.
• High frequency squeal -- This squeal is a result of mode coupling occurring between the in-plane modes
of the rotor.

Low- and high-frequency squealing can be determined via complex eigensolvers. The presence of unstable
modes suggests that the geometry parameters and material properties of the braking system should be
modified.

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Chapter 9: Brake Squeal Analysis

For more information, see Brake Squeal (Prestressed Modal) Analysis in the Structural Analysis Guide.

9.2. Problem Description

The following model is a simple brake disc-pad assembly. The disc has a thickness of 10 mm and the brake
pads have a thickness of 15 mm. The inner diameter of the disc is 250 mm and outer diameter is of 350
mm. A prestressed modal analysis is performed on this model using various methods to determine the unstable
modes. A parametric study is then performed to examine the effect of the friction coefficient on the dynamic
stability of the model.

Figure 9.1 Brake Disc-Pad Assembly

9.3. Modeling
This section describes modeling details for the brake disc-pad assembly. The following topics are available:
9.3.1. Understanding the Advantages of Contact Element Technology
9.3.2. Modeling Contact Pairs
9.3.3. Generating Internal Sliding Motion
9.3.4. Meshing the Brake Disc-Pad Model

9.3.1. Understanding the Advantages of Contact Element Technology

Brake squeal problems typically require manual calculations of the unsymmetric terms arising from sources
such as frictional sliding, and then inputting the unsymmetric terms using special elements (such as MATRIX27).
It is a tedious process requiring a matched mesh at the disc-pad interface along with assumptions related
to the amount of area in contact and sliding.

3-D contact elements (CONTA17x) offer a more efficient alternative by modeling surface-to-surface contact
at the pad-disc interface. With contact surface-to-surface contact elements, a matched mesh is unnecessary
at the contact/target surface, and there is no need to calculate the unsymmetric terms.

Contact surface-to-surface elements offer many controls for defining contact pairs, such as the type of contact
surface, algorithm, contact stiffness, and gap/initial penetration effect.

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 9.3.3. Generating Internal Sliding Motion

9.3.2. Modeling Contact Pairs

Frictional surface-to-surface contact pairs with a 0.3 coefficient of friction are used to define contact between
the brake pads and disc to simulate frictional sliding contact occurring at the pad-disc interface. Bonded
surface-to-surface contact pairs are used to define the contact for other components which will be always
in contact throughout the braking operation.

The augmented Lagrange algorithm is used for the frictional contact pairs, as the pressure and frictional
stresses are augmented during equilibrium iterations in such a way that the penetration is reduced gradually.
The augmented Lagrange algorithm also requires fewer computational resources than the standard Lagrange
multiplier algorithm, which normally requires additional iterations to stabilize the contact conditions. The
augmented Lagrange is well suited for modeling general frictional contact, such as the contact between the
brake pad and disc defined in this example.

An internal multipoint constraint (MPC) contact algorithm is used for bonded contact because it ties contact
and target surface together efficiently for solid-solid assembly. The MPC algorithm builds equations internally
based on the contact kinematics and does not require the degrees of freedom of the contact surface nodes,
reducing the wave front size of the equation solver. A contact detection point is made on the Gauss point
for frictional contact pairs, and on the nodal point (normal-to-target surface) for MPC bonded contact pairs.

Figure 9.2 Contact Pair Definition

Frictional contact between pad and disc (left) and bonded contact between other braking components
(right)

9.3.3. Generating Internal Sliding Motion

The CMROTATE command defines constant rotational velocities on the contact/target nodes to generate
internal sliding motion. The specified rotational velocity is used only to determine the sliding direction and
has no effect on the final solution. The element component used should include only the contact or the
target elements that are on the brake disc/rotor. In this example, the target elements are defined on the
disc surface and the contact elements are defined on the pad surface. The target elements attached to the
disc surface are grouped to form a component named E_ROTOR which is then later specified in the CMRO-
TATE command to generate a sliding frictional force.

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Chapter 9: Brake Squeal Analysis

9.3.4. Meshing the Brake Disc-Pad Model

The Sweep method is used to generate a hexahedral dominant mesh of the brake system assembly. Brake
discs, pads and all other associated components are meshed with 20-node structural solid SOLID186 elements
with uniform reduced-integration element technology. The edge sizing tool is used to obtains a refined
mesh at the pad-disc interface to improve the solution accuracy. For problems with a large unsymmetric
coefficient, a finer mesh should be used at the pad-disc interface to accurately predict the unstable modes.
CONTA174 (3-D 8 node surface to surface contact) elements are used to define the contact surface and
TARGE170 (3-D target segment) elements are used to define the target surface. The brake disc-pad assembly
is meshed with total of 60351 nodes and 11473 elements.

Figure 9.3 Meshed Brake Disc-Pad Assembly

9.4. Material Properties

Linear elastic isotropic materials are assigned to all the components of the braking system.

Material Properties
Young's Modulus (Nm-2) 2.0 E+11 Pa
Density 7800 Kg/m3
Poisson's Ratio 0.3

9.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

The inner diameter of the cylinder hub and bolt holes is constrained in all directions. Small pressure loading
is applied on both ends of the pad to establish contact with the brake disc and to include prestress effects.
The displacement on the brake pad surfaces where the pressure loading is applied is constrained in all dir-
ections except axial one (along Z).

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 9.6.1. Linear Non-prestressed Modal Analysis

Figure 9.4 Boundary Conditions (Displacement Constraints and Pressure Loading)

9.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

The analysis settings and solution controls differ depending upon the method used to solve a brake squeal
problem. This section describes three possible methods:
9.6.1. Linear Non-prestressed Modal Analysis
9.6.2. Partial Nonlinear Perturbed Modal Analysis
9.6.3. Full Nonlinear Perturbed Modal Analysis

9.6.1. Linear Non-prestressed Modal Analysis

A linear non-prestressed modal analysis is effective when the stress-stiffening effects are not critical. This
method requires less run time than the other two methods, as Newton-Raphson iterations are not required.
The contact-stiffness matrix is based on the initial contact status.

Following is the general process for solving a brake squeal problem using this method:

1. Perform a linear partial-element analysis with no prestress effects.

Use the unsymmetric Newton-Raphson option (NROPT,UNSYM), recommended for friction-dominated

problems. This option helps to achieve better convergence behavior, resulting in fewer total equilibrium
iterations.

Generate sliding frictional force (CMROTATE) and write the element matrices file needed for the
modal solution (EMATWRITE,YES). One substep is usually sufficient to obtain a partial-element solution.

Obtain the partial-element solution and write the initial contact results to the results file (PSOLVE,EL-
FORM,CNDI).
2. After obtaining the static solution, postprocess the contact results and note the status and sliding
distance of the contact elements (PLESOL,CONT,STAT).

The status of the contact elements helps the user to determine whether the contact elements are
sliding (contact status = 2) or not . If no contact elements have a contact status of 2 (sliding), no un-
symmetric terms are present in the problem.

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Chapter 9: Brake Squeal Analysis

3. Enter the solution processor once again and perform a modal analysis using the QRDAMP or UNSYM
solver (MODOPT).

For this analysis, the UNSYM solver is selected as it is generally more accurate than the QRDAMP
solver. (Guidelines for selecting the eigensolver for brake squeal problems appear in Recommenda-
tions (p. 121).)

Rather than a full solution, obtain a partial solution (PSOLVE,EIGUNSYM) and expand the modes
(PSOLVE,EIGEXP). A partial solution is required, as the unsymmetric matrices created in the static
solution are required to determine the unstable modes.

The frequencies obtained from the modal solution have real and imaginary parts due the presence of an
unsymmetric stiffness matrix. The imaginary frequency reflects the damped frequency, and the real frequency
indicates whether the mode is stable or not. A real eigenfrequency with a positive value indicates an unstable
mode.

The following input fragments show the solution steps involved in this method:

Static Solution
/SOLU
ANTYPE, STATIC ! Perform static solve
OUTRES, ALL, ALL ! Write all element and nodal solution results for each sub step
NROPT, UNSYM ! Specify unsymmetric Newton-Raphson option to solve the problem
EMATWRITE, YES ! Write the element matrices
NSUBS, 1, 1, 1 ! Choose one sub step to perform CMROTATE solve
CMSEL, S, C1_R ! Select the target elements of the disc
CMSEL, A, C2_R
CM, E_ROTOR, ELEM ! Form a component named E_ROTOR with the selected target elements
ALLSEL, ALL
CMROTATE, E_ROTOR, , , 2 ! Rotate the selected element along global Z using CMROTATE command
PSOLVE, ELFROM, CNDI ! Partial-element solution, write initial contact results
FINISH

Modal Solution
/SOLU
ANTYPE, MODAL ! Perform modal solve
MODOPT, UNSYM, 30 ! Use UNSYM to extract 30 modes
MXPAND, 30 ! Expand 30 modes, do not calculate element results
PSOLVE, EIGUNSYM ! Partial solution to calculate Eigen values and Eigen vectors
PSOLVE, EIGEXP ! Expand the Eigen vector solution
FINISH

9.6.2. Partial Nonlinear Perturbed Modal Analysis

A partial nonlinear perturbed modal analysis is used when stress-stiffening has an effect on the final modal
solution. The initial contact conditions are established, and a prestressed matrix is generated at the end of
the first static solution.

Following is the general process for solving a brake squeal problem using this method:

1. Perform a nonlinear, large-deflection static analysis (NLGEOM,ON).

Use the unsymmetric Newton-Raphson method (NROPT,UNSYM).

Specify the restart control points needed for the linear perturbation analysis (RESCONTROL)

Create components for use in the next step.

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 9.6.3. Full Nonlinear Perturbed Modal Analysis

The static solution with external loading establishes the initial contact condition and generates a
prestressed matrix.
2. Restart the previous static solution from the desired load step and substep, and perform the first phase
of the perturbation analysis while preserving the .ldhi, .rnnn and .rst files (ANTYPE,STATIC,RE-
START,,,PERTURB).

Initiate a modal linear perturbation analysis (PERTURB,MODAL).

Generate forced frictional sliding contact (CMROTATE), specifying the component names created in
the previous step.

The contact stiffness matrix is based only on the contact status at the restart point.

Regenerate the element stiffness matrix at the end of the first phase of the linear perturbation solution
(SOLVE,ELFORM).
3. Obtain the linear perturbation modal solution using the QRDAMP or UNSYM eigensolver (MODOPT).

If using the QRDAMP eigensolver, you can perform multiple solutions by reusing the Block Lanczos
eigensolution from the prior load steps (QRDOPT,ON).

Expand the modes and postprocess the results (from the .rstp file).

The following input fragments show the solution steps involved with this method:

Static Solution
ANTYPE, STATIC ! Perform static solve
OUTRES, ALL, ALL ! Write all element and nodal solution results for each sub steps
NROPT, UNSYM ! Specify unsymmetric Newton-Raphson option to solve the problem
RESCONTROL,DEFINE,ALL,1 ! Control restart files
NLGEOM, ON ! Activate large deflection
AUTOTS, ON ! Auto time stepping turned on
TIME, 1.0 ! End time = 1.0 sec
CMSEL,S,C1_R ! Select target elements of the disc
CMSEL,A,C2_R
CM,E_ROTOR,ELEM ! Form a component named E_ROTOR
SOLVE ! Solve with prestress

Perturbed Modal Solution

ANTYPE,STATIC,RESTART,,,PERTURB ! Restart from last load step and sub step
PERTURB,MODAL ! Perform linear perturbation modal solve
CMROT,E_ROTOR,,,2 ! Rotate the target element to generate sliding frictional contact
SOLVE,ELFORM ! Regenerate the element stiffness matrix

MODOPT,UNSYM,30 ! Use UNSYM eigensolver and extract 30 modes

MXPAND,30 ! Expand 30 modes
SOLVE ! Solve linear perturbation modal solve

9.6.3. Full Nonlinear Perturbed Modal Analysis

A full nonlinear perturbed modal analysis is the most accurate method for modeling the brake squeal
problem. This method uses Newton-Raphson iterations for both of the static solutions.

Following is the general process for solving a brake squeal problem using this method:

1. Perform a nonlinear, large-deflection static analysis (NLGEOM,ON).

Use the unsymmetric Newton-Raphson method (NROPT,UNSYM).

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Chapter 9: Brake Squeal Analysis

Specify the restart control points needed for the linear perturbation analysis (RESCONTROL).
2. Perform a full second static analysis.

Generate sliding contact (CMROTATE) to form an unsymmetric stiffness matrix.

3. After obtaining the second static solution, postprocess the contact results.

Determine the status (that is, whether the elements are sliding, and the sliding distance, if any).
4. Restart the previous static solution from the desired load step and substep, and perform the first phase
of the perturbation analysis while preserving the .ldhi, .rnnn and .rst files (ANTYPE,STATIC,RE-
START,,,PERTURB).

Initiate a modal linear perturbation analysis (PERTURB,MODAL).

Regenerate the element stiffness matrix at the end of the first phase of the linear perturbation solution
(SOLVE,ELFORM).
5. Obtain the linear perturbation modal solution using the QRDAMP or UNSYM eigensolver (MODOPT).

If using the QRDAMP eigensolver, you can perform multiple solutions by reusing the Block Lanczos
eigensolution from the prior load steps (QRDOPT,ON).

Expand the modes and postprocess the results (from the .rstp file).

The following input fragments show the solution steps involved with this method:

First Static Solution

ANTYPE, STATIC ! Perform static solve
OUTRES, ALL, ALL ! Write all element and nodal solution results for each substep
NROPT, UNSYM ! Specify unsymmetric Newton-Raphson option to solve the problem
RESCONTROL,DEFINE,ALL,1 ! Control restart files
NLGEOM, ON ! Activate large deflection
AUTOTS, ON ! Auto time stepping turned on
TIME, 1.0 ! End time = 1.0 sec
SOLVE ! Solve with prestress loading

Second Static Solution

CMSEL, S, C1_R ! Select the target elements of the disc
CMSEL, A, C2_R
CM, E_ROTOR, ELEM ! Form a component named E_ROTOR with the selected target elements
ALLSEL, ALL
CMROTATE, E_ROTOR, , , 2 ! Rotate the selected element along global Z using CMROTATE command
TIME, 2.0 ! End time = 2.0sec
SOLVE ! Perform full solve
FINISH

Perturbed Modal Solution

ANTYPE,STATIC,RESTART,,,PERTURB ! Restart from last load step and sub step
PERTURB,MODAL ! Perform linear perturbation modal solve
SOLVE,ELFORM ! Regenerate the element stiffness matrix

MODOPT,UNSYM,30 ! Use UNSYM eigensolver and extract 30 modes

MXPAND,30 ! Expand 30 modes
SOLVE ! Solve linear perturbation modal solve

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 9.7. Results and Discussion

9.7. Results and Discussion

The unstable mode predictions for the brake disc-pad assembly using all three methods were very close
due to the relatively small prestress load. The linear non-prestressed modal solution predicted unstable
modes at 6474 Hz, while the other two solution methods predicted unstable modes at 6470 Hz.

The mode shape plots for the unstable modes suggest that the bending mode of the pads and disc have
similar characteristics. These bending modes couple due to friction, and produce a squealing noise.

Figure 9.5 Mode Shape for Unstable Mode (Mode 21) Obtained from the Linear Non-prestressed
Modal Solution

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Chapter 9: Brake Squeal Analysis

Figure 9.6 Mode Shape for Unstable Mode (Mode 22) Obtained from the Linear Non-prestressed
Modal Solution

Table 9.1 Solution Output

Linear non-prestressed Partial nonlinear per- Full nonlinear perturbed
modal turbed modal modal
Mode Imaginary Real Imaginary Real Imaginary Real
1.00 775.91 0.00 775.73 0.00 775.73 0.00
2.00 863.54 0.00 863.45 0.00 863.45 0.00
3.00 1097.18 0.00 1097.03 0.00 1097.03 0.00
4.00 1311.54 0.00 1311.06 0.00 1311.06 0.00
5.00 1328.73 0.00 1328.07 0.00 1328.07 0.00
6.00 1600.95 0.00 1600.66 0.00 1600.66 0.00
7.00 1616.15 0.00 1615.87 0.00 1615.87 0.00
8.00 1910.50 0.00 1910.50 0.00 1910.50 0.00
9.00 2070.73 0.00 2070.44 0.00 2070.44 0.00
10.00 2081.26 0.00 2080.98 0.00 2080.98 0.00
11.00 2676.71 0.00 2675.23 0.00 2675.23 0.00
12.00 2724.05 0.00 2722.61 0.00 2722.61 0.00
13.00 3373.96 0.00 3373.32 0.00 3373.32 0.00
14.00 4141.64 0.00 4141.45 0.00 4141.45 0.00
15.00 4145.16 0.00 4145.04 0.00 4145.04 0.00
16.00 4433.91 0.00 4431.08 0.00 4431.08 0.00

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 9.7.1. Determining the Modal Behavior of Individual Components

Linear non-prestressed Partial nonlinear per- Full nonlinear perturbed

modal turbed modal modal
17.00 4486.50 0.00 4484.00 0.00 4484.00 0.00
18.00 4668.51 0.00 4667.62 0.00 4667.62 0.00
19.00 4767.54 0.00 4766.95 0.00 4766.95 0.00
20.00 5241.61 0.00 5241.38 0.00 5241.38 0.00
21.00 6474.25 21.61 6470.24 21.90 6470.24 21.90
22.00 6474.25 -21.61 6470.24 -21.90 6470.24 -21.90
23.00 6763.36 0.00 6763.19 0.00 6763.19 0.00
24.00 6765.62 0.00 6765.51 0.00 6765.51 0.00
25.00 6920.64 0.00 6919.64 0.00 6919.64 0.00
26.00 6929.25 0.00 6929.19 0.00 6929.19 0.00
27.00 7069.69 0.00 7066.72 0.00 7066.72 0.00
28.00 7243.80 0.00 7242.71 0.00 7242.71 0.00
29.00 8498.41 0.00 8493.08 0.00 8493.08 0.00
30.00 8623.76 0.00 8616.68 0.00 8616.68 0.00

9.7.1. Determining the Modal Behavior of Individual Components

It is important to determine the modal behavior of individual components (disc and pads) when predicting
brake squeal noise. A modal analysis performed on the free pad and free disc model gives insight into po-
tential coupling modes. The natural frequency and mode shapes of brake pads and disc can also be used
to define the type of squeal noise that may occur in a braking system. Bending modes of pads and disc are
more significant than twisting modes because they eventually couple to produce squeal noise.

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Chapter 9: Brake Squeal Analysis

Figure 9.7 Mode Shape of Free Disc (6343 Hz)

Figure 9.8 Mode Shape of Free Pad (6640 Hz)

An examination of the results obtained from the modal analysis of a free disc and pad shows that the second
bending mode of the pad and ninth bending mode of the disc can couple to create dynamic instability in

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 9.8. Recommendations

the system. The second bending mode of the pad has a frequency of 6639 Hz and the ninth bending mode
of the disc has a frequency of 6342 Hz. These pad and disc bending modes can couple to produce an inter-
mediate lock, resulting in a squeal noise at a frequency close to 6470 Hz.

9.7.2. Parametric Study with Increasing Friction Coefficient

A parametric study was performed on the brake disc model using a linear non-prestressed modal solution
with an increasing coefficient of friction.

The following plot suggests that modes with similar characteristics approach each other and couple as the
coefficient of friction increases.

Figure 9.9 Effect of Friction Coefficient on Unstable Modes

9.8. Recommendations
The following table provides guidelines for selecting the optimal analysis method to use for a brake squeal
problem:

Analysis Meth- Benefits Costs

od
Linear non- Fast run time Accuracy
prestressed
modal No convergence issues Does not include prestress ef-
fects
Good method for performing
parametric studies
Partial nonlinear No convergence issues Accuracy
perturbed modal
Includes prestress effects

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Chapter 9: Brake Squeal Analysis

Analysis Meth- Benefits Costs

od
Full nonlinear Accurate Longer run time
perturbed modal
Includes prestress effects Convergence issues

The following table provides guidelines for selecting the optimal eigensolver (MODOPT) for obtaining the
brake squeal solution:

Eigensolver Benefits Costs

QRDAMP Fast run time Accuracy, as it approximates the unsym-
metric stiffness matrix
An excellent solver for performing
parametric studies Not recommended when the number
of elements contributing to unsymmet-
ric stiffness matrix exceeds 10 percent
of the total number of elements in the
model
UNSYM Accuracy, as it uses the full unsymmet- Long run time when many modes are
ric stiffness matrix to solve the problem extracted

For further information, see Brake Squeal Analysis in the Structural Analysis Guide.

9.9. References
The following references are cited in this example problem:

1. Triches M., Jr, S.N.Y. Gerges, R. Jordon. “Reduction of Squeal Noise from Disc Brake Systems Using
Constrained Layer Damping.” Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering.
Volume XXVI: 340–343. July-September 2004.
2. Allgaier, R. et al. “Mode Lock-In and Friction Modeling.” Computational Methods in Contact Mechanics
IV. 35-47. WIT Press: Southampton (1999).
3. Schroth, R., N. Hoffmann, R. Swift. Mechanism of Brake Squeal--From Theory to Experimentally Measured
Mode Coupling. Robert Bosch, Corporate Research and Development, Germany.

9.10. Input Files

The following input files were used for this problem:

• linear_non_prestressed.dat -- Linear non-prestressed modal solve input file

• partial_prestressed.dat -- Partial prestressed modal solve input file
• full_non_linear.dat -- Full nonlinear prestressed modal solve input file
• disc_pad_model.cdb-- Common database file used for the linear non-prestressed modal analysis,
the partial prestressed modal analysis, and the full nonlinear prestressed modal analysis (called by the
linear_non_prestressed.dat, partial_prestressed.dat, and full_non_linear.dat
files, respectively).

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-1). See Obtaining the Input Files for more in-
formation.

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Chapter 10: Calibrating and Validating a Hyperelastic Constitutive
Model
This example problem demonstrates the hyperelastic curve-fitting capabilities used to select constitutive
model parameters to fit experimental data. Several issues that influence the accuracy of the curve fit are
discussed. Validation of the resulting constitutive model is demonstrated by comparison with a tension-
torsion experiment.

Topics related to this example problem follow:

10.1. Introduction
10.2. Problem Description
10.3. Material Properties
10.4. Analysis and Solution Controls
10.5. Results and Discussion
10.6. Recommendations
10.7. References and Acknowledgements
10.8. Input Files

10.1. Introduction
Several hyperelastic constitutive models can be used to model the large deformation behavior of elastic
materials; however, it is sometimes difficult to select parameters to adequately match the behavior of the
material. The curve-fitting process fits the hyperelastic constitutive model parameters to a set of experimental
data using a least-squares minimization.

Curve fitting is relatively simple, but certain conditions can affect the accuracy of the resulting constitutive
model. The constitutive model should therefore be compared with experimental data to ensure that it ad-
equately reproduces the material behavior over the actual range of deformation.

10.2. Problem Description

A constitutive model is needed that matches the behavior of a vulcanized natural rubber material up to 100
percent engineering strain in a variety of deformation modes.

In this problem, the experimental data are obtained from a simulation of a hyperelastic test suite (uniaxial,
biaxial, and planar tension tests) using common experimental test specimens. Using this data, parameters
for a constitutive model are determined using hyperelastic fitting capabilities that focus on use of the three-
, five-, and nine-parameter Mooney-Rivlin hyperelastic models.

After demonstrating the fitting procedure and selecting a suitable constitutive model, a tension-torsion ex-
periment is simulated and compared to the experimental data to validate the predictions for the model.

10.3. Material Properties

Material properties for the calibration and validation experiments follow:
10.3.1. Calibration Experiments

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Chapter 10: Calibrating and Validating a Hyperelastic Constitutive Model

10.3.2. Validation Experiment

10.3.1. Calibration Experiments

Experimental data was obtained via a simulation of a hyperelastic test suite with an Ogden hyperelastic
material. The test suite specimens are shown here, with the dark areas indicating locations of the clamps:

Figure 10.1 Hyperelastic Test Suite: Test Specimens

The engineering-stress vs. engineering-strain results are as follows:

Figure 10.2 Hyperelastic Test Suite: Experimental Data

The uniaxial specimen is similar to ASTM D412-C (ASTM Standard D412, 2006).

The crosshead is displaced by 396 mm, giving a measured engineering strain in the gage section of 662
percent and a calculated engineering stress of 58.1 MPa.

The equibiaxial specimen is disc-shaped, with 16 equally spaced tabs about the circumference. The tabs are
stretched 127.3 mm, resulting in a measured engineering strain in the gage section of 336 percent and a
calculated engineering stress of 22.1 MPa.

For the planar specimen, the crosshead is displaced by 191.6 mm, giving a calculated engineering strain of
639 percent and a calculated engineering stress of 54.7 MPa.

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 10.4.1. Calibrating Parameters

10.3.2. Validation Experiment

A simulated tension-torsion experiment was performed on a thin strip. The specimen is similar to that specified
in ASTM D1043 (ASTM Standard D1043, 2006) and is shown here:

Figure 10.3 Tension-Torsion Test Specimen

The experiment consists of clamping each end of the specimen into the test apparatus, then stretching the
specimen by 50 percent of its original gage length and twisting one end of the specimen for four complete
revolutions. Following is the resulting moment-vs.-rotation data:

Figure 10.4 Tension-Torsion Experimental Data

10.4. Analysis and Solution Controls

Analysis and solution-control information for calibration and validation follow:
10.4.1. Calibrating Parameters
10.4.2. Validating Parameters

10.4.1. Calibrating Parameters

Material parameter calibration occurs using the curve-fitting tool.

The command input shown here is for illustrative purposes only. While curve fitting can be done using
command input, ANSYS, Inc. recommends using the graphical user interface (GUI) to perform the curve
fitting, or at least visually validating the results using the GUI to ensure a sound fit.

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Chapter 10: Calibrating and Validating a Hyperelastic Constitutive Model

Following is an input example of the commands used to fit a hyperelastic constitutive model to a set of
uniaxial stress-strain data:
/PREP7
TBFT,FADD,1,HYPER,MOONEY,3
TBFT,EADD,1,UNIA,UNIAX.LOG
TBFT,SOLVE,1,HYPER,MOONEY,3
TBFT,FSET,1,HYPER,MOONEY,3

The TBFT,FADD command initializes the curve-fitting procedure for a hyperelastic, three-parameter, Mooney-
Rivlin model assigned to material identification number 1.

TBFT,EADD reads the uniaxial experimental data in the uniax.log file as the fitting data for material
number 1. The experimental data in the file is a set of engineering-strain vs. engineering-stress input:
0.819139E-01 0.82788577E+00
0.166709E+00 0.15437247E+01
0.253960E+00 0.21686152E+01
0.343267E+00 0.27201819E+01
0.434257E+00 0.32129833E+01
0.526586E+00 0.36589498E+01
0.619941E+00 0.40677999E+01
0.714042E+00 0.44474142E+01
0.808640E+00 0.48041608E+01
0.903519E+00 0.51431720E+01
0.998495E+00 0.54685772E+01
0.109341E+01 0.57836943E+01

TBFT,SOLVE determines the three constitutive parameters for the Mooney-Rivlin model, minimizing the
difference between the model and the experimental data.

TBFT,FSET assigns the fitted constitutive parameters to material number 1.

For this problem, the fitted parameters for the three-parameter Mooney-Rivlin model are:

C10 = 1.338856
C01 = 5.236214 x 10-1
C11 = - 1.648364 x 10-2

10.4.2. Validating Parameters

Following is a mesh developed to simulate the torsion experiment to validate the fitted constitutive model
parameters obtained in Calibrating Parameters (p. 125):

Figure 10.5 Tension-Torsion Test Specimen Mesh

The mesh consists of 1,332 SOLID186 elements using the default formulation (a mixed-displacement pressure
formulation with reduced integration).

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 10.5.1. Calibration Results

The attachment of the test specimen to the test apparatus is simulated by boundary conditions applied to
the specimen in the region of the clamps, as described here:

• The back-left clamp region is fully restrained.

• The back-right clamp region is attached to a rigid-contact surface and fixed in place.
• The front-left clamp region is attached to a rigid-contact surface and displaced in the z direction to
simulate a clamping displacement equal to 25 percent of the specimen thickness. The same is true for
the front-right clamp region.

The stretching to 50 percent engineering strain is simulated by displacing the rigid-contact surfaces attached
to the right clamp regions while holding left clamp regions fixed.

The torsion of the specimen is simulated by holding the left clamp region in place and twisting the keypoints
attached to the right contact surfaces about the longitudinal axis.

10.5. Results and Discussion

Results for the calibration and validation operations are discussed below:
10.5.1. Calibration Results
10.5.2. Validation Results

10.5.1. Calibration Results

Using all of experimental data shown in Figure 10.2 (p. 124) to fit the three-, five-, and nine-parameter Mooney-
Rivlin models results in the following parameters, fit to the entire range of experimental data:

Three-Paramet- Five-Parameter Nine-Parameter

er
C10 1.8785 1.4546 1.7095
-2 -2
C01 -5.7759 x 10 7.6677 x 10 5.6365 x 10-2
C20 --- 1.3484 x 10-2 -1.2088 x 10-2
C11 1.9589 x 10-3 -4.4337 x 10-3 3.7099 x 10-5
C02 --- 2.3997 x 10-4 -4.6858 x 10-4
C30 --- --- 3.5202 x 10-4
C21 --- --- 6.0562 x 10-6
C12 --- --- 1.9666 x 10-5
C03 --- --- -8.9997 x 10-7
µ 3.6415 3.0625 3.5318

The following figure is a comparison of the models to the experimental data:

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Chapter 10: Calibrating and Validating a Hyperelastic Constitutive Model

Figure 10.6 Comparison of the Data and Fits Over the Entire Range of Data

Thus far, it is obvious that none of the models provide a suitable fit to the entire range of experimental data.
The reason is that the least-squares fitting procedure is minimizing the error over the entire range of data;
therefore, it can be detrimental to include data that is not representative of the actual range of use.

If the experimental data range is limited to about 100 percent strain, however, the fitted parameters shown
in the following table are obtained:

Three-Paramet- Five-Parameter Nine-Parameter

er
C10 1.6540 1.7874 1.8904
-1 -2
C01 1.2929 x 10 5.7229 x 10 -3.6352 x 10-2
C20 --- -5.8765 x 10-2 -2.3484 x 10-1

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 10.5.1. Calibration Results

Three-Paramet- Five-Parameter Nine-Parameter

er
C11 -1.2726 x 10-2 2.6843 x 10-2 2.6511 x 10-1
C02 --- -5.1127 x 10-3 -6.8670 x 10-2
C30 --- --- 5.1742 x 10-2
C21 --- --- -8.3262 x 10-2
C12 --- --- 3.6204 x 10-2
C03 --- --- -4.3754 x 10-3
µ 3.5665 3.6892 3.7081

The following figure is a comparison of the models with the parameters fit to the modified experimental
data:

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Chapter 10: Calibrating and Validating a Hyperelastic Constitutive Model

Figure 10.7 Parameters Fit to Experimental Data to About 100 Percent Strain

For the equibiaxial and planar experiments, any of the three models might be acceptable; however, the
comparison with the uniaxial data might indicate that none of the three models are acceptable.

The behavior of the model outside the fitted range can significantly differ from the actual response of the
material. For example, the model parameters fit to the experimental data to 100 percent strain have been
used to simulate the hyperelastic test suite to strains of about 200 percent, as shown in the following com-
parisons:

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 10.5.2. Validation Results

Figure 10.8 Comparison of the Data and Fits Showing Predictions Outside the Range of Fitted
Data

Beyond 100 percent strain, it becomes apparent that some of the predictions quickly deteriorate. In all three
comparisons, the nine-parameter model quickly loses accuracy, and it appears that the three- and nine-
parameter Mooney-Rivlin models have lost stability for the biaxial deformation case.

10.5.2. Validation Results

The five-parameter Mooney-Rivlin model, fit to the experimental data up to 100 percent strain, is selected
as an adequate representation of the material response. The constitutive model is specified via the following
input:
C10 = 1.787381e+00
C01 = 5.722875e-02
C20 =-5.876502e-02
C11 = 2.684331e-02

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Chapter 10: Calibrating and Validating a Hyperelastic Constitutive Model

C02 =-5.112790e-03
TB,HYPER,1,,5,MOONEY
TBDATA,1,C10,C01,C20,C11,C02

The following figure shows a contour plot of the strain energy density at the end of simulation. The plot
offers a general idea of the overall deformation of the specimen.

Figure 10.9 Strain-Energy Density Contours of the Tension-Torsion Test

With the exception of the clamp regions, the deformation shows a uniform pattern in the gage region along
the axis of twisting. Perpendicular to the axis of twisting is a large strain-energy density near the outside
edge of the specimen, decreasing toward the center.

The following figure shows a comparison of the model with the experimental moment vs. theta data:

Figure 10.10 Comparison of Tension-Torsion Experiment to the Five-Parameter Mooney-Rivlin

Model

After a seemingly anomalous first data point, the error between the simulation and experiment is in the
range of 2 to 4 percent. Throughout the entire simulation, the five-parameter Mooney-Rivlin model predicts
a higher moment for an equivalent twist, which is not entirely expected by the error plots for the hypere-
lastic test suite comparisons; nevertheless, a maximum four percent error appears to be a reasonable margin
of error for this simulation.

10.6. Recommendations
When performing a similar type of calibration and validation, consider the following recommendations:

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 10.8. Input Files

• Obtain test data from at least two (and preferably all three) of the experiments in the hyperelastic test
suite.
• Ensure that the test data covers the range of deformation over which the constitutive model will be
used.
• If the error between the experimental data and the constitutive model is too great, try limiting the ex-
perimental data to the range of deformation over which the constitutive model will be used.
• Use the constitutive model within the range of fitted data only.
• Use an independent experiment to validate that the constitutive model adequately matches the mater-
ial behavior.

10.7. References and Acknowledgements

The following references are cited in this example problem:

1. ASTM Standard D1043. Standard Test Method for Stiffness Properties of Plastics as a Function of Temper-
ature by Means of a Torsion Test. ASTM International. West Conshohocken. 2006.
2. ASTM Standard D412. Standard Test Methods for Vulcanized Rubber and Thermoplastic Elastomers-Tension.
ASTM International. West Conshohocken. 2006.

10.8. Input Files

The following files were used in this problem:

• tension_torsion.dat -- Tension-torsion simulation input file.

• tension_torsion.cdb -- The common database file containing the model information for this
problem (called by tension_torsion.dat ).

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-15). See Obtaining the Input Files for more
information.

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Chapter 11: Reliability Study of a Composite Overwrapped Pressure
Vessel
This example problem is a reliability study of a composite overwrapped pressure vessel (COPV). The model
uses reinforcing fibers in a layered composite. A finite-element simulation of a COPV is performed first to
gain insight into its mechanical behaviors, then simulation results are processed using failure analysis to
determine the most vulnerable layer. The problem generates linearized stress output for pressure-vessel
design optimization and code compliance.

Topics related to this example problem follow:

11.1. Introduction
11.2. Problem Description
11.3. Modeling
11.4. Material Properties
11.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
11.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
11.7. Results and Discussion
11.8. Recommendations
11.9. References
11.10. Input Files

11.1. Introduction
Composite overwrapped pressure vessels (COPVs) are manufactured by filament winding, a process involving
a continuous application of high-stiffness fibers over a thin metal shell (liner). For their excellent corrosion
resistance and high strength-to-mass ratios, COPVs are commonly used for critical applications (such as
deep-sea and space missions).

A typical COPV usually contains numerous fiber-reinforced layers and exhibits a complex overall material
orthotropy. The material properties may undergo significant changes due to fiber realignment when the
COPV is under intense operational load. The material properties and their load-dependent variations are
difficult to obtain by experimental means; therefore, finite-element simulations are often conducted by de-
signers and researchers to gain insight into the mechanical behaviors of COPVs.

Further processing of the simulation result is often performed to:

• assess the reliability of the COPV,

• optimize its design, or
• ensure compliance to codes and standards.

11.2. Problem Description

A COPV is subjected to a uniform internal pressure and a temperature field with a constant through-the-wall
gradient.

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Chapter 11: Reliability Study of a Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessel

A nonlinear static analysis is performed to obtain stress and strain results of all layers under large-deformation
conditions.

Failure criteria (FC) analysis and stress linearization are conducted based on the simulation results.

11.3. Modeling
The pressure vessel consists of a cylindrical main tank, and an inlet and an outlet at each end of the tank,
as shown below:

Figure 11.1 COPV Geometry

The tank wall has a composite construction of one homogenous aluminum alloy liner and four T800/EPOXY
fiber-reinforced layers. The inlet and outlet are made of aluminum alloy only. Due to the symmetry, only
one-eighth of the entire geometry is modeled (shown by (b) in the above figure).

For this problem, the composite wall is modeled as two distinct components:

• One isotropic matrix component containing the liner and all bonding material (resin) in the reinforced
layers
• Another fiber component representing all reinforcing fibers.

The modeling approach described allows one to independently study the failure limits of the matrix and
fiber components based on their own strength characteristics.

The shell element SHELL281 is used for meshing the matrix component. The element's improved shell-for-
mulation option is activated (KEYOPT(2) = 1); the option typically generates more accurate through-the-
thickness stress/strain distributions.

The SHELL281 mesh is shown by (a) in the following figure:

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 11.3. Modeling

Figure 11.2 COPV Mesh

The layup of the matrix material is defined using shell sections. Following are the section properties, including
material IDs, layer thickness, material orientation (irrelevant if the material is isotropic), and the number of
layer integration points:

Section Layer Thick- Material ID Material Integration

ness Orientation Points
Angle
1.9e-3 1 0 3
1 (main 0.1e-3 2 0 3
tank 0.1e-3 2 0 3
wall) 0.1e-3 2 0 3
0.1e-3 2 0 3
2 (inlet / 1.9e-3 1 0 3
outlet
wall)

For proper internal pressure application, the shell sections are offset to the bottom (SECOFFSET).

It is assumed that the fibers in each reinforced layer have a unique cross-section area, material property,
spacing, and orientation; therefore, a smeared reinforcing approach is used. With smeared reinforcing, the
fibers are represented by an equivalent homogenous layer (instead of the fibers being modeled individually).
The smeared approach allows for better computational efficiency. The smeared reinforcing element used is
REINF265. The fiber properties (material, cross section area, spacing, orientation, and location) are defined
via the reinforcing section using the smear subtype (SECTYPE,REINF,SMEAR), as follows:

Reinforcing Material ID Fiber Cross- Distance Fiber Orient- Layer Loca-

Layer # Section Between ation Angle tion in Base
Area Two Adja- Element
cent Fibers
1 3 0.5e-4 1.0 45 2
2 3 0.5e-4 1.0 -45 3
3 3 0.5e-4 1.0 45 4
4 3 0.5e-4 1.0 -45 5

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Chapter 11: Reliability Study of a Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessel

The expanded solid display (/ESHAPE) of both SHELL281 (shown in translucency) and the embedded REINF265
elements is shown by (b) in Figure 11.2 (p. 137).

11.4. Material Properties

The material properties of the liner are as follows:

Material Properties: Aluminum Liner

Young's Modulus in x direc- 72.0e9
tion (MPa)
Poisson's ratio PRXY 0.29
Secant coefficients of thermal 5.0e-6
expansion

The material properties of the bonding matrix and reinforcing fibers are as follows:

Material Properties: Bonding Matrix Reinforcing Fibers

Young's Modulus in x direc- 8.82e9 161.3e9 - 8.82e9
tion (MPa)
Young’s Modulus in y direc- 8.82e9 ---
tion (MPa)
Young’s Modulus in z direc- 8.82e9 ---
tion (MPa)
Poisson’s Ratio PRXY 0.33 ---
Poisson’s Ratio PRYZ 0.33 ---
Poisson’s Ratio PRXZ 0.33 ---
Secant coefficient of thermal --- 1e-6
expansion ALPX

The fibers have a one-dimensional constitutive relation and are significantly stiffer than the bonding mater-
ial. For simplicity, it is assumed that all materials in this problem are linear-elastic and temperature-independ-
ent.

11.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

Symmetry boundary conditions with respect to the global XY plane are applied to the BC edge, as shown
by (a) in the following figure:

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 11.7. Results and Discussion

Figure 11.3 COPV Boundary Conditions

To compensate for the asymmetric section construction, cyclic symmetry conditions (CP) are applied for
coupling degrees of freedom (DOFs) at the AB edge with the corresponding DOFs at the CD edge (shown
by (b) in the above figure).

A uniform pressure of 13.79e6 Pa is applied to the inner surface of the vessel.

A uniform temperature of 1000° is applied to the inner surface. A 500° temperature gradient is allowed
through the wall thickness, resulting in a temperature of 500° at the outer surface.

The temperature at each base shell layer is specified via the BFE command. See the SHELL181 element
documentation for more information about defining layered temperature loading.

Temperatures on the reinforcing fibers are automatically determined according to their locations in the shell
elements.

11.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

A nonlinear static analysis is performed.

The large-deflection option is activated (NLGEOM).

The analysis accounts for fiber realignment.

11.7. Results and Discussion

The overall deformation of the vessel is shown in the following figure:

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Chapter 11: Reliability Study of a Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessel

Figure 11.4 COPV Total Displacement

The deformation is uniform in the hoop direction; however, a significantly nonuniform pattern is apparent
in the meridian direction.

A detailed through-the-wall strain distribution in the matrix component is shown in this figure:

Figure 11.5 COPV Thickness Strain

The improved shell formulation of SHELL181 incorporates the membrane strain effects into the curvature
calculation, leading to a more accurate through-the-wall strain distribution. If the matrix is simulated with
regular shell elements, strains would be largely uniform through the wall thickness.

Material-specific strength limits are defined (FC) for both matrix and fiber components. The failure-criteria
analysis automatically determines the layer with the maximum failure criteria value (or the most vulnerable
layer that is likely to fail first). The layer number and failure-criteria value/type of the most vulnerable layer
can be listed and plotted (via standard postprocessing listing and visualization commands [PRESOL and
PLESOL]).

The following figure shows that the liner would most likely fail at the inlet, while the bonding material would
likely fail at the fourth layer:

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 11.7. Results and Discussion

Figure 11.6 Layer with Maximum Failure Criteria in Matrix and Fibers

Similarly, according to (b) in the above figure, the fibers would fail first at the first reinforcing layer.

The following figure shows the type of maximum failure criteria on the matrix (a) and fiber (b) components,
respectively:

Figure 11.7 Type of Maximum Failure Criteria in Matrix and Fibers

Based on the value of maximum failure criteria, the tank-to-inlet transition region (b) is easily identified as
the critical location for the reinforcing fibers (shown by (b) in the following figure):

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Chapter 11: Reliability Study of a Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessel

Figure 11.8 Value of Maximum Failure Criterion in Matrix and Fibers

Consistent with the failure criteria analysis results, the fiber strain distribution also shows a spike in this
transition region:

Figure 11.9 Radial Strain Against the Axial Location

The results indicate that a design modification, either in the liner shape or fiber orientation, is necessary to
further strengthen the fibers in this area.

Strains, stresses, and other solution items at the layer of maximum failure criteria can be inspected (LAY-
ER,FCMAX, followed by postprocessing listing and visualization commands [PRESOL and PLESOL]). The
following figure shows the equivalent stresses at the layer of maximum failure criteria in the matrix and fiber
components, respectively:

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 11.7. Results and Discussion

Figure 11.10 Equivalent Stresses at Critical Layer in Matrix and Fibers

Linearized stresses are commonly cited in boiler and pressure vessel codes and standards. The program
computes the linearized stresses, including membrane, bending, and peak stresses, and stores them as the
SMISC quantities for current-technology shell and solid-shell elements. These quantities can be retrieved
during postprocessing (ETABLE or *GET) for further inspection and code-compliance verification. The following
two figures show the membrane and bending stress, respectively, of the matrix component

Figure 11.11 COPV Membrane Stress in the Element X Coordinate Direction

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Chapter 11: Reliability Study of a Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessel

Figure 11.12 COPV Bending Stress in the Element X Coordinate Direction

11.8. Recommendations
To perform a reliability study of a composite overwrapped pressure vessel, consider the following hints and
recommendations:

• Fibers in composite materials can be simulated separately using reinforcing elements. In addition to
the smeared reinforcing element REINF265 used in this study, a discrete reinforcing element REINF264
is also available for modeling individual fibers with arbitrary orientations or nonuniform geometry or
materials.
• Use the FCMX item (and accompanying components) available in the postprocessing listing and visual-
ization commands (PRESOL and PLESOL) to conveniently determine the location, type, and value of
the highest failure criteria.
• Select layers of maximum failure criteria for more standard postprocessing (LAYER,FCMAX).
• Take advantage of the linearized stress output to optimize the design and to check for code compliance.

11.9. References
The following reference was used as the basis of this example problem:

1. Kim, Cheol-Ung et al. “Optimal Design of Filament Wound Structures under Internal Pressure Based
on the Semi-geodesic Path Algorithm.” Composite Structures. 67 (2004): 443-452.

11.10. Input Files

The following files were used in this problem:

• pressure_vessel.dat -- Input file for the reliability study of a composite overwrapped pressure
vessel.
• pressure_vessel.cdb -- The common database file used for this problem, called by pressure_ves-
sel.dat.

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 11.10. Input Files

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-9). See Obtaining the Input Files for more in-
formation.

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Chapter 12: Dynamic Simulation of a Nuclear Piping System Using
RSA Methods
This example problem is a dynamic simulation of a piping network used in a nuclear power generation
system. The problem demonstrates the analyses methods available to account for the effect of higher fre-
quency modes of a structure in a response-spectrum analysis (RSA).

For verification, computational results from the RSA are compared to the full transient analysis results per-
formed on the same model. (In an industrial application, however, a transient analysis approach is computa-
tionally intensive and often impractical for analyzing a nuclear piping network.)

The following features and capabilities are highlighted:

• Use of the missing-mass response to include the responses of the higher modes in the RSA.
• Use of rigid responses (Gupta or Lindley-Yow method) to more accurately combine the modal responses
(consisting of both periodic and rigid-response components).

Topics related to this example problem follow:

12.1. Introduction
12.2. Problem Description
12.3. Modeling
12.4. Material Properties
12.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
12.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
12.7. Results and Discussion
12.8. Recommendations
12.9. References
12.10. Input Files

12.1. Introduction
The response-spectrum analysis (RSA) is a widely used method for studying seismic responses of structures
such as nuclear power plants, boilers, and pressure vessels. The current practice is to calculate only the re-
sponses of the modes having a frequency within the frequency range of the input spectrum.

In some cases, however, the responses of the higher modes may not be negligible. The missing-mass
method is a convenient, computationally efficient, and accurate method used to account for:

• The contribution of all modes with frequencies above fZPA, at which the response spectrum returns to
the Zero Period Acceleration (ZPA).
• The contribution to support reactions of mass apportioned to system-support points.

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Chapter 12: Dynamic Simulation of a Nuclear Piping System Using RSA Methods

Terms Used

The following terms are used in this example problem:

Zero Period Acceleration (ZPA) -- The acceleration value (peak) at zero period (or infinite frequency)
of an input spectrum. It corresponds to the response of a rigid system.

ZPA frequency (fZPA) -- The minimum frequency beyond which the input spectrum curves for various
damping ratios converge towards the same ZPA acceleration.

For frequencies occurring in the amplified region of the response spectrum (f < fZPA), the mode responses
generally have both in-phase (periodic) and out-of phase (rigid-response) components.[2 (p. 161)]

To separate and combine the response components, the methods proposed by Gupta and Lindley-Yow are
applied and the results are compared.[3 (p. 161)] The in-phase modal response components and the missing-
mass contributions are combined algebraically to produce the total in-phase response component. For the
combination of the out-of-phase modal response components, either the Square Root of the Sum of the
Squares (SRSS) method or the Der Kiureghian CQC method is applied.

For more information, see the following resources (in the Theory Reference for the Mechanical APDL and
Mechanical Applications):

• Missing-Mass Response
• Rigid Responses
• Combination of Modes

12.2. Problem Description

The problem uses the BM3 piping system model from an actual nuclear power plant found in the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission’s report.[1 (p. 161)][2 (p. 161)] The model consists of three anchors, three piping sub-
system branches, and elastic supports, as shown in this figure:

Figure 12.1 Full Model of the BM3 Nuclear Piping System

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 12.3.2. Elastic Support Modeling

To measure the influence of each effect and compare the response-component combination methods, seven
single-point response spectrum (SPRS) analyses are performed.

The results of a full-transient (direct time-integration) analysis are used as a baseline.

12.3. Modeling
The following modeling topics are available:
12.3.1. BM3 Piping System Modeling
12.3.2. Elastic Support Modeling

12.3.1. BM3 Piping System Modeling

The straight and curved parts of the BM3 model are meshed with pipe (PIPE289) and elbow (ELBOW290)
elements, respectively:

Figure 12.2 BM3 Model Meshed with PIPE289 and ELBOW290 Elements

The default settings for the PIPE289 and ELBOW290 elements apply.

To more accurately capture the curvature of a bend, it is divided into four parts, and each part is meshed
with ELBOW290.

The section properties (SECTYPE and SECDATA) of the pipe and elbow elements are defined via the following
input:

Branch 1 section properties

SECTYPE,SECID1,PIPE,ctube ! "SECID1" is a user-specified name
SECDATA,3.5,0.216 ! Outside diameter and wall thickness

Branch 2 section properties

SECTYPE,SECID2,PIPE,ctube ! "SECID2" is a user-specified name
SECDATA,4.5,0.2370 ! Outside diameter and wall thickness

Branch 3 section properties

SECTYPE,SECID3,PIPE,ctube ! "SECID3" is a user-specified name
SECDATA,8.625,0.322 ! Outside diameter and wall thickness

12.3.2. Elastic Support Modeling

Each elastic support of the piping system is modeled as a spring element (COMBIN14), as shown in this figure:

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Chapter 12: Dynamic Simulation of a Nuclear Piping System Using RSA Methods

Figure 12.3 Elastic Supports Meshed with COMBIN14 Elements

One-dimensional longitudinal and torsional springs are defined via element key options (KEYOPT(2) = 1
through 6).

12.4. Material Properties

Following are the pipe material properties:

Pipe Material Properties

Branch 1: Density
1.043
(Kg mm-3)
Branch 2: Density
1.107
(Kg mm-3)
Branch 3: Density
1.253
Kg mm-3)
Young's Modulus
2.9e+007
(MPa)
Poisson's Ratio 0.3

Following are the spring properties:

Spring Properties
Direc- Spring Constant
tion (N/m)
UX 1.00E+05
UY 1.00E+08
UZ 1.00E+11
ROT (X,
1.00E+20
Y, Z)

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 12.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

12.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

Fixed support conditions are applied at the second node of each spring, as shown in Figure 12.3 (p. 150).

The input spectrum is a one-percent acceleration response spectrum, represented here:

Figure 12.4 Input-Acceleration Response Spectra (1% X Direction)

The input-acceleration response is applied in the X direction. It exhibits a sharp, highly amplified peak at
the fundamental frequency of the structure/soil system. Its characteristics are fZPA 16.50 Hz and ZPA =
0.54 g.

Generally, piping systems experience this type of seismic input instead of ground motion associated with
broad-banded response spectra. For this study, the unbroadened spectrum is used to provide a direct
comparison to the time history analysis results.

Following is the input-acceleration time history along the X direction:

Figure 12.5 Input-Acceleration Time History (X Direction)

The ground motion is consistent with the input-acceleration response spectrum shown in Figure 12.4 (p. 151).

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Chapter 12: Dynamic Simulation of a Nuclear Piping System Using RSA Methods

For full-transient and response-spectrum analyses performed using all three-directional inputs, the same
input is considered for both horizontal X and Z directions. In the vertical Y direction, the input is considered
to be 2/3 of the horizontal input.

12.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

The following analysis and solution-control topics are available:
12.6.1. Response-Spectrum Analysis Summary
12.6.2. Full-Transient Analysis Summary

12.6.1. Response-Spectrum Analysis Summary

Following is a summary of the response-spectrum analyses (RSAs) and corresponding solution controls:

Input Spec- Mode-Combina-

Case Missing-Mass Effect Rigid-Response Effect
tra tion Method
A1 SRSS No No
A2 No No
A3 No
Yes
A4
X-direction (RIGRESP,ON,LINDLEY,0.54)
input Yes
A5 Yes
CQC
(RIGRESP,ON,GUPTA,2.80,11.90)2
(MMASS,ON, 0.54)1 Yes
A6
(RIGRESP,ON,GUPTA,2.80,6)2
X-,Y-, and Z- Yes
A7 direction in-
puts (RIGRESP,ON,LINDLEY,0.54)

1. The input spectrum unit is g. To transform it into SI units, set FACT = 386.4 on the
SVTYP command.
2. The rigid-response effect initial frequency is 2.80 Hz (VAL1 on the RIGRESP command),
and the final frequency is 6 Hz or 11.90 Hz (VAL2).

Fourteen modes exist below fZPA. All 14 modes are used in all seven spectrum analyses.

12.6.2. Full-Transient Analysis Summary

In the transient analysis, the damping coefficients α (proportional to the mass) and β (proportional to the
stiffness) must be specified to reproduce the input spectrum's one-percent constant modal damping.

The equation ξi = α/2ωi + βωi/2 is used for the damping coefficients, where ωi is the natural circular frequency
of mode i.

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 12.7.1. Comparison of the Time-History and Response-Spectrum Support Reactions

The coefficients are determined by specifying the target modal damping at the fundamental frequency (2.91
Hz) and at an intermediate frequency between this frequency and fZPA. A frequency of 14.32 Hz is chosen
to achieve the best fit over the 2.91 Hz to 16.50 Hz range of interest.

The values obtained are α = 0.304 (ALPHAD) and β = 1.85e-4 (BETAD). Small variations of these coefficients
have a negligible effect on the results.

Automatic time stepping ensures that the time step is small enough to accurately calculate the higher mode
responses. The duration of the analysis is 14.99 seconds.

When performing the time history analysis with three-directional input motions, the individual responses
for each input motion (X, Y, and Z directions) are combined using the SRSS method.

12.7. Results and Discussion

The following table shows the natural frequencies of the 14 significant modes (below fZPA):

Mode Frequency
(Hz)
1 2.91
2 4.44
3 4.86
4 5.02
5 6.95
6 7.58
7 7.82
8 10.94
9 11.65
10 11.78
11 12.80
12 14.32
13 15.17
14 15.79

12.7.1. Comparison of the Time-History and Response-Spectrum Support Re-

actions
The reactions at the supports obtained in the spectrum analyses A1 through A7 are given in the following
topics:
12.7.1.1. RSAs A1 and A2
12.7.1.2. RSA A3
12.7.1.3. RSAs A4 and A5
12.7.1.4. RSA A6
12.7.1.5. RSA A7

The ratio of the RSA results to the transient results is reported in separate columns. The mean and standard
deviation of these ratios are evaluated at the bottom of each table. This form of representation facilitates
easy recognition of over-prediction and under-prediction by the RSA method.

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Chapter 12: Dynamic Simulation of a Nuclear Piping System Using RSA Methods

A ratio of 1.0 indicates exact agreement, a ratio of > 1.0 indicates RSA over-prediction, and a ratio of < 1.0
indicates RSA under-prediction.

12.7.1.1. RSAs A1 and A2

The accuracy of the RSA results using SRSS or CQC combination method is assessed.

The modes are closely spaced, as shown:

Coupled Modes
Mode Frequency Coupling Coeffi-
Number (Hz) Mode cient
Freq. (Hz)
No.
3 4.857 4 5.017 0.276
6 7.581 7 7.816 0.299
9 11.653 10 11.775 0.787
12 14.316 13 15.173 0.106

Because of the closely spaced modes, the CQC results are closer to the reference (transient-analysis results).
The mean and standard-deviation values of spectrum results using CQC are 1.57 and 1.11, respectively.

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 12.7.1. Comparison of the Time-History and Response-Spectrum Support Reactions

12.7.1.2. RSA A3
To improve accuracy, the missing-mass response is included in the analysis. The standard deviation decreases
to 1.05. The mean value of 1.72 still shows over-prediction in the results.

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Chapter 12: Dynamic Simulation of a Nuclear Piping System Using RSA Methods

12.7.1.3. RSAs A4 and A5

Both missing-mass and rigid-response effects are taken into account in the analyses. The mean and standard-
deviation values using the Gupta method are equal to 1.10 and 0.17, respectively. Using the Lindley-Yow
method, the mean and standard-deviation values are 1.19 and 0.24, respectively.

Both the Gupta and Lindley-Yow methods show similar results and a mean value much closer to 1.0 when
compared to the analysis without the rigid-response effect included.

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 12.7.1. Comparison of the Time-History and Response-Spectrum Support Reactions

12.7.1.4. RSA A6
With the Gupta method, there is a limitation lying in the semi-empirical basis of the definition of the rigid-
response coefficient αi, as a function of fi.[2 (p. 161)][3 (p. 161)] The choice of key parameter f2 (RI-
GRESP,,,,VAL2), which defines the frequency above which modal responses are combined algebraically, has
a significant effect on the predicted response.

To show the effect of the f2 value, two different values of f2 are chosen: 6.0 Hz [2 (p. 161) Appendix H] and
11.90 Hz.[4 (p. 161)] Both frequencies are within a range where the input acceleration is almost constant and
the acceleration value is very close to the ZPA. A value of f1 = 2.80 Hz is maintained for both analyses. The
respective results are shown in the following two tables:

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Chapter 12: Dynamic Simulation of a Nuclear Piping System Using RSA Methods

For f2 = 6.0 Hz, the mean and standard-deviation values are 0.91 and 0.18, respectively, implying under-
prediction of the reaction forces. Conversely, for f2 = 11.90 Hz, the mean and standard-deviation values
are 1.10 and 0.17, respectively, implying over-prediction of reaction forces.

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 12.7.1. Comparison of the Time-History and Response-Spectrum Support Reactions

12.7.1.5. RSA A7
This analysis considers the inputs in the X, Y and Z directions. The mean and standard-deviation values ob-
tained are 1.00 and 0.10, respectively, implying that the correlation between the spectrum-analysis and
transient-analysis results is better than for single-directional input. The better spectrum-analysis correlation
is a result of the reactions having directions orthogonal to the input, which are not significantly improved
by including the missing-mass and rigid-response effect; however, these reactions should remain smaller
than the primary reactions.

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Chapter 12: Dynamic Simulation of a Nuclear Piping System Using RSA Methods

12.8. Recommendations
When performing a spectrum analysis that takes into account missing-mass and rigid-response effects,
consider the following hints and recommendations:

• Define the ZPA frequency value (fZPA) corresponding to the input spectrum. (This value is the beginning
of the frequency range for which the acceleration remains constant and equal to the ZPA.)
• Request all solutions below fZPA in the modal analysis.
• Include all modes having a frequency below fZPA in the spectrum analysis.
• Choose a CQC mode combination to correctly combine modes with closely spaced frequencies (if any).
• Always include the missing-mass effect in the first simulation to verify its significance. (The missing-mass
response is the result of a static analysis of the structure, so its computational cost is small.)

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 12.10. Input Files

• Include the rigid-response effect. The Lindley-Yow method is easier to use, as only the ZPA value must
be input.

12.9. References
The following references are used in this example problem:

1. Belzer P. et al. “Alternate Modal Combination Methods in Response Spectrum Analysis.” NUREG/CR-
5627, BNL. October 1990.
2. Morante, R., Y. Wang. "Reevaluation of Regulatory Guidance on Modal Response Combination Methods
for Seismic Response Spectrum Analysis." NUREG/CR-6645, BNL-NUREG-52576. December 1999.
3. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. "Combining Modal Responses and Spatial Components in Seismic
Response Analysis." Regulatory Guide 1.92. Rev. 2. July 2006.
4. Gupta, A.K. Response Spectrum Method in Seismic Analysis and Design of Structures. CRC, 1993.

12.10. Input Files

The following files were used in this problem:

BM3 Model Input

• BM3model.dat -- Input file for modeling the BM3 nuclear piping system.

X-Direction Input

• Response_Spectrum_Analysis A5.dat -- Input file for performing the response-

spectrum analysis A5 on the BM3 model.
• Full_Transient_Analysis1.dat -- Input file for performing the full-transient
analysis on the BM3 model.

3-D (X,Y,Z) Input

• Response_Spectrum_Analysis A7.dat -- Input file for performing the response-

spectrum analysis A7 on the BM3 model.
• Full_Transient_Analysis2.dat -- Input file for performing the full-transient
analysis on the BM3 model.

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-12). See Obtaining the Input Files for more
information.

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Chapter 13: Ring-Gear Forging Simulation with Rezoning
This example problem demonstrates the efficiency and usefulness of rezoning in a simulation of metal-
forming processes. Rezoning facilitates the convergence of a nonlinear finite element simulation in which
excessive element distortion occurs.

Topics related to this example problem follow:

13.1. Introduction
13.2. Problem Description
13.3. Modeling
13.4. Material Properties
13.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
13.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
13.7. Results and Discussion
13.8. Recommendations
13.9. References
13.10. Input Files

13.1. Introduction
Finite element analysis plays a significant role in designing and analyzing complex metal-forming processes
that improve product quality. Successful simulation of these processes is often complicated due to the
nonlinear nature of the problems involved. Causes for nonlinearity in such problems include large-deformation
analysis, material plasticity, and the contact needed between the work piece and the dies.

Rezoning is a powerful tool for overcoming convergence difficulties that can arise due to mesh distortion.
Through its capabilities, a distorted mesh can be repaired and the simulation can be continued to completion.
Rezoning is not intended for cases where the material or structure becomes unstable or where the mesh
deformation has become too severe to repair.

If necessary, several regions can be repaired at the same time (horizontal rezoning), and multiple rezoning
operations are allowed on a region at different times during the analysis (vertical rezoning).

The rezoning process requires the following general steps:

1. Select the substep to initiate rezoning.

2. Select the region(s) to be repaired (typically via graphical picking).
3. Generate the new mesh.
4. Map variables and solve to balance residuals and achieve equilibrium.
5. Continue the analysis based on the new mesh.

This ring-gear forging example demonstrates the above steps in detail.

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Chapter 13: Ring-Gear Forging Simulation with Rezoning

13.2. Problem Description

A nonlinear large-deformation analysis of a ring-gear forging simulation is performed with two vertical
rezonings (multiple rezonings on a region occurring at different times). Both rezonings use a new mesh.
(The new mesh is created using any common meshing software application.)

The forging process is simulated using a 2-D axisymmetric model meshed with a 2-D four-node structural
solid element (PLANE182). The model represents an elastoplastic cylindrical block (the work piece) sitting
in a rigid surface (static die).

The block is deformed by another rigid surface (moving die) that moves at an infinitesimal speed, such that
the final shape of the work piece becomes a ring gear with complete die fill, as shown in Figure 13.1 (p. 165).

The initial analysis diverges due to excessive mesh distortion when 96 percent of the total loading (TIME =
0.9619) is reached. The initial rezoning is applied at TIME = 0.7174 (substep 26), and the entire work piece
is remeshed.

The analysis continues with the new mesh, which diverges again at TIME = 0.988 due to severe mesh distor-
tion.

A second rezoning is performed at TIME = 0.9 (substep 48) and the entire work piece is remeshed again to
ensure proper die fill at TIME = 1.

The results of effective plastic strains and total strains are compared with results of a similar problem.[1 (p. 177)]

A single rezoning at a later stage of the analysis may have been sufficient to solve this problem, but the
solution described here was chosen instead so that the problem could also demonstrate how vertical
rezoning is performed.

13.3. Modeling
The cylindrical block is modeled using 396 plane elements (PLANE182) with axisymmetric behavior (element
key option KEYOPT(3) = 1). Options for full integration with the B-bar method (KEYOPT(1) = 0) and mixed
u-P formulation (KEYOPT(6) = 1) are also specified.
et,1,182
keyopt,1,1,0 ! B-bar method (default)
keyopt,1,3,1 ! Axisymmetric
keyopt,1,6,1 ! Mixed u-P formulation

The B-bar method and the mixed u-P formulation prevent the volumetric locking that can be triggered by
large plastic deformation. Following is the initial finite element model with loading and boundary conditions
applied:

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 13.4. Material Properties

Figure 13.1 Original Finite Element Model with Boundary Conditions and Loading

13.3.1. Contact
Two rigid-deformable contact pairs without friction are defined using target and contact elements (TARGE169
and CONTA171, respectively) with the Augmented Lagrangian formulation (KEYOPT(2) = 0) activated.

The contact stiffness is updated at each iteration (KEYOPT(10) = 2).

The first contact pair is defined between the top die (moving) and the top and right edges of the work piece.
The second contact pair is defined between the bottom die (static) and the bottom and right edges of the
work piece.

13.4. Material Properties

The work piece is AISI8620 alloy with the following properties:[1 (p. 177)]

Young's Modulus: E = 200e3 MPa

Poisson's ratio: √ = 0.3

The material is approximated as an elastoplastic material with a nonlinear isotropic hardening behavior. The
power-hardening law for nonlinear isotropic behavior is represented as:

N
σ Y  σ Y 3G p 
= + ε  (13–1)
σ0  σ0 σ0 

where:

σY
= Current yield strength
σ0
= Initial yield strength = 385.4 MPa
G = shear modulus
N = power value = 0.13

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Chapter 13: Ring-Gear Forging Simulation with Rezoning

ε p = Equivalent plastic strain

The power-hardening option is activated via the following input:

tb,nliso,1,,power
tbdata,1, 0,n

13.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

Symmetry displacement boundary conditions are applied to all nodes on the axis of symmetry.

No boundary conditions are applied to the rigid targets, as they are automatically restrained via the TARGE169
target element's default behavior (KEYOPT(2) = 0).

The top rigid surface is displaced downwards by 138 mm in one load step. The downward displacement
compresses the cylindrical block (work piece), and the material flows to fill up the space between the dies.

13.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

The following topics concerning analysis details and solution controls for this problem are available:
13.6.1. Solution Parameters and Analysis
13.6.2. Rezoning Techniques Applied to Ring-Gear Forging

13.6.1. Solution Parameters and Analysis

The solution parameters used in this model are input as follows:
nlgeom,on ! specifies geometric nonlinearity
time,1 ! end time
ncnv,2 ! continues analysis after failure via rezoning and multiframe restart
rescontrol,define,all,1 ! makes restart files available
outres,all,all
nsubst,20,2000,10 !

Rezoning requires a static analysis with geometric nonlinearity (NLGEOM,ON).

The end time is 1. The initial, minimum, and maximum time step sizes are 20, 2000, and 10, respectively;
they are applied with an initial time step size of 0.05 and a minimum time increment of 0.5e-3.

Because the program execution ends if the analysis fails to converge, the analysis is continued after failure
by performing rezoning and a multiframe restart. (Without the NCNV command, running the full analysis
in batch mode would not be possible due to analysis termination after the first divergence.)

All restart files must be available; otherwise, it is impossible to know which substeps to perform to initiate
the rezoning. It is also a good idea to save the results; doing so makes it easier to investigate the reason for
solution termination and decide which substep to use to activate rezoning. If it is not possible to save results
(due to disk space limitations, for example), they can be generated for a specific substep from the restart
files (ANTYPE,,REST,Loadstep,Substep,RSTCREATE).

13.6.2. Rezoning Techniques Applied to Ring-Gear Forging

The general rezoning process for vertical rezoning, horizontal rezoning, or a combination of both is the
same. Following are helpful techniques for applying rezoning specifically to a ring-gear forging problem:
13.6.2.1. Step 1: Select the Substep to Initiate Rezoning
13.6.2.2. Step 2: Select a Region to Remesh
13.6.2.3. Step 3: Apply a New Mesh

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 13.6.2. Rezoning Techniques Applied to Ring-Gear Forging

13.6.2.4. Map Variables and Balance Residuals

13.6.2.5. Perform a Multiframe Restart

13.6.2.1. Step 1: Select the Substep to Initiate Rezoning

Selecting the best substep to initiate rezoning is the crucial factor in the rezoning process. No unique selection
criteria can be applied universally to all rezoning problems. Various substep-selection techniques can be
used for the initial rezoning or subsequent ones.

Generally, the best way to select a substep is by visual inspection of results in the postprocessing module
(/POST1). It is helpful to use the most important element solutions (PLESOL) to create animation files that
capture the specific moment when the mesh becomes sufficiently distorted, but not yet severely distorted
(that is, when internal angles approach or exceed 180 degrees).

It is good practice to correlate the element solutions plots with corresponding steps in the monitor file
(.mntr) and the convergence pattern in general. To initiate rezoning, select a substep where the current
time increment is not close to the specified minimum and where the convergence pattern of the solution
has not slowed down significantly (before bisections have started to occur).

In this example, no more than two rezonings are needed because the initial divergence occurs close to the
end of analysis (TIME = 0.96). The initial rezoning cannot be performed very close to the end of the last
converged substep, because another rezoning is planned before the end of the solution. If the initial
rezoning is performed at the beginning of the analysis, large subsequent deformations distort the refined
mesh too early in the process, necessitating more vertical rezonings.

13.6.2.1.1. First Rezoning

In this case, substep 26 (TIME = 0.71744) is chosen because of the results and monitor file examinations.
Although this substep has fewer convergence difficulties than the original solution, experimentation shows
that some substeps close to substep 26 may also be good candidates for the first rezoning step.

In the following figure, the element solution of effective plastic strains at this stage shows the deformed
mesh, where some of the elements exhibit a very high aspect ratio and internal angles close to 180 degrees:

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Chapter 13: Ring-Gear Forging Simulation with Rezoning

Figure 13.2 Effective Plastic Strain and Deformed Mesh at Time of First Rezoning

13.6.2.1.2. Second Rezoning

For the second rezoning, the selection technique changes somewhat because the deformation is more
pronounced. The strain gradients are larger, and the mapping of variables is more difficult, than in the first
rezoning. It is necessary, therefore, to perform the next rezoning as close as possible to the end time so that
after restart, the analysis can continue to completion. Often, this technique involves a few trial-and-error it-
erations to isolate the optimal substep for rezoning.

In the current example, substep 50 (TIME = 0.9138) or thereabouts appears to be best suited for remeshing
from the perspective of limited element distortions. The final selection of substep 48 (TIME = 0.9s) as the
optimal substep, however, is guided by the convergence from the prior balancing of the residual forces
(MAPSOLVE).

Element distortions guide the general range of substeps best suited for remeshing. The residual-force balancing
determines the precise substep.

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 13.6.2. Rezoning Techniques Applied to Ring-Gear Forging

Figure 13.3 Effective Plastic Strains and Deformed Mesh at Time of Second Rezoning

13.6.2.2. Step 2: Select a Region to Remesh

After selecting the substep, the region to be remeshed must be selected (typically an easier task than the
substep selection process).

Generally, if the model is too large or too complex or if the mesh distortion is localized, horizontal (multiple)
remeshing is a better option than remeshing the entire model.

If the model is not large or the mesh distortion is widely spread as in this problem, the entire model can be
selected for remeshing.

Horizontal rezoning may be necessary depending on the model size, computational costs, and the degree
of accuracy required.

A region selected for remeshing should contain all of the highly distorted elements and, if possible, should
be slightly larger than the area containing the distorted elements. The only condition is that all regions must
be of the same element type, material type, thickness (for plane stress), and nodal coordinate system (except
for boundary nodes).

13.6.2.3. Step 3: Apply a New Mesh

Generating an improved mesh by remeshing is the key to successful rezoning. To improve convergence, the
new mesh should have better shape characteristics than the old mesh. To avoid mapping difficulties, the
size of the new mesh should not be changed drastically. Retaining the same element size (ESIZE) in the new
mesh can work, provided that the new element connections and topology reflect better shape characteristics.

The new mesh can be:

• program-generated (AREMESH and AMESH),

• read in from a .cdb file created by another application (REMESH,READ)
• created by splitting existing elements (REMESH,SPLIT)

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Chapter 13: Ring-Gear Forging Simulation with Rezoning

For this problem, a new mesh generated as a .cdb file is read in (REMESH,READ). The new mesh contains
only solid elements, as the contact elements are generated automatically when remeshing is complete
(REMESH,FINISH).

The rigid target elements remain the same throughout the analysis and cannot be remeshed. While it is
possible for the new mesh to contain contact and target information as well, it is faster and more reliable
to read in only the remeshed solid elements and allow the contact/target elements to be generated auto-
matically.

The initial element size is approximately 4. The first rezoning decreases it by a factor of two, and the second
rezoning uses an element size of 1.7. The new meshes appear in Figure 13.4 (p. 170) and Figure 13.5 (p. 170)

Figure 13.4 New Mesh Read in During the First Rezoning

Figure 13.5 New Mesh Read in During the Second Rezoning

Mesh Size Affects Mapping

The quality of the new mesh, and the mapping operation in general, can be sensitive to mesh size. If the
mesh quality is mediocre due to a less-than-optimal element size, mapping difficulties may occur, leading
to convergence failure. In such cases, a better mesh using a different element size is necessary.

The following undesirable mesh, for example, uses an element size of 1.5, which produced several triangular
elements:

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 13.6.2. Rezoning Techniques Applied to Ring-Gear Forging

Figure 13.6 Mesh Containing Triangular Elements (Not Recommended)

13.6.2.4. Map Variables and Balance Residuals

After remeshing, the solution is mapped automatically from the old mesh to the new mesh (MAPSOLVE).
The mapping operation introduces extra substeps to balance the residual forces and achieve equilibrium.

Although the default is five substeps, it is generally better to use more substeps, especially when contact is
included in the problem. This problem uses 500 substeps as the maximum in the case of convergence
problems becoming an issue. Using a larger number of substeps does not affect computational efficiency
and is recommended for solving nonlinear problems characterized by large strains.

The results of the element solution of effective plastic strains after the first and second mapping are shown
in the following two figures. The results are compared with the same plots before mapping (as shown in
Figure 13.2 (p. 168) and Figure 13.3 (p. 169)).

Figure 13.7 Effective Plastic Strain Distribution After First Mapping

If the old mesh is heavily distorted by rezoning, or if the differences in mesh density and topology between
the old and new mesh are especially large (specifically in the elements on boundaries), mapping variables
may become difficult, possibly resulting in errors or convergence failure.

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Chapter 13: Ring-Gear Forging Simulation with Rezoning

If mapping leads to a successful convergence despite the distortion, the results may be slightly different
than those which existed before mapping. To observe this effect, compare Figure 13.2 (p. 168) to the following
figure

Figure 13.8 Effective Plastic Strain After Second Mapping

Convergence issues after mapping often indicate that the restarted analysis will also have convergence dif-
ficulties; therefore, if mapping uses many substeps to achieve equilibrium, try to rezone from an earlier
substep or improve the quality of the new mesh.

13.6.2.5. Perform a Multiframe Restart

After each rezoning, the analysis is continued by performing a standard multiframe restart, provided that
all necessary files are available. During restart, the number of substeps can be adjusted to achieve better
convergence.

The following input shows the vertical rezoning process as described for this problem:
/clear,nostart
/file,ringforging

/solu ! First rezoning at substep 26 (time = 0.7174)

rezone,manual,1,26
remesh,start
remesh,read,mesh1,cdb ! Read in the first mesh with esize = 2
allsel,all
remesh,finish
mapsolve,500,pause
finish
/solu ! First multiframe restart
antype, , rest, , , continue
solve
finish
/clear,nostart
/file,ringforging

/solu ! Second Rezoning at substep 48 (time = 0.9)

rezone,manual,1,48
remesh,start
remesh,read,mesh2,cdb ! Read in the second mesh with esize=1.7

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 13.7. Results and Discussion

allsel,all
remesh,finish
mapsolve,500,pause
finish
/solu ! Second multiframe restart
antype, , rest, , , continue
solve
finish

13.7. Results and Discussion

At the conclusion of the ring-gear forging simulation, the cylindrical block (work piece) completely fills the
die gap. The die gap becomes very narrow as deformation progresses and rezoning becomes necessary, as
there are not enough elements and nodes in the free surface to completely fill this gap as the work piece
material flows.

For the material to flow properly, the number of degrees of freedom must be increased repeatedly. The
original mesh has 519 elements, where 106 are contact elements and 17 are target elements. After the first
rezoning, the new mesh has 1031 elements, where 870 are PLANE182 elements and 144 are CONTA171
elements. After the second rezoning, the number of elements is 1169, where 944 are PLANE182 and 204 are
CONTA171.

The effective plastic strain distribution before and after the first rezoning is shown in Figure 13.2 (p. 168) and
Figure 13.7 (p. 171), respectively.

The same contours apply before and after the second rezoning, as shown in Figure 13.3 (p. 169) and Figure
13.8 (p. 172), respectively. The effective plastic strain distribution and the similar contours both indicate that
the mapping of data was achieved with accuracy.

Because the mesh changes significantly during the first rezoning, it is expected that results before and after
first mapping are different (by about 0.1 percent in this case). The difference is due to the balancing of re-
siduals that are larger when compared to the situation when mesh changes are not significant (as seen in
the second rezoning).

Few new elements were added during the second rezoning; therefore the maximum effective strains are
identical before and after mapping. The maximum value of effective strain is 3.53, which is close to the ref-
erence effective strain value.[1 (p. 177)] The contours of effective strains are similar to those of the reference,
with a region of very concentrated strains in the middle part where the material flows.

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Chapter 13: Ring-Gear Forging Simulation with Rezoning

Figure 13.9 Effective Strain Distribution and Deformed Shape at the Final Stage (Complete
Die Fill)

Figure 13.10 Final Stage Animation

The von Mises stress distribution in the following figure shows that elastic deformation is extremely small
compared to plastic deformation:

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 13.8. Recommendations

Figure 13.11 Von Mises Stress Distribution at the Final Stage

The tiny elastic deformation occurs because the minimum stresses are much higher than the initial yield
stress of the material.

In this figure, a half 2-D axisymmetric expansion is performed on the von Mises stress, which offers a better
visualization of the plastic flow in this process:

Figure 13.12 Half Expanded Plot of Von Mises Stress at the Final Stage of Ring-Gear Forging

13.8. Recommendations
To perform a similar ring-gear forging simulation using rezoning, consider the following hints and recom-
mendations:

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Chapter 13: Ring-Gear Forging Simulation with Rezoning

• Rezoning has limitations.

Use rezoning only in problems experiencing mesh distortion as a result of large deformation.
• Select the substep to initiate rezoning carefully.

Determine the optimal substep after carefully examining the element solution, the deformed mesh (in
/POST1, and the convergence pattern.

The best substep to rezone is the one where the mesh is distorted (though not too severely distorted)
and the time increment is not close to (or at) its minimum.
• Use an earlier substep or a better mesh if necessary.

If any of the following situations are encountered, initiate rezoning at an earlier substep or improve the
quality of the new mesh:

-- Remeshing errors (REMESH,FINISH)

-- Error, failure, or convergence difficulty during remapping (MAPSOLVE)
-- Convergence failure in the restarted analysis.
-- New mesh shape characteristics are bad due to distortion.
• Three methods exist for obtaining a new mesh.

A new mesh can be program-generated (AREMESH and AMESH), created via mesh splitting
(REMESH,SPLIT), or read in (REMESH,READ).

If an external mesh (.cdb file) created by a third-party meshing application is used, two considerations
exist:

-- If a partial region is rezoned, the nodal locations on the interior boundaries must be retained by
the third-party meshing application when creating the new mesh. The locations are necessary to
maintain nodal compatibility between the new and existing meshes.
-- If PLANE183 (quadratic) elements are used in the original mesh, the third-party meshing software
should retain the location of midside nodes by generating the new nodes using element-based
quadratic interpolation.
• More than one region can be remeshed at the same time.

Multiple regions can be remeshed at the same substep via horizontal rezoning. Multiple regions where
the new mesh is read in (REMESH,READ) cannot intersect, though they may touch at a boundary.

Repeated rezonings can be performed at different locations in time via vertical rezoning. The only ver-
tical rezoning restriction is that a program-generated mesh (AREMESH and AMESH) cannot be used
after obtaining a new mesh either by reading it in (REMESH,READ) or by splitting the mesh
(REMESH,SPLIT). (The restriction is due to the loss of associativity of the mesh and geometry which
occurs in cases where the new mesh is read in or created from mesh splitting.)
• Mesh size affects mapping.

If the new mesh size is drastically different from that of the old mesh, convergence issues may occur
during mapping. It may be necessary to resize the new mesh to more closely match the old one.
• Specify more substeps if needed.

A larger maximum number of substeps may need to be specified to handle convergence difficulties
during mapping and in the restarted analysis.

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 13.10. Input Files

13.9. References
1. Kwak, Dae-Young, J.S. Cheon, Y.T. Im. “Remeshing for Metal Forming Simulations - Part I: Two-Dimen-
sional Quadrilateral Remeshing.” International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering. 53.11 (2002):
2463-2500.

13.10. Input Files

The following input files were used in this problem:

• ringforging.dat -- The input file used in the ring-gear forging problem.

• ringforging.cdb -- Common database file containing the initial mesh information (called by
ringforging.dat).
• mesh1.cdb -- Common database file for the new mesh, read in during the first rezoning (called by
ringforging.dat).
• mesh2.cdb -- Common database file for the new mesh, read in during the second rezoning (called by
ringforging.dat).

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-4). See Obtaining the Input Files for more in-
formation.

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Chapter 14: Thermal-Stress Analysis of a Cooled Turbine Blade
This example problem shows how to easily set up and perform a thermal-stress analysis of a cooled turbine
blade.

The following features and capabilities are highlighted:

• Use of surface-effect capabilities to simulate convection loading on solid regions.

• Use of one-dimensional fluid flow capabilities to obtain a highly accurate thermal solution for convection
loading.

Topics related to this example problem follow:

14.1. Introduction
14.2. Problem Description
14.3. Modeling
14.4. Material Properties
14.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
14.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
14.7. Results and Discussion
14.8. Recommendations
14.9. References
14.10. Input Files

14.1. Introduction
It is common practice in the turbine industry to cool turbine blades with a fluid flowing through cooling
holes. As a result of the thermal gradients setup in the blade, thermal stresses are induced which can lead
to failure of the blades.

In a typical thermal-stress analysis, temperatures are calculated and then applied as load conditions for the
stress analysis. While it is possible to solve for the temperature using a conjugate heat transfer capability of
a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code, it can significant computational resources. A reduced-order
model for CFD, assuming a one-dimensional flow through the holes, can provide a relatively inexpensive
solution without much loss in accuracy. Typically, the mass flow rates are known through the cooling holes,
and certain empirical correlations are used to estimate the film coefficients for heat transfer from the solid
to the fluid.

Because of the proprietary nature of these types of analyses, it was not possible to obtain a realistic model
and loading conditions for this analysis from industry sources. A simplified model described in a NASA report
is used instead, and an understanding that turbine blade cooling passages and loading conditions are much
more complex in realistic models is assumed. For example, the following figure illustrates that the cooling
passages in an actual turbine blade (shown in yellow) can join or branch with each other inside the blade,
and the coolant is allowed to bleed through the cooling holes and cool the external surface of the blade:

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Chapter 14: Thermal-Stress Analysis of a Cooled Turbine Blade

Figure 14.1 Turbine Blade Cooling Passages

In this problem, however, the cooling holes do not interact with each other and the coolant is confined to
the interior of the blade.

For further information, see the following resources:

• Thermal Analysis Guide.

• SURF152 and FLUID116 documentation in the Element Reference.
• SURF152 - 3-D Thermal Surface Effect and FLUID116 - Coupled Thermal-Fluid Pipe in the Theory Reference
for the Mechanical APDL and Mechanical Applications.

14.2. Problem Description

As shown in the following figures, the turbine blade has 10 cooling passages. It is assumed that the external
surface is fixed at a constant temperature. The adiabatic surfaces are assumed to be fixed for the stress
analysis. The fluid flows through the holes at different rates and cooling occurs primarily via convection. The
convection coefficients, inflow temperatures, and mass flow rates are all specified. If the film coefficients are
high, the solid loses more heat to the fluid and, accordingly, the fluid temperature rise is higher. If the fluid
mass flow rate is higher, the fluid temperature rise is not as high.

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 14.3. Modeling

Figure 14.2 Turbine Blade Cooling Passages

14.3. Modeling
The solid and fluid regions of a parasolid model are already meshed, and the model is read into the database
(CDREAD). The solid region is meshed with SOLID70 elements, as shown in this figure:

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Chapter 14: Thermal-Stress Analysis of a Cooled Turbine Blade

Figure 14.3 Solid Region Mesh

The fluid region is meshed with FLUID116 line elements. The cross-sectional area of each fluid element is
set through a real constant. Appropriate components of nodes and elements have also been created in order
to facilitate the application of loads. The components can be viewed if necessary (CMLIST).

SURF152 elements are generated on the inside of the holes (ESURF); however, these surface-effect elements
are not coupled to the fluid elements. The following example input couples the SURF152 and FLUID116
elements:
keyop,3,5,2 ! Allow 2 extra nodes for SURF152 elements for hole # 1
esel,s,type,,13 ! Select Fluid116 elements corresponding to hole # 1
cm,com116,elem ! Create a component using the fluid116 elements in each channel
esel,s,type,,3 ! Select SURF152 elements corresponding to hole# 1
cm,com152,elem ! Create a component using the surf152 elements in each channel
allsel ! Select all nodes & elements before using MSTOLE
mstole,1,'com152','com116' ! Map component 'com152' to 'com116' using projection method

14.4. Material Properties

Material properties for the steel blade in MKS units are as follows:

Blade Material Properties

Thermal Conductivity 43
Young's Modulus 2.00E+11
Poisson's Ratio 0.3
Coefficient of Thermal Expan-
1.08E-5
sion

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 14.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

Fluid properties in MKS units are as follows:

Fluid Material Properties

Thermal Conductivity 1.00E-16
Specific Heat 2.26E+3

The film coefficients in units of W/(m)2(°K) are as follows:

Hole
Film Coeffi-
Num-
cient
ber
1 295.43
2 296.29
3 300.76
4 314.16
5 314.95
6 301.99
7 302.47
8 443.43
9 285.27
10 895.86

14.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

The exterior surface temperature of the solid is maintained at 568° K.

The inflow temperatures and mass flow rates are as follows:

Hole
Inflow Tem- Mass Flow Rate
Num-
perature (°K) (kg/sec)
ber
1 348.83 0.228E-01
2 349.32 0.239E-01
3 339.49 0.228E-01
4 342.30 0.243E-01
5 333.99 0.239E-01
6 364.95 0.242E-01
7 343.37 0.232E-01
8 365.41 0.799E-02
9 408.78 0.499E-02
10 453.18 0.253E-02

14.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

The analysis type is set to static (ANTYPE,STATIC) for the thermal analysis .

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Chapter 14: Thermal-Stress Analysis of a Cooled Turbine Blade

For the stress analysis, SOLID70 elements are converted to SOLID185 elements, and the SURF152 and FLUID116
elements are suppressed.

14.7. Results and Discussion

The following figure shows the temperature distribution in the solid region. As expected, the blade is cooler
near the holes.

Figure 14.4 Solid Region Temperature Distribution

The following two figures show the fluid and solid surface temperatures, respectively. The fluid temperature
rises from inlet to outlet. The solid surface temperature shows a similar trend.

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 14.7. Results and Discussion

Figure 14.5 Fluid Temperatures

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Chapter 14: Thermal-Stress Analysis of a Cooled Turbine Blade

Figure 14.6 Solid Surface Temperatures

The following two XY plots show the fluid and solid temperatures, respectively, along the fluid path of hole
number 1.

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 14.7. Results and Discussion

Figure 14.7 Fluid Temperature Along Path of Hole Number 1

Figure 14.8 Solid Temperature Along Path of Hole Number 1

The next figure shows the von Mises stresses for the solid region. Maximum stresses occur inside hole
number 10.

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Chapter 14: Thermal-Stress Analysis of a Cooled Turbine Blade

Figure 14.9 Von Mises Stresses for Solid Region

The following XY plot shows the stress variation in hole 1.

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 14.9. References

Figure 14.10 Von Mises Stress Along Path of Hole Number 1

14.8. Recommendations
When performing a similar type of analysis, consider the following hints and recommendations:

• Create surface-effect elements that are much smaller than the fluid elements.

Doing so ensures that all fluid elements are coupled with the surface-effect elements.
• Mapping the surface-effect elements onto the fluid elements (MSTOLE) creates the two extra nodes
for the surface-effect element.

Three methods are available for mapping: Minimum Centroid Distance, Projection, and Hybrid.
• Use MSTOLE with care.

As shown in this analysis, the MSTOLE command is applied to each hole. Using a single MSTOLE
command for multiple holes is inefficient and can lead to incorrect mappings.
• If a hole passage is straight, a single MSTOLE command should be sufficient.

If the passage has a serpentine path, several MSTOLE commands may be necessary to produce the
correct mapping for that hole. For example, if the passage is a U-tube, use the MSTOLE command three
times.
• When higher-order elements are used for the solid region, the midside nodes on the convecting elements
should be dropped.

The lower-order surface-effect element can then be used. Using higher-order surface-effect elements
can sometimes lead to an unrealistic temperature distribution.

14.9. References
This example problem was based on the following reports:

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Chapter 14: Thermal-Stress Analysis of a Cooled Turbine Blade

• Hylton, L.D. et al. “Analytical and Experimental Evaluation of the Heat Transfer Distribution Over the
Surfaces of Turbine Vanes.” NASA CR 168015, May 1983.
• Turner, E. R. et al. “Analytical and Experimental Evaluation of Surface Heat Transfer Distributions with
Leading Edge Showerhead Film Cooling.” NASA CR 174827, July 1985.
• Hylton, L. D. et al. “The Effects of Leading Edge and Downstream Film Cooling on Turbine Vane Heat
Transfer.” NASA CR 182133, Nov. 1988.

14.10. Input Files

The following files were used in this problem:

• turbineblade.dat -- Input file for the turbine blade thermal-stress analysis.

• turbinebladestruc.dat -- Input file for the structural analysis portion of the problem.
• tblade.cdb -- The Parasolid file of the meshed turbine blade model (called by turbineblade.dat).

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-6). See Obtaining the Input Files for more in-
formation.

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Chapter 15: Evaluation of Mixed-Mode Stress-Intensity Factors for
3-D Surface Flaws
This example problem demonstrates the linear elastic fracture mechanics of 3-D structures. The problem
shows how fracture mechanics can be used to evaluate mixed-mode stress-intensity factors and J-integrals.
Analyses of a simple semicircular surface flaw in a rectangular block and a warped flaw along a tubular joint
are discussed.

The following features and capabilities are highlighted:

• Evaluating mode-I stress-intensity factors for a semicircular surface flaw in a rectangular block.
• Evaluating mixed-mode stress-intensity factors for a warped semi-elliptical surface flaw in a tubular
joint.
• Meshing around a crack front in 3-D structures.

Topics related to this example problem follow:

15.1. Introduction
15.2. Problem Description
15.3. Modeling
15.4. Material Properties
15.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
15.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
15.7. Results and Discussion
15.8. Recommendations
15.9. References
15.10. Input Files

15.1. Introduction
Fracture analysis is widely used to predict component failure caused by preexisting small cracks, allowing
one to take precautions to prevent further crack growth or to determine the remaining life of the structure.

To obtain the fracture damage, stress intensity factors (SIFs) must be evaluated accurately. Because it is dif-
ficult to determine accurate SIFs using a closed-form analytical solution for cracks in complex structures, finite-
element analysis is used instead.

Two approaches are available for evaluating SIFs:

• Interaction Integral Method -- Performs the SIF calculation during the solution phase of the analysis
and stores the results for later postprocessing.
• Displacement Extrapolation Method -- Performs the SIF calculation during postprocessing. This
method is limited to problems involving linear elasticity with homogeneous, isotropic materials near
the crack region.

The interaction integral method is suitable for a wide range of applications.

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Chapter 15: Evaluation of Mixed-Mode Stress-Intensity Factors for 3-D Surface Flaws

In a finite element analysis, the interaction integral method is suitably accurate for evaluating mixed-mode
SIFs, and is also a robust tool for heterogeneous models with continuous, discontinuous, or nonlinear mater-
ial properties. This method yields more accurate results because the contour integral is evaluated at points
far away from the crack-tip.

15.2. Problem Description

The following two models with surface flaws are considered for analysis:
15.2.1. Rectangular Block with a Semicircular Surface Flaw
15.2.2. X-Joint Pipe with Warped Surface Flaw

15.2.1. Rectangular Block with a Semicircular Surface Flaw

This model is fixed at one face of the block and a pressure load is applied on the opposite face. The block
has a semicircular surface flaw at the center of one longitudinal face in the thickness direction--a crack is
perpendicular to one of the surfaces of the rectangular block--with a 20 mm radius, as shown:

Figure 15.1 Rectangular Block Geometry with Semicircular Surface Flaw

A torus is created around the crack front to control the mesh at the crack front. The objective is to find KI
along the crack front and validate the results with reference results.[1 (p. 202)][2 (p. 202)][3 (p. 203)]

Following is the semicircular crack and torus along the crack front used to create a sweep mesh with SOLID186:

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 15.2.2. X-Joint Pipe with Warped Surface Flaw

Figure 15.2 Semicircular Crack and Torus Along the Crack Front

15.2.2. X-Joint Pipe with Warped Surface Flaw

A semi-elliptical warped surface flaw at the tubular joint is analyzed to obtain mixed-mode SIFs (KI, KII and
KIII) along the crack front:

Figure 15.3 X-Joint Pipe Full Model with Warped Surface Flaw at Welded Joint

The problem consists of two tubular members attached to each other by a welded joint. The tubular members
have outer diameters of 323.85 mm (D1), 219.08 mm (D2), and thicknesses of 15.88 mm (t1) and 8.18 mm
(t2), respectively. The semi-elliptical surface crack lies on a plane parallel to the radial direction of the heavier
running pipe.

A torus is created around the crack front to control the mesh at the crack front. The semi-elliptical surface
crack at the weld toe is warped along the welded joint and it is perpendicular to the outer surface of the
323.85 mm diameter pipe in the thickness direction.

Following are the crack dimensions:

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Chapter 15: Evaluation of Mixed-Mode Stress-Intensity Factors for 3-D Surface Flaws

Figure 15.4 Semi-elliptical Surface Crack Dimensions

The warped crack profile at the welded joint is created via the interaction of a rotated semi-ellipse on the
323.85 mm diameter pipe and an extruded circle normal to the inner surface of the same pipe at the welded
joint, as shown:

Figure 15.5 Two-plane Symmetry of X-joint Pipe with Warped Surface Flaw Geometry

15.3. Modeling
For 3-D models, the recommended element type near the crack front is SOLID186, the 20-node brick element.

The rectangular block and x-joint pipe models are meshed with SOLID187 elements (except for the regions
around the crack tip), as shown:

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 15.3. Modeling

Figure 15.6 Rectangular Block Model with Boundary Conditions and Loading Applied

Regions around the crack tips are meshed with SOLID186, as shown:

Figure 15.7 Sweep Mesh with SOLID186 Around Crack Front

Due to the two-plane symmetry of the x-Joint problem, a quarter model is considered for analysis, as shown:

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Chapter 15: Evaluation of Mixed-Mode Stress-Intensity Factors for 3-D Surface Flaws

Figure 15.8 Two-plane Symmetry of X-joint Pipe with Warped Surface Flaw at Welded Joint

If the crack surface is not normal to any component in the global coordinate system, a local coordinate
system should be created in such a way that one component of this coordinate system is perpendicular to
the crack surface. For example, in the x-joint model, a local cylindrical coordinate system is created such
that one of its components is normal to the crack surface, as shown:

Figure 15.9 X-joint Pipe with Warped Surface Flaw at Welded Joint in Thickness Direction.

In the x-joint model, the warped crack in the thickness direction is perpendicular to the inner surface of the
323.85 mm diameter pipe.

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 15.3. Modeling

A torus is created around the crack front to obtain a good sweep mesh (VSWEEP). A common area separates
the torus and the remaining volume at the interface.

In 3-D models, a fracture has two surfaces with a common edge at the crack front; the same is true for the
torus. The two torus surfaces are used to create a clean sweep mesh around the crack front. One surface is
defined as the source, the other as the target. In this procedure, the sweep mesh generates brick elements
with one layer of prism elements around the crack front. Following is the sweep mesh with SOLID186 around
the crack front in the x-joint pipe model, with the source and target areas for the sweep mesh indicated in
the deformed body:

Figure 15.10 Sweep Mesh with SOLID186 Around the Crack Front

The warped surface contains a sweep mesh and a set of nodes, along with source and target areas in the
deformed torus body. The source and target areas existed at the same location in the nondeformed structure.

After meshing, crack parameters must be defined. The following example inputs show how to define para-
meters associated with contour integral calculation:
! Initiate a new contour integral calculation and define type
CINT, NEW, 1 ! Initiate new calculation and assign ID
CINT,TYPE,SIFS ! Replace SIFS with JINT to find J-integral

! Define crack tip nodal component to find SIFs or J-integral for specified flaw
CINT,CTNC,component_name,,1

! Define symmetry details, number of contours to be calculated

CINT,SYMM,OFF ! Symmetry off
CINT,NCON,6 ! Number of contours

! Define crack plane normal

CINT,NORMAL,0,2

A line component of the crack front lines (CM) is created . This component is useful for selecting nodes at-
tached to the crack front (NSLL). The nodal component of these nodes is used to define crack tip node
components (CINT,CTNC), as shown in the following figures:

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Chapter 15: Evaluation of Mixed-Mode Stress-Intensity Factors for 3-D Surface Flaws

Figure 15.11 Crack Tip Nodal Component: Rectangular Block Model

Figure 15.12 Crack Tip Nodal Component: X-joint Pipe Model

15.4. Material Properties

Material properties for this problem are as follows:

Mixed-Mode Stress-Intensity Factors

Material Properties
Young's Modulus (Pa) 2E+11
Poisson's Ratio 0.3

15.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

The rectangular block is fixed at one face. A pressure of -10E+3 MPa is applied on the other face, as shown
in Figure 15.6 (p. 195).

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 15.7.1. Rectangular Block with Semicircular Surface Flaw

Analysis of the x-joint model is performed with two-sided symmetry. Two-plane symmetric boundary condi-
tions are applied and one midside node at the horizontal plane is constrained in the opposite direction to
restrict rigid-body motion. A pressure load of -1000 MPa is applied on the top of the small-diameter tube,
as shown in Figure 15.8 (p. 196).

15.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

A linear static analysis is performed.

Output controlled (OUTRES,CINT) is used to write the SIFs and J-integral results to the results (.rst) file
and output files.

The following postprocessing commands can be used to list and/or plot and list the results:
/POST1
PLCINT,FRONT,1,,,K1 ! Plot KI results
PLCINT,FRONT,1,,,K2 ! Plot KII results
PLCINT,FRONT,1,,,K3 ! Plot KIII results
PLCINT,FRONT,2 ! Plot J-integral results

PRCINT,1,ALL,K1 ! Print KI results

PRCINT,1,ALL,K2 ! Print KII results
PRCINT,1,ALL,K3 ! Print KIII results
PRCINT,2,ALL,JINT ! Print J-integral results

15.7. Results and Discussion

This section presents the results for both models used in this problem:
15.7.1. Rectangular Block with Semicircular Surface Flaw
15.7.2. X-joint Pipe with Warped Flaw

15.7.1. Rectangular Block with Semicircular Surface Flaw

The following two figures show the displacement vector sum (USUM) and the Von Mises Stresses, respectively:

Figure 15.13 USUM Results (Rectangular Block)

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Chapter 15: Evaluation of Mixed-Mode Stress-Intensity Factors for 3-D Surface Flaws

Figure 15.14 Von Mises Stress Plot (Rectangular Block)

The plot shows the maximum Von Mises stress occurring at the crack tip.

To verify the SIF accuracy obtained via the interaction integral method, the results are compared to analyt-
ical results of Newman and Raju and finite-element result of Kamaya. The results agree closely with those
obtained in the references.

In this model, the crack is at the center of the rectangular block. The results for half of the crack, therefore,
are plotted in this figure:
where normalized SIF = KI / ( σ 0 ( π x initial radius of flaw) )

Figure 15.15 Normalized KI Results

15.7.2. X-joint Pipe with Warped Flaw

The following figures show the displacement vector sum (USUM) and Von Mises Stresses plot of the x-joint
pipe with the warped flaw at the welded joint:

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 15.7.2. X-joint Pipe with Warped Flaw

Figure 15.16 USUM Results (X-joint Pipe)

Figure 15.17 Von Mises Stress Plot (X-joint Pipe)

The SIFs of the mixed-mode 3-D problem with the warped crack surface were compared with those of Chong
Rhee.[4 (p. 203)] The comparison shows that the normalized KI, KII and KIII results agree well with the reference
results near the end points, as shown:

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Chapter 15: Evaluation of Mixed-Mode Stress-Intensity Factors for 3-D Surface Flaws

Figure 15.18 Normalized SIF Results: Comparison with Chong Rhee[4 (p. 203)]

where T is the thickness of the pipe, and the normalized distance is the distance from center
of the crack along the crack front divided by half of the crack tip length.

A fine mesh (using meshing bias [LESIZE,,,,,SPACE]) at the end-point regions improves the results.

15.8. Recommendations
When setting up a fracture analysis for 3-D structures, consider the following hints and recommendations:

• The recommended element type for 3-D fracture models along the crack tip is the 20-node brick element
SOLID186.
• A fine sweep mesh along the crack front yields more accurate results. Create a torus along the crack
front in the model geometry for this purpose.
• If any component in the global coordinate system is not orthogonal to the crack surface, create one
local coordinate system with one component normal to the crack surface. This action is necessary to
define the crack plane normal (CINT,NORM).
• For multiple cracks, use unique crack tip IDs and separate sets of CINT commands for each.
• To determine SIFS and J-integrals for the same crack, use two separate CINT command sets.
• The interaction integral method gives accurate results because the contour integral is evaluated at
points far away from the crack-tip. Disregard the first contour results, however, as they are less accurate
than the other results due to the nearness of the crack tip.

For more information, see Fracture Mechanics in the Structural Analysis Guide.

15.9. References
The following references are cited in this example problem:

1. Newman, J. C., Jr., and I. S. Raju. “Analysis of Surface Cracks in Finite Plates Under Tension or Bending
Loads.” NASA Technical Paper 1578. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (1979).
2. Kamaya, M. “Stress Intensity Factor of Surface Crack with Undulated Front.” JSME International Journal
49.4 (2006): 529-535.

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 15.10. Input Files

3. Anderson, T.L. Fracture Mechanics - Fundamentals and Applications. 3rd ed. Boca Raton: CRC, (2005).
4. Rhee H. C. and M. M. Salama. “Mixed-Mode Stress Intensity Factor Solutions of a Warped Surface Flaw
by Three-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis.” Engineering Fracture Mechanics28-2 (1987): 203-209.

15.10. Input Files

The following files were used in this problem:

• semicircular_surface_flaw.dat -- Input file for the analysis of the semicircular surface flaw in
the rectangular plate.
• semicircular_surface_flaw_model.dat -- Database file for the finite-element model of the
semicircular surface flaw (called by semicircular_surface_flaw.dat).
• xjoint_pipe_with_warped_flaw.dat -- Input file for the fracture analysis of the x-joint model.
• xjoint_pipe_with_warped_flaw.cdb -- Common database file for the x-joint finite-element
model (called by xjoint_pipe_with_warped_flaw.dat).

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-16). See Obtaining the Input Files for more
information.

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Chapter 16: Centrifugal Impeller Analysis Using Cyclic Symmetry
and Linear Perturbation
This example problem demonstrates a cyclic symmetry modal analysis, prestressed modal (linear-perturbation)
analysis, and harmonic analysis of a centrifugal impeller blade. The problem illustrates cyclic modeling
methods and linear-perturbation solution approaches.

The results of the cyclic symmetry analysis are verified against reference results obtained from an analysis
of the full 360 degree model.

Topics related to this example problem follow:

16.1. Introduction
16.2. Problem Description
16.3. Modeling
16.4. Material Properties
16.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
16.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
16.7. Results and Discussion
16.8. Recommendations
16.9. References and Acknowledgements
16.10. Input Files

16.1. Introduction
Cyclic symmetry modeling is a powerful tool for analyzing structures with a repetitive geometric pattern
360 degrees around an axis of symmetry. Cyclic symmetry is found in many civil engineering structures such
as domes, cooling towers, and industrial chimneys. It can also be found in mechanical equipment such as
milling cutters, turbine blade disks, gears, fans, and pump impellers.

Cyclically symmetric models can be solved using a single portion (called the basic sector) of the whole
structure, enforcing the continuity and compatibility boundary conditions between the cyclic substructures.
A cyclic symmetry analysis vastly reduces model sizes and computational cost.

For detailed information, see Cyclic Symmetry Analysis in the Mechanical APDL Advanced Analysis Techniques
Guide.

16.2. Problem Description

The impeller blade assembly in this example is a subsystem of a gas turbine engine used in aerospace ap-
plications.

The following model shows a cyclically symmetric sector of a single centrifugal impeller blade:

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Chapter 16: Centrifugal Impeller Analysis Using Cyclic Symmetry and Linear Perturbation

Figure 16.1 Sector Model of Centrifugal Impeller Blade

The model consists of a shroud and an impeller blade assembly with a sector angle of 27.692 degrees. The
full model comprises 13 main blades and splitters, as shown:

Figure 16.2 Full Model of Centrifugal Impeller Blade

Modal, perturbed prestressed modal, and full harmonic analyses of the cyclic-sector model are performed.
The perturbed modal cyclic symmetry analysis includes the initial prestressed condition from both the linear
and nonlinear static analyses. The initial stress state is produced by the spinning of the impeller as well as
the pressure load on the impeller blade.

Modal, perturbed prestressed modal, and full harmonic analyses of the full 360 degree model are performed
to validate the accuracy of cyclic-sector model results. The analysis results are used as a baseline for comparing
the corresponding results of the cyclic-sector model.

16.3. Modeling
Following are the topics related to the cyclic symmetry modeling for this problem:
16.3.1. Impeller Blade Modeling
16.3.2. Contact Modeling

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 16.3.1. Impeller Blade Modeling

16.3.1. Impeller Blade Modeling

The model of a single sector of the impeller blade is meshed with SOLID187 elements, as shown in this figure:

Figure 16.3 Element Plot of Cyclic-Sector Model

The SOLID187 element default settings are used.

SURF154 elements are created on the surface of the impeller blade to apply a pressure load.

The following model shows the low- and high-edge components of the cyclic-sector model:

Figure 16.4 Low-Edge Component of Sector Model of Centrifugal Impeller Blade

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Chapter 16: Centrifugal Impeller Analysis Using Cyclic Symmetry and Linear Perturbation

Figure 16.5 High-Edge component of Sector Model of Centrifugal Impeller Blade

A tetrahedral mesh is used to obtain the matched node pattern along the high and low edges. To ensure
the most accurate solution, it is best to have identical node and element face patterns on the low and high
edges of the cyclic sector.

If you issue the CYCLIC command before meshing the cyclic sector (AMESH or VMESH only), the mesh will
have identical node and element face patterns on the low and high edges when possible.

For more information about sector low and high edges, see Edge Component Pairs in the Mechanical APDL
Advanced Analysis Techniques Guide.

16.3.2. Contact Modeling

Bonded surface-to-surface contact pairs are used to define contact between the shroud and impeller blade
assembly, as shown in this figure:

Figure 16.6 Bonded Contact Pair Between the Shroud and Impeller

The pure penalty contact algorithm is used for bonded contact. Because MPC-based bonded contact can
create overconstraint along the edge of the cyclic sectors (due to the internally generated constraint equa-
tions), the pure penalty or augmented Lagrangian penalty methods are preferred for bonded contact when
used in conjunction with cyclic symmetry application.

The contact surface is meshed using a CONTA174 element. The target surface is meshed using a TARGE170
element.

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 16.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

16.4. Material Properties

Following are the material properties considered for modeling the cyclic sector of the impeller blade:

Impeller Blade Material Properties

Young's Modulus (Nm-2) 2.0e+005 MPa
Poisson's Ratio 7.85e-006 kg mm-3
Density (Kgm-3) 0.3

Following is the unit system used in this simulation:

Units
Unit System Metric (mm, kg, N, s,
mV, mA) Degrees
rad/s Celsius
Angle Degrees
Rotational Velocity rad/s

16.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

Fixed-support conditions are applied near the hub portion of the cyclic-sector impeller blade model, and
the static fluid pressure is applied as a load on an impeller blade, as shown in this figure:

Figure 16.7 Static Fluid Pressure Load on Hub Wall, Main Blade, and Splitter

The applied load is cyclic in nature. It is also possible to apply non-cyclic loading with different loading values
on each of the cyclic sectors (CYCOPT,LDSECT,SECTOR).

In a perturbed modal analysis, the prestress effect is due to static pressure and rotational velocity. The rota-
tional velocity is applied along the global Y axis in linear (OMEGA,0,3000,0) and nonlinear cases
(OMEGA,0,6000,0).

16.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

This section describes the three analyses performed for this problem:
16.6.1. Modal Cyclic Symmetry Analysis

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Chapter 16: Centrifugal Impeller Analysis Using Cyclic Symmetry and Linear Perturbation

16.6.2. Linear Prestressed Modal Cyclic Symmetry Analysis with Linear Perturbation
16.6.3. Nonlinear Prestressed Modal Cyclic Symmetry Analysis with Linear Perturbation
16.6.4. Full Harmonic Cyclic Symmetry Analysis

For information about linear perturbation, see Linear Perturbation Analysis in the Mechanical APDL Structural
Analysis Guide.

16.6.1. Modal Cyclic Symmetry Analysis

To begin a cyclic symmetry analysis, issue the CYCLIC command within /PREP7, the model-creation prepro-
cessor.

The CYCLIC command automatically detects cyclic symmetry model information such as edge components,
the number of sectors, the sector angles, and the corresponding cyclic coordinate system.

You can display the full (360 degree expanded) model in the preprocessor (/CYCEXPAND,1,ON).

The Block Lanczos eigensolver is used to extract 10 modes. To capture all of the eigenmodes in a cyclic
symmetry analysis, specify the full range of harmonic indices (CYCOPT,HINDX). In this example, the applicable
harmonic indices are 0 through 6 ((N - 1) / 2), where N is the number of sectors.

The following input fragment shows the steps needed in the modal cyclic symmetry analysis:
/prep7

allsel, all, all

cyclic ! Default cyclic command detects the number of sectors, the
! sector angle, and the coordinate system
allsel, all, all
finish

/solu

antype, modal ! Perform modal solve.

modopt, lanb, 10 ! Use Block Lanczos solver to extract 10 modes.
mxpand, 10 ! Expand 10 modes, do not evaluate element results.
cycopt, hindx, 0, 6, 1 ! Solve Harmonic indices in the range 0 through 6.
solve
finish

/post1
set, list,,,,,,,order ! Sorts the harmonic index results in ascending order of eigen
! frequencies
finish

16.6.2. Linear Prestressed Modal Cyclic Symmetry Analysis with Linear Per-
turbation
The procedure to perform a linear prestressed modal cyclic symmetry analysis is essentially the same as a
standard modal analysis, except that you must first prestress the structure by performing a static cyclic
analysis.

To prestress the structure via static cyclic analysis:

1. Obtain a linear static solution (not necessary to issue PSTRES or EMATWRITE).

2. Perform a linear perturbed modal analysis where the linear prestress effects are automatically included.
3. Expand the modes and then postprocess the results from file.RSTP.

The following input fragment shows the steps in this analysis:

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 16.6.3. Nonlinear Prestressed Modal Cyclic Symmetry Analysis with Linear Perturbation

/solu

antype, static ! Perform Static analysis.

rescontrol,linear,all,1 ! Enable the file writing to do a subsequent linear
! perturbation analysis
nsub, 10, 10, 10
time, 1.0
omega, 0, 3000, 0 ! Prestress load
solve
save, ,db
finish

/solu
antype,static,restart,,,perturb ! Perform a static restart with perturb
! from the last load step and substep of
! the previous static solve
perturb,modal,,,allkeep ! Set the analysis options for perturbed modal
! analysis
solve,elform ! Reform element matrices

outres,all,all
modopt,lanb,10 ! Use Block-Lanczos mode extraction procedure
mxpand,10 ! Expand the modes
cycopt, hindx, 0, 6, 1 ! Solve harmonic indices in the range 0 through 6.
solve
finish

/post1
file, ,rstp ! Specify the data file where results are to be found
/out,

set, list,,,,,,,order ! Sorts the harmonic index results in ascending order

! of eigen frequencies

finish

16.6.3. Nonlinear Prestressed Modal Cyclic Symmetry Analysis with Linear

Perturbation
Following is the general process for performing a nonlinear prestressed modal cyclic symmetry analysis with
linear perturbation:

1. Obtain a nonlinear (NLGEOM,ON) static solution (not necessary to issue PSTRES or EMATWRITE).
2. Enable the file writing option for multiframe restart from a static analysis (RESCONTROL).
3. Perform a linear perturbed modal analysis with nonlinear prestress effects.
4. Expand the modes and then postprocess the results (not necessary to issue PSOLVE) from file.RSTP.

To demonstrate the nonlinear effects in the prestressed model, the rotational speed is doubled from the
linear prestressed analysis. The following example input shows the steps in the perturbation procedure:
/prep7

omega, 0, 6000, 0, ! Prestress load

finish
/solu

csys,0
antype,static ! Perform Static analysis
nlgeom,on ! Include large deformation effects
rescontrol,define,all,1 ! Enable the file writing in multiframe restart
nsub,10,10,10 ! Number of substeps = 10
time,1.0

kbc,0
solve

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Chapter 16: Centrifugal Impeller Analysis Using Cyclic Symmetry and Linear Perturbation

finish

/solu
antype,static,restart,,,perturb ! Perform a static restart with perturb
! from the last load step and substep of the previous
! static solution
perturb,modal,,,allkeep ! Set the analysis options for perturbed modal analysis
solve,elform ! Reform element matrices

outres,all,all
modopt,lanb,10 ! Use Block-Lanczos mode extraction procedure
mxpand,10 ! Expand the modes
cycopt,hindx,0,6,1 ! Solve harmonic indices ranging from 0 through 6
solve

finish

/post1
file, ,rstp ! Specify the data file where results are to be found
/out,

set,list,,,,,,,order ! Sort the harmonic index results in ascending order

finish

16.6.4. Full Harmonic Cyclic Symmetry Analysis

A full harmonic analysis of the cyclic-sector model is performed in the frequency range of 1200-5500 Hz
using 20 substeps. The frequency range of excitation is chosen based on the modal frequency values. With
this frequency range, the first few modes of the impeller blade assembly are excited.

The following input fragment shows the steps involved in the full harmonic analysis:
/solu

antype, harm ! Perform harmonic analysis

harfrq,1200, 5500 ! Frequency range of excitation 1200 - 5500 Hz
hropt, full ! Perform Full harmonic analysis
kbc, 1 ! Use Stepped loading
nsub, 20 ! Use sub - step 20

solve
finish

16.7. Results and Discussion

The modal frequencies of the centrifugal impeller blade cyclic-sector model and full model are compared
in the following table:

Mode No. Full Model (Hz) Cyclic Model (Hz) Error (%)
1 1710.29 1710.10 0.01
2 1983.91 1983.80 0.01
3 1984.00 1983.80 0.01
4 2822.21 2823.00 0.03
5 2897.75 2898.20 0.02
6 2898.20 2898.20 0.00
7 4152.17 4152.40 0.01
8 4152.42 4152.40 0.00
9 5373.47 5373.10 0.01

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 16.7. Results and Discussion

Mode No. Full Model (Hz) Cyclic Model (Hz) Error (%)
10 5373.93 5373.10 0.02

The linear (NLGEOM, OFF) prestressed modal frequencies of the cyclic sector obtained from the linear per-
turbation analysis also show strong agreement with the full 360 degree model results, as shown in the fol-
lowing table:

Mode No. Full Model (Hz) Cyclic Model (Hz) Error (%)
1 1711.10 1710.70 0.02
2 2044.10 2042.90 0.06
3 2044.20 2042.90 0.06
4 2860.50 2858.40 0.07
5 2992.30 2989.80 0.08
6 2992.80 2989.80 0.10
7 4270.50 4266.00 0.10
8 4270.80 4266.00 0.11
9 5510.00 5504.60 0.01
10 5510.50 5504.60 0.11

The nonlinear (NLGEOM,ON) prestressed modal frequencies obtained from the linear perturbation analysis
match within reasonable tolerance with the corresponding full model results, as shown in the following
table:

Mode No. Full Model (Hz) Cyclic Model (Hz) Error (%)
1 1708.00 1707.30 0.04
2 2205.90 2204.50 0.06
3 2206.00 2204.50 0.07
4 2949.20 2947.00 0.07
5 3241.60 3239.00 0.08
6 3242.10 3239.00 0.10
7 4571.70 4567.20 0.10
8 4572.00 4567.20 0.10
9 5851.20 5845.80 0.09
10 5851.70 5845.80 0.10

The full harmonic analysis postprocessing (/POST1) results of the cyclic-sector model are compared to the
results of the full-model analysis:

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Chapter 16: Centrifugal Impeller Analysis Using Cyclic Symmetry and Linear Perturbation

Figure 16.8 Total Deformation Pattern of Full Model at Frequency of Excitation 2920 Hz

Deformation Pattern: Cyclic Model

Deformation Pattern: Full Model

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 16.7. Results and Discussion

Figure 16.9 Total Deformation Pattern of Full Model at Frequency of Excitation 4210 Hz

Deformation Pattern: Cyclic Model

Deformation Pattern: Full Model

The results show strong agreement between the total deformation plots of the cyclic-sector model and the
full model.

The nodal solution plots (NSOL) show the amplitude of a nodal degree-of-freedom (DOF) value with respect
to the frequency of excitation:

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Chapter 16: Centrifugal Impeller Analysis Using Cyclic Symmetry and Linear Perturbation

Figure 16.10 Total Deformation Pattern of Full Model at Frequency of Excitation 4210 Hz

(a) Plots of Nodal Amplitude Placed at Symmetric Angular Positions

(b) Comparison of Nodal Displacement Amplitude of Cyclic Model and Full Model

The plots indicate the occurrence of a resonance condition at a frequency of 2920 Hz. The displacement
amplitude of nodes at symmetric angular positions on sectors 1 through 10 are also plotted.

The plots show strong agreement between the cyclic and full-model results. Part (b) of the figure shows the
comparison of the nodal solution result (NSOL) of a node located at an identical location on the cyclic and
full models. The agreement of results is so exact that the plotted curves are virtually superimposed.

The following table compares the displacement amplitude (UY) of nodes placed symmetrically across each
sector at a 2920 Hz frequency excitation. The values show strong agreement between the cyclic-sector and
full-model results.

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 16.7.1. Performance Benefits of Cyclic Symmetry Analysis

Sector No. Frequency (Hz) Full Model Cyclic Model Error (%)
1 2920 6.578 6.620 0.64
2 2920 6.570 6.620 0.76
3 2920 6.564 6.620 0.85
4 2920 6.567 6.620 0.81
5 2920 6.577 6.620 0.65
6 2920 6.581 6.620 0.59
7 2920 6.577 6.620 0.65
8 2920 6.572 6.620 0.73
9 2920 6.569 6.620 0.78
10 2920 6.563 6.620 0.87
11 2920 6.568 6.620 0.79
12 2920 6.579 6.620 0.62
13 2920 6.581 6.620 0.59

16.7.1. Performance Benefits of Cyclic Symmetry Analysis

The following table shows that the cyclic-sector model requires far fewer computational resources and much
less memory than the full model.

Cyclic-Sector Model CPU and Memory Usage

Elements [1] Nodes DOFs Memory re- CPU Time (Sec)
quired for in-
core (MB)
Modal Analysis 48750 81288 229620 1731 1194
Perturbed Lin- 52482 81288 229620 1026 1694
ear Prestressed
Modal Analysis
Harmonic Ana- 52482 81288 229620 1965 2156
lysis
Perturbed Non- 52482 81288 229620 1037 1861
linear
Prestressed
Modal Analysis
Full Model CPU and Memory Usage
Elements [1] Nodes DOFs Memory re- CPU Time (Sec)
quired for in-
core (MB)
Modal Analysis 273043 439561 1313202 12782 3003
Perturbed Lin- 296120 439561 1313202 4441 5735
ear Prestressed
Modal Analysis
Harmonic Ana- 296120 439561 1313202 23405 81109
lysis

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Chapter 16: Centrifugal Impeller Analysis Using Cyclic Symmetry and Linear Perturbation

Cyclic-Sector Model CPU and Memory Usage

Perturbed Non- 296120 439561 1313202 4519 6855
linear
Prestressed
Modal Analysis

1. The difference in the number of elements is due to the surface elements used to apply the pressure load.

The table for the full-model analysis indicates a greater number of elements and nodes used than for the
cyclic-sector model.

The following figure shows that solving a full harmonic analysis of a cyclic-sector model also requires much
less computational time than does the full model:

Figure 16.11 Comparison of CPU Time Between the Cyclic and Full Model for Various Analyses

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 16.10. Input Files

16.8. Recommendations
To perform a similar type of analysis, consider the following hints and recommendations:

• Specify a cyclic symmetry analysis (CYCLIC) before meshing the cyclic sector.

The program can then automatically create matched node pairs at the low and high edges, providing
the most accurate results from a cyclic analysis (AMESH and/or VMESH).
• Use caution when applying boundary conditions on a cyclic sector.

For example, applied boundary conditions (D) and/or loading (for SF) on the cut boundaries of a cyclic
model are not applicable.
• In a harmonic or static cyclic analysis with non-cyclic loading, all applicable harmonic index solutions
are constructed automatically.

It is not necessary to specify the harmonic indices (CYCOPT).

• Use the linear perturbation procedure for prestressed linear or nonlinear modal analysis.

16.9. References and Acknowledgements

The theory behind cyclic symmetry formulation can be found in the following reference:

1. Dickens, John M. Numerical Methods for Dynamic Substructure Analysis. Ph.D. Thesis from University of
California, Berkeley. 1980.

16.10. Input Files

The following input files are used in this problem:

Cyclic-sector model:

• sector_model.cdb -- The common database file for the cyclic-sector model of the centrifugal impeller
blade.
• cyclic_modal_analysis.dat -- Input file for the cyclic-symmetry modal analysis of the blade.

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Chapter 16: Centrifugal Impeller Analysis Using Cyclic Symmetry and Linear Perturbation

• cyclic_modal_perturb.dat -- Input file for the cyclic-symmetry perturbed procedure (modal

analysis of the linear prestressed blade).
• cyclic_modal_perturb_nonlinear.dat -- Input file for the cyclic-symmetry perturbed procedure
(modal analysis of the nonlinear prestressed blade.
• cyclic_model_harmonic.dat -- Input file for the cyclic-symmetry full harmonic analysis of the
blade.

Full model:

• full_model.cdb -- The common database file for the full-model analysis of the centrifugal impeller.
• full_modal_analysis.dat -- Input file for the full-model modal analysis of the impeller.
• full_modal_perturb.dat -- Input file for the full-model perturbed procedure (modal analysis of
the linear prestressed impeller).
• full_model_perturb_nonlinear.dat -- Input file for the full-model perturbed procedure
(modal analysis of the nonlinear prestressed impeller).
• full_model_harmonic.dat -- Input file for the full-model harmonic analysis of the impeller.

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-13). See Obtaining the Input Files for more
information.

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Chapter 17: Transient Dynamic Analysis of a Digger-Arm Assembly
This example problem uses a digger-arm assembly to show how to perform a transient dynamic analysis of
a multibody system.

The following techniques and capabilities are highlighted:

• Defining joints, rigid parts, and flexible parts during modeling.

• Mitigating overconstraints due to improper joint definitions.
• Representing flexible parts using component mode synthesis (CMS).

The example also uses transient dynamic analyses for the following three cases:
• All parts of the multibody system are assumed to be rigid.
• Some of the parts are flexible and the remainder are rigid.
• The flexible parts are modeled using CMS superelements.

Topics related to this example problem follow:

17.1. Introduction
17.2. Problem Description
17.3. Modeling
17.4. Material Properties
17.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
17.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
17.7. Results and Discussion
17.8. Recommendations
17.9. Input Files

17.1. Introduction
A multibody system is an assembly of bodies or parts in which some or all parts move relative to one another.
These assemblies may be simple or complex and may be comprised of all rigid bodies or a combination of
rigid and flexible parts. The parts are constrained to each other by a set of kinematically admissible constraints
modeled as joints.

Common examples of multibody systems include land transportation systems, aviation systems, nautical
systems, and robotic systems.

The components of a multibody system may experience finite-strain effects and large displacements and/or
large rotations.

Dynamic analysis of a multibody system allows one to understand the interaction of the parts, evaluate the
stress and deformation fields in the parts, and calculate the fatigue life of critical components.

For further information about multibody systems, see the Multibody Analysis Guide.

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Chapter 17: Transient Dynamic Analysis of a Digger-Arm Assembly

17.2. Problem Description

The following figure shows the digger-arm assembly with all parts identified:

Figure 17.1 Dagger-Arm Assembly

A mass of 500 kg (not shown) is attached to the bucket to simulate the load the bucket carries.

The various parts of the digger-arm assembly are connected to each other using joints. Actuation of the two
piston-cylinder arrangements causes the frame, arms, and connecting rods to move, thereby causing the
bucket to move as well. The entire system has essentially two free degrees of freedom.

The motion of the frame, arms, connecting rods, and the bucket are dependent on the two free degrees of
freedom. For this problem, the motion of the digger-arm is restricted to in-plane motion.

Transient dynamic analyses are conducted on the multibody system as follows:

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 17.3.1. Modeling Rigid Parts

• The first analysis assumes that all parts are rigid.

• The second analysis assumes that the connecting rods are flexible and all other parts are rigid. The
flexible parts are modeled using 3-D finite elements.
• The third analysis is a variation of the second analysis. The flexible connecting rods are now modeled
as CMS superelements.

17.3. Modeling
The finite-element models for simple 2-D and 3-D problems are usually generated via the Mechanical APDL
command interface. For complicated assemblies, the ANSYS Workbench product is used, as it allows one to
define the geometry natively and to set up a project workflow that allows the entire analysis, from model
generation to results processing, to occur in a well-defined manner.

In this problem, the digger-arm assembly is modeled using ANSYS Workbench. The modeling description
identifies the relevant Mechanical APDL features that define the eventual finite-element model for analysis.

The following modeling topics for the digger-arm assembly are available:
17.3.1. Modeling Rigid Parts
17.3.2. Modeling Joints
17.3.3. Modeling Flexible Parts
17.3.4. Modeling Flexible Parts with CMS Superelements

For details about the ANSYS Workbench program, see Workbench Help.

17.3.1. Modeling Rigid Parts

Rigid parts are modeled using the MPC-based rigid target definition, as shown in this example of a connecting
rod:

Figure 17.2 Rigid Modeling of the Connecting Rod

The connecting rod is modeled as a rigid part as follows:

1. A mass element, with mass equal to the mass of the connecting rod, is defined at the center of mass
(B) of the part.

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Chapter 17: Transient Dynamic Analysis of a Digger-Arm Assembly

2. The node defining the mass element location (B) is identified as a pilot node using the TARGE170
element.
3. The locations at which the rod is connected to other parts are identified (A and B).
4. TARGE170 elements are defined between the mass element and the identified locations (A-B and B-
C).
5. Points A and B are used in the joint definitions when connecting to other parts.

For further information, see Modeling Rigid Bodies in a Multibody Analysis in the Multibody Analysis Guide.

The following example input creates the rigid part:

!node definitions
n, A, x,y,z ! node definition for mass node A
n, B, x,y,z ! node definition for point B
n, C, x,y,z ! node definition for point C
!
!Mass element definition at point A
et,1,MASS21 ! element type
keyo,1,2,1 ! moments of inertia in nodal coordinates
keyo,1,3,0 ! 3-D mass with rotary intertia
r,1, m, , , Ixx, Iyy, Izz
local,11,0,0, 0, ! local coordinate system to define the inertias
csys,11
nrot,A ! align local cs
csys,0
mat,1
real,1
type,1
en,elem#, A
!
!Pilot node definition at Point A
et, 2, 170 ! define target element
keyo, 2, 2, 1 ! set mpc target element do not fix pilot
keyo, 2, 4, 0 ! create constraint equations for all degrees of freedom
type, 2
mat, 2
real, 2
tshape,pilo ! define element to be pilot node element
en,elem#, A
!
!Target elements for line segments A-B and B-C
type,2
mat,2
real,2
tshap, line ! define 3-D line segment
en,elem#, A, B
en,elem#, B, C

All rigid parts of the digger-arm assembly are essentially modeled in the same manner. The ANSYS Workbench
program automates the process for modeling the complicated geometries of the digger-arm assembly. The
following figure shows the entire rigid model for the assembly as generated by ANSYS Workbench:

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 17.3.2. Modeling Joints

Figure 17.3 Rigid Representation of the Digger-Arm Assembly

17.3.2. Modeling Joints

The various parts of the multibody system are connected or constrained to each other via kinematically
admissible constraints implemented as joint elements.

Two nodes define a joint element. The relative motion between the two nodes is characterized by six relative
degrees of freedom. A joint element is defined based on the type of constraints imposed on these relative
degrees of freedom.

So that the constraints can be suitably imposed, local coordinate systems must be defined at the nodes of
the joint elements. In Mechanical APDL, the constraints are implemented via the Lagrange multiplier method.

The joint capability offers the following features:

• Stops and locks on the free degrees of freedom of the joint

• Stiffness, damping, and frictional behavior in the joint
• Joint actuation

This problem implements joint actuation only.

The following example input creates a revolute joint element:

n, n1, x,y,z
n, n2, x,y,z
local,12,0,x1,y1,z1,... ! defines a local coordinate system
et, etid#,184 ! MPC184 element
keyopt, etid#,1,6 ! revolute joint
keyopt, etid#,4,1 ! Z axis is revolute axis
sectype,secid#, joint, revo, RevJoint ! identify joint section and subtype
secjoint,,12,12 ! associate local cs with joint nodes
mat, matid#
real,realid#
type, etid#
secnum,secid#
en,elem#,n1,n2 ! define revolute joint element

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Chapter 17: Transient Dynamic Analysis of a Digger-Arm Assembly

The parts of the assembly are connected to each other by various types of joints, depending on the interaction
between the parts. For example, the piston-cylinder arrangement requires a translational joint; other inter-
actions between parts seem to indicate that one part rotates relative to another about an axis, requiring a
revolute joint. Thus, as a first attempt, the joints between the parts are defined as follows:

Interacting Parts Joint Type Constraints

Frame-Ground Revolute 5
Frame-Cylinder1 Revolute 5
Cylinder1-Piston1 Translational 5
Piston1-Arm1 Revolute 5
Piston1-Arm2 Revolute 5
Arm1-Frame Revolute 5
Arm2-Frame Revolute 5
Arm1-ConnectingRod1 Revolute 5
Arm2-ConnectingRod2 Revolute 5
ConnectingRod1- Bucket Revolute 5
ConnectingRod2-Bucket Revolute 5
Frame-Bucket-1 Revolute 5
Frame-Bucket-2 Revolute 5
Piston2-Frame Revolute 5
Cylinder2-Piston2 Translational 5
Cylinder2-Ground Revolute 5

After the joints between parts have been defined, the kinematic behavior of the assembly must be verified.
The wrong choice of joints can cause either of the following conditions in the system:

• Overconstraint – More constraints exist than are required, leading to a stiff response of the system.
• Underconstraint – Fewer constraints exist than are required, leading to unnecessary deformation modes.

In either case, the result is inconsistent kinematic behavior, and the joints must be redefined to obtain a
proper kinematic response.

To check whether a multibody system model is overconstrained or underconstrained due to improper joint
definition, the free degrees of freedom in the system are counted. All parts are assumed to be rigid for this
calculation. The calculated number must match the expected value. If a mismatch exists, the joints must be
replaced by other joints of similar behavior such that the mathematical modeling of the system shows
consistent kinematic behavior.

The free degrees of freedom for the digger-arm assembly are calculated as follows:

10 rigid bodies x 6 degrees of free- +60

dom per rigid body
14 revolute joints x 5 constraints -70
2 prismatic joints x 5 constraints -10
Number of free degrees of freedom -20

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 17.3.2. Modeling Joints

The number of free degrees of freedom should be 2; therefore, the calculation shows that the Digger-Arm
model is severely overconstrained due to improper joint definitions.

The overconstraints can be minimized by redefining the joints between the various parts. Some experiment-
ation may be required. For example, consider the constraints in the joints between the following part pairs
(as shown in Figure 17.4 (p. 227)):

• Translational joint between Piston1-Cylinder1

- Free degrees of freedom -- 1 relative displacement along translational axis

- Constrained degrees of freedom -- 2 relative displacements, 3 relative rotations

• Revolute joints between Piston1-Arm1 and Piston1-Arm2

- Free degrees of freedom – 1 relative rotation along revolute axis

- Constrained degrees of freedom – 3 relative displacements, 2 relative rotations

Figure 17.4 Connections Between Piston, Cylinder, and Arms

It is apparent that Piston1 does not rotate with respect to Cylinder1 due to the rotational constraints in the
translational joint; therefore, the rotational constraints in the revolute joints between Piston1-Arm1 and
Piston1-Arm2 are not required. The relative displacement constraints between these parts must be maintained,
however, and so the revolute joint can be replaced by a spherical joint. The spherical joint provides the
same relative displacement constraints but allows the relative rotations to be unconstrained.

In a similar way, other joints are replaced as necessary. The new joint definitions between the various parts
are as follows:

Interacting Parts Joint Type Constraints

Frame-Ground Cylindrical 4
Frame-Cylinder1 Spherical 3
Cylinder1-Piston1 Translational 5
Piston1-Arm1 General 2

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Chapter 17: Transient Dynamic Analysis of a Digger-Arm Assembly

Interacting Parts Joint Type Constraints

Piston1-Arm2 Spherical 3
Arm1-Frame Cylindrical 4
Arm2-Frame Cylindrical 4
Arm1-ConnectingRod1 Spherical 5
Arm2-ConnectingRod2 Spherical 5
ConnectingRod1- Bucket Revolute 5
ConnectingRod2-Bucket Revolute 5
Frame-Bucket-1 General 2
Frame-Bucket-2 General 2
Piston2-Frame Cylindrical 4
Cylinder2-Piston2 Translational 5
Cylinder2-Ground Spherical 3

The redefinition of joints outlined in the table is not necessarily unique; however, it meets the objective of
ensuring that a joint does not unnecessarily constrain motion in a particular direction which has been oth-
erwise constrained.

With the new joint definitions, the free degrees of freedom in the model are now calculated as follows:

10 rigid bodies x 6 degrees of free- +60

dom per rigid body
2 revolute joints x 5 constraints -10
2 translational joints x 5 constraints -10
4 cylindrical joints x 4 constraints -16
5 spherical joints x 3 constraints -15
2 prismatic joints x 5 constraints -6
Number of free degrees of freedom +2

The number of free degrees of freedom in the model matches the required number of degrees of freedom.
A transient dynamic analysis of the digger-arm assembly, with all parts rigid and joints redefined, exhibits
the correct kinematic response.

In this problem, the joints as defined above are used for all subsequent analyses.

For further information, see Connecting Multibody Components with Joint Elements in the Multibody Ana-
lysis Guide and Constraints and Lagrange Multiplier Method in the Theory Reference for the Mechanical APDL
and Mechanical Applications.

17.3.3. Modeling Flexible Parts

Frequently, a part or component may be modeled as flexible if its material behavior is defined as nonlinear
(for example, with plasticity or hyperelasticity) or the part is expected to undergo large deformation. A wide
variety of continuum and structural elements is available to model the flexibility.

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 17.3.4. Modeling Flexible Parts with CMS Superelements

The two connecting rods are defined to be flexible for this analysis. The flexible parts are meshed with
SOLID185 elements. A total of 876 SOLID185 elements are used in the analysis. The following figure shows
the finite-element mesh:

Figure 17.5 Connecting Rods Modeled with SOLID185 Elements

For further information, see Modeling Flexible Bodies in a Multibody Analysis in the Multibody Analysis Guide.

17.3.4. Modeling Flexible Parts with CMS Superelements

Flexible bodies are often modeled with component mode synthesis (CMS) superelements to reduce compu-
tational requirements. The advantage of CMS is that the many degrees of freedom in a flexible multibody
system are replaced by a limited set of degrees of freedom, thereby reducing the computational time required.
The CMS superelement represents the stiffness and mass of the flexible body and is used in place of a
standard element in the analysis phase.

Following is the general process for generating and using a CMS superelement:

1. Prepare a full model of the flexible multibody system (including joint loads).
2. Define components for each flexible body to be represented as a CMS superelement:

- Create a node component (the master component) that defines the master degrees of freedom.
- Create a component of elements (the slave component) that are dependent on the master degrees
of freedom.
3. Generate a CMS substructure file (in the generation pass) characterizing the dynamic flexibility of the
body.
4. Use the CMS substructure information (in the use pass) in a standard analysis.

The CMS substructure information is used to define a CMS superelement representing the flexible
body.
5. Expand the results of the analysis (in the expansion pass) to all elements in the flexible body to recover
its stress and deformation fields.
6. Postprocess the results for stress and deformation fields in the model.

For the analysis requiring a CMS superelement representation of the flexible part, the two connecting rods
are once again defined as flexible. The rods are then modeled as CMS superelements.

The following example input creates the master and slave components:

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Chapter 17: Transient Dynamic Analysis of a Digger-Arm Assembly

/com,*********** Create Components for CMS ***********

nsel,none ! create nodal component of master nodes
nsel,a,node,,Node#, ! add pilot node attached to this body
nsel,a,node,,Node#, ! add pilot node attached to this body
cm,COMPONENT_master,node
esel,s,elem,,COMPONENT
nsle ! select any nodes touching these bodies in the user component
esln ! add in any touching elements such as contact and surf effect
cm,COMPONENT_slave,elem
allsel

The following example input creates the CMS substructure file:

/solu
antype,substr ! perform a substructure analysis
seopt, Component,2 ! CMS substructure file name and generate stiffness and mass matrices
cmsopt,free,30 ! specify CMS analysis options with free-interface method
mdele,all,all ! delete any previously generate master dofs
cmsel,s,COMPONENT_MASTER ! select the master component
m,all,all ! define master degrees of freedom
cmsel,s,COMPONENT_SLAVE ! select the slave component
nsle
save
solve
finish

Because the analysis phase considers both the lower and higher modes of vibration to be equally important,
the free-interface method (CMSOPT,FREE) is used to generate the substructure files.

The following example input defines and uses the CMS superelement during the analysis phase:
/filnam, FILENAME
resume, ! resumes database

/prep7
cmsel,u,Component_slave ! unselect the flexible elements
cmsel,a,Component_master ! make sure the master nodes are selected

et,100,50 ! define substructure element type using available itype number

type,100
real,100
mat,100
mp,mu,100,0.0
se,ConnectRod1 ! define substructure element

/solu
antype,trans
nlgeom, on
...
...
finish

The following example input shows expands the results to the full flexible body:
/filnam, FILENAME
resume

/solu
expass,on
seexp,Component,FILENAME ! substructure name and the use pass jobname
numexp,all,,,yes ! Expand all time points
solve
finish

For further information, see "Using Component Mode Synthesis Superelements in a Multibody Analysis" in
the Multibody Analysis Guide.

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 17.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

17.4. Material Properties

Following are the material properties used for the flexible bodies:

Flexible Body Material Properties

Young's Modulus (Nm-2) 2.00E + 11
Poisson's Ratio 0.3
-3
Density (Kgm ) 7850

17.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

The entire digger-arm model is subjected to acceleration to account for gravity. The two piston-cylinder ar-
rangements are also activated simultaneously. In the finite-element model, these piston-cylinder arrangements
are represented as translational joints. Displacement boundary conditions are applied on the free relative
degree of freedom of the translational joints. The displacements are applied over three load steps, as shown:

Figure 17.6 Relative Displacement Specifications for Cylinders and Pistons

The following example input applies the acceleration and displacement loading (ACEL and DJ):
acel,%_acelx%,%_acely%,%_acelz% ! apply acceleration loading via table
esel,s,type,, id1# ! select the first translational joint
dj,all,ux,%_load1% ! apply loads defined by table
esel,all
esel,s,type,, id2# ! select the other translational joint
dj,all,ux,%_load2% ! apply loads defined by table

17.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

Three nonlinear transient dynamic analyses (ANTYPE,TRANS) are performed on the digger-arm assembly.

Finite-deformation and large-rotation effects are included in the analysis (NLGEOM).

An analysis is performed for each of the following cases:

• All parts are considered to be rigid.

• The connecting rods are modeled as flexible with SOLID185 elements.

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Chapter 17: Transient Dynamic Analysis of a Digger-Arm Assembly

• The flexible connecting rods are now modeled as CMS superelements.

In general, automatic time-stepping schemes are preferred over fixed-time stepping schemes, as the program
is allowed to cut back when the problem does not converge; when the convergence rate is good, larger
time increments are used to achieve faster convergence. For this problem, however, fixed time-stepping
with a time increment of 0.2 seconds is used so that the results at additional time points can be captured.
Three load steps, each having a 10-second duration, are used, for a total analysis time of 30 seconds.

A default numerical damping of 0.1 is set (TINTP), and the HHT time-integration method is selected (TRNOPT).

The following example input performs the essential tasks in the analysis process:
/solu
antype,4 ! transient analysis
nlgeom,on ! activate large-deformation effects
trnopt,full,,,,,hht ! HHT time-integration method
tintp,0.1 ! numerical damping
autots,off ! automatic time-stepping disabled
deltim,0.1,0.1,0.1 ! set time increments
time,10. ! set total time
timint,on ! activate time-integration effects
outres,all,all ! output all results at all time points
!
solve ! solve for 1st load step
time, 20.
solve ! solve for 2nd load step
time, 30.
solve ! solve for 3rd load step
finish

17.7. Results and Discussion

The following animation (generated in ANSYS Workbench) shows the motion of the digger-arm assembly:

Figure 17.7 Digger-Arm Assembly Animation

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 17.7. Results and Discussion

The following figure shows the rotation of the frame with respect to ground for all three transient dynamic
analysis cases. The motion of the frame (due to the activation of the piston-cylinder assemblies) is the same
in all three cases.

Figure 17.8 Relative Rotation at Cylindrical Joint (Ground-to-Frame)

The following figure compares the relative rotation of the bucket with respect to the frame for the three
analysis cases. The rotations in the three cases are nearly identical.

Figure 17.9 Relative Rotation at General Joint Along Local Z Axis (Bucket-Frame)

Both relative-rotation figures shown above indicate that the kinematic behavior of the digger-arm assembly,
whether modeled as entirely rigid or as a rigid/flexible combination, exhibit the same behavior. When flex-
ibility is involved in an analysis, modeling the assembly as though it consisted of rigid parts, and ensuring
that the joints are defined correctly, allows the engineer to focus on other issues.

The stresses and deformation fields can be evaluated when the connecting rods are made flexible. The fol-
lowing figure shows the deformation plots (USUM) of the connecting rods when the rods are modeled as
flexible:

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Chapter 17: Transient Dynamic Analysis of a Digger-Arm Assembly

Figure 17.10 USUM Plots of Connecting Rods

The following figure shows the equivalent stresses in the connecting rods when the rods are modeled using
SOLID185 elements and as CMS superelements, respectively.

Figure 17.11 Equivalent Stress Plots of Connecting Rods

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 17.8. Recommendations

The time point is at 25 seconds (load step 3, substep 25). The equivalent stress plots show good agreement
with each other.

The following table shows the CPU time comparisons between the three analysis cases.

Flexible and Ri- CMS and Rigid

All Rigid Parts
gid Parts Parts
Total degrees of freedom 606 2874 702
Total iterations 458 489 436
Generation time (with original
--- --- 2.38 seconds
database saved)
Use pass time --- --- 46.8 seconds
Total CPU time (including full-
model save, generation pass, use
42.5 seconds 372.68 seconds 78.06 seconds
pass, expansion pass, and results
processing)

In all cases, shared memory parallel with two CPUs is used. The results are reported for a 64-bit Linux system.

The table and the other results discussed illustrate some essential analysis considerations:

• It is worthwhile to verify the kinematic behavior of the multibody system by assuming all parts as rigid,
as the time and resources required for the rigid analysis are small.
• Modeling the flexible bodies using CMS superelements results in significant time savings.
• Analysis of the assembly when the flexible part is modeled with 3-D finite elements necessarily requires
more time due to the increased number of degrees of freedom. Such an analysis, however, should be
performed only when the flexible part undergoes large deformations, either due to nonlinear material
behavior or to nonlinear geometric effects.

17.8. Recommendations
To perform a similar transient dynamic analysis of a multibody system, consider the following hints and re-
commendations:

• Ensure that the motion and behavior of the model is kinematically consistent by modeling all parts as
rigid bodies connected to each other by joints.
• Relax overconstraints due to joints by selecting joints of similar behavior. Use a spherical or cylindrical
joint instead of a revolute joint if some constraints are deemed unnecessary.
• When modeling flexible parts, build the model incrementally and verify that the motion and behavior
are consistent with expected behavior.
• Use full modeling of the parts only when detailed information about the stress and deformation fields
is required.
• For reduced run times, model the flexible parts as CMS superelements whenever possible.

For additional recommendations, see "Troubleshooting a Flexible Multibody Analysis" in the Multibody Ana-
lysis Guide.

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Chapter 17: Transient Dynamic Analysis of a Digger-Arm Assembly

17.9. Input Files

The following files were used in this problem:

• DiggerArm-Rigid.dat -- Input file for all parts modeled as rigid.

• DiggerArm-Rigid.inp -- Rigid model information (called by DiggerArm-Rigid.dat).
• DiggerArm-Flexible.dat -- Input file for connecting rods modeled as flexible using SOLID185
elements.
• DiggerArm-Flexible.inp -- Flexible model information (called by DiggerArm-Flexible.inp).
• DiggerArm-CMS.dat -- Input file for modeling the flexible connecting rods as CMS superelements.
• DiggerArm-CMS.inp -- CMS superelement model information (called by DiggerArm-CMS.dat).

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-19). See Obtaining the Input Files for more
information.

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Chapter 18: Dynamic Simulation of a Printed Circuit Board Assembly
Using Modal Analysis Methods
This example demonstrates the use of residual vectors to improve the solution accuracy in modal subspace
based analysis methods, such as modal superposition and power spectral density (PSD) analyses. The problem
includes a study of the computational efficiency of the results-expansion procedure used to obtain the full
model solution.

Topics related to this example problem follow:

18.1. Introduction
18.2. Problem Description
18.3. Modeling
18.4. Material Properties
18.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
18.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
18.7. Results and Discussion
18.8. Recommendations
18.9. References
18.10. Input Files

18.1. Introduction
Portable electronic devices such as digital cameras, mobile phones, and PDAs use printed circuit boards
(PCBs). Due to increased demands for convenience and multi-functionality, these devices are designed with
a focus on miniaturization to accommodate a higher density and smaller dimensions of integrated circuit
(IC) packages. These design constraints require smaller solder joints with finer pitch, contributing to the
vulnerability of interconnections at the board level. Exposure to harsh dynamic loading environments during
transportation and customer use are a critical issue for PCBs. PSD analysis simulates the random excitations
with unknown loading encountered in these harsh conditions.

The modal superposition method efficiently solves a large linear dynamic system by transforming it into a
set of uncoupled equations using the normal modes of the system. The first step in the modal superposition
method is to obtain the eigen frequencies and eigen modes of the system through modal analysis. The
downstream modal transient, modal harmonic, and spectral analyses are then performed.

In the modal analysis, only a subset of the lower frequencies is usually extracted, truncating the higher fre-
quency modes. As a result, the accuracy of the modal subspace based solution is not guaranteed, though
accuracy can be improved using residual vectors. The residual vectors are calculated and normalized to the
modes extracted, and can then be used in all the downstream analyses (e.g., modal transient, modal harmonic,
and spectral analyses).

The efficiency of the modal superposition expansion pass has been improved using a direct combination
approach of stress/strain modes. You can activate the expansion in the modal analysis by applying the element
results expansion option.

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Chapter 18: Dynamic Simulation of a Printed Circuit Board Assembly Using Modal Analysis Methods

18.2. Problem Description

The model below is a PCB assembly consisting of three PCBs stacked together. A PSD analysis with base
excitation using acceleration response spectrum is performed on this model. The aim is to determine the
1-σ displacement solution and compare the accuracy of results with and without the residual vectors. Im-
provement of the computational efficiency is verified via modal superposition expansion (MXPAND).

Figure 18.1 Full 3-D Geometry of a PCB assembly

18.3. Modeling
This section describes the detailed modeling of the PCB assembly. The following modeling topics are covered:
18.3.1. Modeling of the PCB Structure
18.3.2. Contact Modeling

18.3.1. Modeling of the PCB Structure

The assembly consists of three PCBs stacked together. Each PCB consists of a circuit board with IC packages
on top. The board is a 0.20m×0.28m rectangular surface body with a 1 mm uniform thickness. The IC packages
are 3-D structures, each with a thickness of 5 mm. The board is modeled with SHELL181, which is suitable
for analyzing thin to moderately thick shell structures. The IC packages are modeled with SOLID186, which
is a 3-D 20 noded solid element, exhibiting quadratic displacement behavior. The stack is connected together
by five vertical columns. These are thick beam structures (length/diameter ≈ 10), and they are modeled
using BEAM188.

BEAM188 uses Timoshenko beam theory, which includes shear deformation effects, and is one of the most
accurate beam elements for analyzing moderately stubby beam structures. A hexahedral dominant mesh is
used to mesh the board and the solids, resulting in each PCB having 14600 nodes. Both the board and the
IC packages are made of polyethylene material. The supporting columns are made of aluminum alloy. The
total number of nodes for the model is 44097 with 26046 elements.

18.3.2. Contact Modeling

Bonded and flexible surface-to-surface contact pairs are used to define the contact between the IC packages
and the circuit board. Contact and target surfaces are used to connect the IC packages to the board. The
contact surface is modeled with CONTA174 elements and the target surfaces are modeled using TARGE170
elements. The surface-to-surface contact elements have the following advantages over the node-to-node
elements:

• Support for lower and higher order elements on the contact and target surfaces. (SHELL181 is a linear
element, whereas SOLID186 is a quadratic element)

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 18.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

• No restrictions on the shape of the target surface. Surface discontinuities can result from manufacturing
flaws or mesh discretization.

For each board, fifteen contact pairs are identified, as seen in the figure below.

Figure 18.2 Bonded Contact Pairs Between IC Packages and Circuit Boards

18.4. Material Properties

Material properties for the supporting columns, board, and IC packages are as follows:

Supporting Column Material Properties

Young's Modulus (ton/s2mm) 71.0e3
Poisson's Ratio 0.33
3
Density (ton/mm ) 2.77e-009

Board and IC Packages Material Properties

Young's Modulus (ton/s2mm) 1.1e3
Poisson's Ratio 0.42
3
Density (ton/mm ) 9.5e-010

18.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

The boards of the PCB assembly are connected with five supporting columns. The base of the columns (y
= -60) are constrained on all degrees of freedom as shown in the figure below:

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Chapter 18: Dynamic Simulation of a Printed Circuit Board Assembly Using Modal Analysis Methods

Figure 18.3 PCB Boundary Conditions

The following example input shows how the fixed constraints are applied:
CM, N_BASE_EXCITE, NODE ! Group the set of nodes at the base of the columns as a component
D, ALL, ALL ! Apply displacement and rotation constraints to this set

N_BASE_EXCITE in the input above specifies the nodes at the junction of the supporting columns with the
base. For PSD analysis, the loading is applied in the form of base excitation on the set N_BASE_EXCITE.

The PSD values for the input spectrum at different frequency points are shown in the figure below. The input
segment between 1.0E-02 and 1.0E+01 has 2 intermediate points in order to obtain a good fit for the curve-
fitting polynomial used in the PSD integration process.

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 18.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

Figure 18.4 PSD Base Excitation Values

The following example input shows how base excitation is applied:

/SOLU
ANTYPE, SPECTR ! Perform a spectral analysis
SPOPT, PSD ! Use power spectral density (PSD) as the spectrum
! type
PSDUNIT, 1, ACCG, 9.81*1000 ! Use input table 1 with acceleration spectrum in
! terms of acceleration due to gravity
PSDFRQ, 1, , 1, 40, 50, 70.71678, 100, 700, 900, 1E3 ! Define the frequency points in the input table 1
PSDVAL, 1, 0.01, 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, 10, 1, 1 ! Define the PSD values in the input table 1
PSDGRAPH, 1 ! Display the input PSD curve from table 1
DMPRAT, 0.05 ! Set the damping ratio as 5%
D, N_BASE_EXCITE, UY, 1 ! Apply base excitation on the set of nodes
! N_BASE_EXCITE in the y direction from table 1

18.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

This section describes the solution controls and analysis settings for the modal and PSD analyses with the
use of the residual vectors and modal expansion.

The modal analysis is performed using the Block Lanczos mode extraction method with the residual vector.
(For additional information on the residual vector method, refer to Residual Vector Method in the Theory
Reference for the Mechanical APDL and Mechanical Applications and Residual Vector Method in Structural
Analysis Guide)

Linear acceleration loading is applied in the y direction (ACEL), as it is needed to generate the residual
vector in conjunction with the downstream PSD analysis. Acceleration loading in the global y direction is
chosen to generate the residual vector because in the subsequent PSD analysis, base excitation is applied
in the same direction. The example input below shows how residual vectors are generated in the modal
analysis:
NUM_MODES=50 ! Number of modes to be extracted = 50
/SOLU
ANTYPE,MODAL ! Perform a modal analysis

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Chapter 18: Dynamic Simulation of a Printed Circuit Board Assembly Using Modal Analysis Methods

MODOPT,LANB,NUM_MODES ! Use block Lanczos to extract the modes

RESVEC, ON ! Calculate the residual vectors
ACEL,0,1,0 ! Set the linear acceleration of the reference frame along the global Y axis

For power spectral density (PSD) analysis, base excitation is applied in the form of acceleration in the vertical
y direction, which is represented in terms of the acceleration due to gravity. The PSD values for the input
spectrum at different frequency points are given previously in Figure 18.4 (p. 241) and a damping ratio of
0.05 is selected.

18.6.1. Residual Vector Method

In the modal superposition analysis, the dynamic response will be approximate if the applied loading excites
the modes of a structure more than the modal analysis. The residual vector method is used to improve the
accuracy of the dynamic response. The residual vectors are calculated using the static displacement response
of the loads applied on the structure, which represent the linear combination of the truncated high frequency
modes. The residual vectors are orthogonalized with respect to the eigenmodes extracted in the modal
analysis to form orthogonalized residual vectors. The orthogonalized residual vectors are then used in
modal superposition transient, harmonic, and spectral analyses to obtain more accurate modal based analyses
results.

Because of the improved convergence properties of this method, fewer eigenmodes are required from the
eigensolution. The dynamic response of the structure can be divided into two parts: contributions from the
lower modes, and contributions due to the higher modes, which can be expressed as a combination of re-
sidual vectors.

The response power spectral density (RPSD) 1-σ displacement solutions are obtained with and without the
residual vectors. The residual vectors are calculated in the modal analysis, and subsequently used in the PSD
analysis with the same procedure. The sample input below shows how residual vectors are used in a PSD
analysis:
/SOLU
ANTYPE,SPECTR ! Perform a spectral analysis
RESVEC, ON ! Include the residual vectors
ACEL,0,0,0 ! Initialize the linear acceleration of the ref frame to zero
SPOPT,PSD ! Use power spectral density (PSD) as the spectrum type.
! Rest of the code is same as in the previous section

18.6.2. Mode Expansion

Element results are written in the Jobname.mode file prior to the expansion pass of the subsequent mode
superposition by using the parameter MSUPkey in the modal analysis with MXPAND. Results in Job-
name.mode are written as a linear combination of the modal element results. This saves a significant amount
of time for the downstream modal transient, harmonic, and PSD analyses, as the expansion pass does not
need to execute element routines due to prior information being available.

Full model modal analysis is carried out with and without storing the element results for the PSD analysis,
and their efficiencies are compared.

18.7. Results and Discussion

The following topics are discussed in this section:
18.7.1. Computational Efficiency
18.7.2. Accuracy of Results

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 18.7.2. Accuracy of Results

18.7.1. Computational Efficiency

PSD analysis is performed with a large number of modes first. Using the MXPAND command (MSUPkey =
YES) to store the modal element results significantly improves the efficiency in the downstream modal su-
perposition expansion pass. Reduction of the number of modes used also reduces the solution time, but at
the expense of accuracy. Accuracy can be improved without a significant increase in the solution time by
using residual vectors.

The figure below shows the elapsed and CPU times with and without the residual vector method and the
expansion of the modes. Significant reduction in the solution time is achieved with the use of MSUPkey =
YES.

Figure 18.5 Solution Times With and Without MXPAND

The solution time is slightly increased with the residual vector. For 50 modes, the elapsed time with and
without the residual vector are 143.00 and 137.42 seconds, respectively.

18.7.2. Accuracy of Results

The mode shape of the residual vector obtained using 50 modes (the 51th mode being the residual vector)
is shown in the figure below. Note that the residual vector corresponds to a displacement in the y direction.

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Chapter 18: Dynamic Simulation of a Printed Circuit Board Assembly Using Modal Analysis Methods

Figure 18.6 Mode Shape of the Residual Vector

The residual vector method uses an additional vector computed in the modal analysis pass in addition to
the eigenvectors in the modal transformation. This increases the accuracy of the response solution. RPSD
displacement solutions with and without the residual vector are listed in the table below. For 50 modes
without the residual vector, accuracy of the results is poor, as shown in column A in the following table.
Accuracy is significantly improved with the use of the residual vector, as shown in column B.

The following figure shows a subset of these values. The figure also contains RPSD values for 300 modes
with the residual vector. As the frequency of this residual vector (1489 Hz) falls outside the range of the input
frequency, there is hardly any change in result the for 300 modes. Hence, this is taken as the baseline for
the analysis. Generally residual vectors should be used to increase accuracy and reduce the number of modes
whose frequency is most likely to fall within the input frequency range for spectral analysis.

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 18.10. Input Files

Figure 18.7 Improved Accuracy of RPSD Values with Residual Vectors for 50 Modes

18.8. Recommendations
To perform a similar type of analysis, consider the following hints and recommendations:

• If a subsequent MSUP analysis will be performed (for example, a modal superposition transient, harmonic,
spectrum or PSD analysis after modal analysis), write the element result to the mode file for use in the
expansion pass in the subsequent analysis (MXPAND,,,,,,YES).
• The Residual Vector Method is recommended in the subsequent MSUP analysis if the excitation is known
prior to a modal analysis. The residual vector may be insignificant if sufficient modes are extracted.

18.9. References
The theory behind cyclic symmetry formulation can be found in the following reference:

1. Bo Zhang, Han Ding, XinJun Sheng. "Modal analysis of board-level electronic package." Microelectronic
Engineering. Volume 85: 610-620. 2008.
2. Ying-Chih Lee, Bor-Tsuen Wang, Yi-Shao Lai, Chang-Lin Yeh, Rong-Sheng Chen. "Finite element model
verification for packaged printed circuit board by experimental modal analysis." Microelectronics Reli-
ability. Volume 48: 1837-1846. 2008.

18.10. Input Files

The following files were used in this problem:

• Electronics_PCB.cdb -- PCB model information for a single layer (called by other .dat files). The
.dat files generate the 3 three-layered PCB structure.
• psd_full_with_mxpand.dat -- Input file for the PSD analysis with the full model (300 modes) using
MSUPkey = YES in MXPAND.
• psd_full_No_mxpand.dat -- Input file for the PSD analysis with the full model (300 modes) using
MSUPkey = NO in MXPAND .
• psd_reduced_with_resvec.dat -- Input file for the PSD analysis using reduced model (50 modes)
with residual vector and MSUPkey = YES in MXPAND.
• psd_reduced_No_resvec.dat -- Input file for the PSD analysis using reduced model (50 modes)
with no residual vector and MSUPkey = YES in MXPAND.

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Chapter 18: Dynamic Simulation of a Printed Circuit Board Assembly Using Modal Analysis Methods

• psd_full_with_resvec.dat -- Input file for the PSD analysis using full model (300 modes) with
residual vector and MSUPkey = YES in the MXPAND command.

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-20). See Obtaining the Input Files for more
information.

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Chapter 19: Impact of a Metal Bar on a Rigid Wall
This example problem demonstrates an impact simulation using a 3-D model of a metal bar hitting a rigid
wall. The problem shows the advantages of using impact constraints for modeling contact in a nonlinear
transient dynamic analysis.

Several combinations of available time-integration methods and contact algorithms are also investigated,
using different material models to show how various choices affect the performance and accuracy of the
finite-element solution of impact problems.

Topics related to this example problem follow:

19.1. Introduction
19.2. Problem Description
19.3. Modeling
19.4. Material Properties
19.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
19.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
19.7. Results and Discussion
19.8. Recommendations
19.9. References
19.10. Input Files

19.1. Introduction
Simulating contact in a transient dynamic analysis can be challenging. The presence of inertial forces can
adversely affect convergence in contact problems. The simulated response also needs to be accurate to
ensure that it remains stable, and consistent with physical behavior, over a long time period.

The impact of a metal bar on a rigid wall is ideal for demonstrating various solution options, as this problem
has been extensively studied and documented, and there are existing analytical and numerical solutions
available for comparison.

19.2. Problem Description

A copper bar with a circular cross section having an initial length of 32.4 mm and a radius of 3.2 mm impacts
a rigid, frictionless wall. The bar has an initial velocity of 227 m/s along its longitudinal axis and has one end
located at a distance of 1 mm from the rigid wall at the start of the analysis, as shown in this figure:

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Chapter 19: Impact of a Metal Bar on a Rigid Wall

Figure 19.1 Geometry and FE Model of a Metal Bar Impacting a Rigid Wall

Several transient analyses are performed, taking into account the following criteria:

• Rigid, elastic, and elastoplastic material behavior for the bar

• Newmark and HHT time-integration methods (with and without damping)
• Element-level time-incrementation controls and impact constraints.

For rigid and elastic material behavior, the results of displacements, velocities, strain energies (SE), and kin-
etic energies (KE) are compared to the analytical solution For the elastoplastic material behavior, the results
of mushroom radius, final length, equivalent plastic strain, and von Mises stress are compared to a reference
solution.

19.3. Modeling
The bar is modeled with a 3-D coarse mesh using 495 SOLID186 elements, as shown in Figure 19.1 (p. 248).

Frictionless contact between the rigid wall and the end of the bar is modeled using TARGE170 and CONTA174
elements.

The CONTA174 elements have the following settings:

• Augmented Lagrangian formulation (KEYOPT(2) = 0, the default behavior)

• Location of the contact-detection point on the nodal point-normal to target surface is activated (KEY-
OPT(4) = 2). This setting is required for the rigid-impact case, as geometric irregularities that may exist
on the contact surface could create a nonsymmetric contact-force distribution and affect solution con-
vergence adversely.
• Contact stiffness is updated at each iteration (KEYOPT(10) = 2).

The problem uses three separate element-level time-incrementation controls (KEYOPT(7)):

• No control (KEYOPT(7) = 0) -- Time incrementation is based on the response frequency.

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 19.4. Material Properties

• Contact predictions are changed (KEYOPT (7) = 3) -- Maintains the minimum time/load increment
whenever a contact status change occurs.
• Impact constraints are used KEYOPT (7) = 4) -- The time increment is adjusted automatically.

The latter two time-incrementation controls (KEYOPT (7) = 3 and KEYOPT (7) = 4) require that optimized
nonlinear solution defaults and some enhanced internal solution algorithms be activated (SOLCON-
TROL,ON,ON) prior to the solution phase of the analysis.

19.3.1. Impact Scenarios

Three impact scenarios are examined. Each of these scenarios requires its own finite-element model and its
own output of results of interest:

• Rigid Impact

The bar is modeled as a rigid body using only TARGE170 elements, with automatically constrained
boundary conditions for rigid target nodes (KEYOPT (2) = 1). The target elements are located on the
exterior surface of the bar which has been premeshed with SOLID186 elements.

The program builds internal multipoint constraints between the nodes on the exterior surface of the
rigid body and a pilot node located at the center of gravity. The pilot node is also shared by a 3-D point
mass with rotary inertia (modeled with a MASS21 element).

The location of the center of gravity, and the mass and moments of inertia properties for MASS21, are
estimated by performing a partial element solution (PSOLVE,ELFORM) with the option for precalculating
masses (IRLF,-1).

For more information, see Modeling Rigid Bodies in a Multibody Analysis in the Multibody Analysis Guide.

Before obtaining the solution, the underlying SOLID186 mesh is unselected (ESEL,U command).
• Elastic Impact

The bar is modeled as a flexible body with linear elastic material properties.
• Elastoplastic Impact

The bar is modeled as a flexible body with elastoplastic material properties.

19.4. Material Properties

The material properties of the copper bar are as follows:

Linear Elastic Material Properties

Young's Modulus (GPa) E = 117
Poisson's Ratio (ν) 0.35
Plastic Material Properties
Yield Stress (MPa) σy = 400
Tangent Modulus (MPa) ET = 100
3
Density (kg / m ) ρ = 8930

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Chapter 19: Impact of a Metal Bar on a Rigid Wall

19.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

No boundary conditions or loads are applied to the copper bar.

An initial velocity of 227 m/s is applied to all nodes on the bar (including the rigid-body pilot node for rigid
impact).

The rigid wall, defined using TARGE170 elements, is internally constrained in all six directions.

19.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

Large-strain effects, large displacements, and large rotations are included in the analysis (NLGEOM,ON).

Automatic time-stepping adjustments (based on element-level time incrementation) are activated (SOLCON-
TROL,ON,ON). The automatic adjustments are overridden if a fixed number of substeps (NSUBST) or a fixed
time-step size (DELTIM) is specified, or if automatic time stepping is disabled (AUTOTS,OFF).

For each of the three impact scenarios, three transient analyses are performed using the following settings
and commands:

• Full method with the Newmark time-integration scheme and no damping:

TRNOPT,FULL,,,,,NMK
TINTP,0.0

• Full method with the Newmark time-integration scheme and damping:

TRNOPT,FULL,,,,,NMK
TINTP,0.1

• Full method with the HHT time-integration scheme and damping:

TRNOPT,FULL,,,,,HHT
TINTP,0.1

19.6.1. Solution Options for Capturing Simulation Results

The solution options for each of the three impact scenarios are set to fully capture the simulated responses:
19.6.1.1. Rigid Impact
19.6.1.2. Elastic Impact
19.6.1.3. Elastoplastic Impact

19.6.1.1. Rigid Impact

The transient analysis is carried up to time 0.1e-4 seconds with an initial minimum number of substeps of
100, and a maximum number of substeps of 10000:
TIME,0.1e-4
NSUBST,100,10000,100

The total time (simulation time) represents a slightly larger time than the time needed for the bar to impact
the rigid wall; the bar moving at a velocity of 227 m/s requires about 0.4405e-5 seconds to cover a 1 mm
gap before impacting the rigid wall.

The minimum of 100 substeps ensures a smooth response. The maximum of 10000 substeps allows the
automatic time-stepping method to cut back the time increment to satisfy the impact constraints. Because

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 19.7.1. Rigid Impact Results

the goal in this case is to study the displacement and velocity response of the bar at some points of interest
over the total time period, the nodal displacement and velocity solution data is written at every substep to
the results file:
OUTRES,NSOL,ALL
OUTRES,V,ALL

19.6.1.2. Elastic Impact

The same solution settings are used as for the rigid case with the only difference being the total time. The
total time in this case must take into account the time that the stress wave created from the impact needs
to travel back and forth through the elastic bar. The calculated time of impact is 0.4405e-5 seconds and the
release time is calculated analytically as 0.223e-4 seconds, so a total time of 0.28e-4 seconds is used for the
elastic impact.

19.6.1.3. Elastoplastic Impact

The same solution settings are used as in the rigid and elastic cases, except for the total time. Because the
bar undergoes large plastic deformation and remains in contact with the rigid wall for a longer time period,
the total time is increased to 0.8e-4 seconds.

The nodal-displacement solution data is written to the results file at every substep, and stresses and plastic
strains are written at the last substep only, as follows:
OUTRES,NSOL,ALL
OUTRES,STRS,LAST
OUTRES,EPPL,LAST

19.7. Results and Discussion

Following is an examination of the results for each of the three impact scenarios:
19.7.1. Rigid Impact Results
19.7.2. Elastic Impact Results
19.7.3. Elastoplastic Impact Results
19.7.4. Performance Summary

Key option (KEYOPT) settings are those of the CONTA174 element.

19.7.1. Rigid Impact Results

For rigid impact, the bar should hit the rigid wall and bounce back immediately with the same velocity. The
total energy after the impact (SE+KE) should be same as the total energy before the impact (239.61 J).

As shown in the following table and subsequent figures, a comparison of the rebound velocity and the total
energy at post-impact separation indicates that the rebound velocity is greater than the initial velocity when
using either:

• no control (KEYOPT(7) = 0), or

• element-level time-incrementation control (based on contact-status changes (KEYOPT(7) = 3)) without
numerical damping.

CONTA174 Key NMK with No Damping NMK with Damping HHT with Damping
Option Setting

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Chapter 19: Impact of a Metal Bar on a Rigid Wall

Rebound Total en- Rebound Total en- Rebound Total en-

velocity ergy after velocity ergy after velocity ergy after
(m/s) impact (J) (m/s) impact (J) (m/s) impact (J)
KEYOPT(7) = 0 383.25 683.01 220.32 225.72 311.58 451.43
KEYOPT(7) = 3 450.95 945.63 224.59 234.55 449.99 941.60
KEYOPT(7) = 4 207.31 199.85 204.48 194.43 204.48 194.43
KEYOPT(7) = 4
with Lagrange 227.00 239.61 227.00 239.61 227.00 239.61
Multiplier

The greater rebound velocity after impact is related to the absence of energy conservation, evidenced by
the increase in the total energy. With impact constraints (KEYOPT(7) = 4), energy conservation is enforced,
so there is no increase in the total energy or the rebound velocity.

Precise satisfaction of impact constraints is necessary to conserve energy and obtain the same rebound ve-
locity as the initial velocity, as evidenced by a comparison of the results for impact constraints (KEYOPT(7)
= 4) with augmented Lagrangian contact (KEYOPT(2) = 0), and Lagrange multiplier contact (KEYOPT(2) = 4).

Note

Lagrange multiplier contact for rigid bodies is generally not recommended due to the possibility
of overconstraints. It is used here with CONTA175 at a single node (to avoid overconstraints) to
demonstrate that energy conservation is dependent upon the exact satisfaction of impact con-
straints.

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 19.7.1. Rigid Impact Results

Figure 19.2 Rigid Impact: Newmark Method with No Damping

Ranges for Y axis differ to better illustrate results.

As shown in the following figure, adding numerical damping to the Newmark method helps to improve the
results when using either:

• No control (KEYOPT(7) = 0), or

• Element-level time-incrementation control (based on contact-status changes (KEYOPT(7) = 3)).

Numerical damping removes some of the energy from the system and thus counterbalances the increase
in the total energy due to non-energy-conserving time integration, lowering the rebound velocity by a small
amount.

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Chapter 19: Impact of a Metal Bar on a Rigid Wall

Figure 19.3 Rigid Impact: Newmark Method with Damping

Ranges for Y axis differ to better illustrate results.

The HHT method removes energy only from the higher frequency modes (which are not dominant in the
rigid-impact case). When compared to the Newmark method with damping, therefore, the HHT method
does not yield as much improvement when KEYOPT(7) = 0 or 3, as shown in this figure:

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 19.7.2. Elastic Impact Results

Figure 19.4 Rigid Impact: HHT Method with Damping

Ranges for Y axis differ to better illustrate results.

Generally, impact constraints yield a close-to-expected or an expected solution, with or without damping.
Other types of element-level time-incrementation controls (KEYOPT(7) = 0 or 3) rely heavily on numerical
damping for a stable solution.

19.7.2. Elastic Impact Results

For elastic impact, the flexible bar begins to vibrate as the stress wave from impact with the rigid wall travels
through the bar. When the stress wave returns to the impact end, the bar separates from the wall. Because
the material is assumed to be elastic, the bar continues to vibrate as it moves away from the wall. Conservation
of energy and momentum requires that the total energy in the bar after impact (SE+KE) remain equal to
the total energy before impact (KE). Some of the initial kinetic energy (KE) is converted to strain energy (SE)
after impact, so the rebound velocity after impact (spatially averaged velocity for rigid body motion) is
slightly lower than the velocity before impact.

NMK with No Damping NMK with Damping HHT with Damping

CONTA174
Key Option Rebound Total energy Rebound Total energy Rebound Total energy
Setting velocity after impact velocity after impact velocity after impact
(m/s) (J) (m/s) (J) (m/s) (J)
KEYOPT(7) =
221.49 270.8 211.98 216.30 216.48 246.90
0

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Chapter 19: Impact of a Metal Bar on a Rigid Wall

KEYOPT(7) =
225.39 291.60 218.73 239.67 220.84 275.20
3
KEYOPT(7) =
222.67 236.31 216.46 221.80 221.10 230.30
4

Finite-element discretization introduces additional nonphysical high-frequency modes into the structural
response of the flexible bar. When using no control (KEYOPT(7) = 0) and no numerical damping, the displace-
ment and velocity responses of the flexible bar become corrupted by high-frequency modes after impact,
as shown in this figure:

Figure 19.5 Elastic Impact: Newmark Method with No Damping

Ranges for Y axis differ to better illustrate results.

The higher modes are excited due to absence of enforcement of energy conservation, as evidenced by the
total energy output. The response becomes worse over time due to the continued increase in the total energy.

Adding numerical damping stabilizes the response by dissipating some of the extra energy, as shown in
Figure 19.6 (p. 257) and Figure 19.7 (p. 258). Eliminating higher modes, however, requires a great deal of nu-
merical damping, which can yield a solution that is significantly different from the expected physical response.

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 19.7.2. Elastic Impact Results

Figure 19.6 Elastic Impact: Newmark Method with Damping

Ranges for Y axis differ to better illustrate results.

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Chapter 19: Impact of a Metal Bar on a Rigid Wall

Figure 19.7 Elastic Impact: HHT Method with Damping

Ranges for Y axis differ to better illustrate results.

Element-level time-incrementation control (based on contact-status changes (KEYOPT(7) = 3)) forces the
analysis to use smaller time increments; however, this option leads to excitation of the higher modes which
would otherwise be suppressed due to larger time increments. As seen from the results presented in this
section, the solution is much noisier than it is with no control (KEYOPT(7) = 0).

Using impact constraints (KEYOPT(7) = 4) ensures energy conservation implicitly at the contact interface,
preventing excitation of higher modes. Exact energy conservation is possible only when the impact constraints
are satisfied exactly. When using the augmented Lagrangian or penalty-contact options (KEYOPT(2) = 0 or
1), a slight violation of constraints exists, leading to a small loss of energy. The energy loss can be minimized
via automatic time-increment adjustment (SOLCONTROL,ON,ON); however, the adjustment decreases the
rebound velocity after separation by only a small amount, giving a stable and smooth response much closer
to the expected physical response and other published results for similar problems.[1 (p. 262)]

19.7.3. Elastoplastic Impact Results

For elastoplastic impact, the impact end of the bar deforms plastically upon impact. The bar stays in contact
with the wall while undergoing plastic deformation in radial and longitudinal directions. The separation occurs
when the material cannot deform (plastically) anymore and the stress wave reaches the impact end.

Numerical simulation of an elastoplastic impact is less sensitive to the choice of time-integration method
or the amount of numerical damping, as shown in this comparison of the mushroom radius (R), final length
(L), maximum equivalent plastic strain (εpleqv), and maximum von Mises stress (σeqv):

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 19.7.3. Elastoplastic Impact Results

CONTA174 NMK with No Damping NMK with Damping HHT with Damping
Key Option
Setting R L σeqv εpleqv R L σeqv εpleqv R L σeqv εpleqv
KEYOPT(7) =
7.3 20.15 491.6 2.62 7.36 20.57 458.5 2.64 7.37 20.49 489.8 2.64
0
KEYOPT(7) =
7.17 20.24 472.9 2.59 7.24 20.34 465.6 2.62 7.19 20.28 469.1 2.59
3
KEYOPT(7) =
7.3 20.53 442.6 2.66 7.35 20.61 439.4 2.64 7.36 20.57 442.2 2.65
4
Reference[2] 7.02 21.66 476 3.24 7.02 21.66 476 3.24 7.02 21.66 476 3.24

In the table above, R and L are expressed in mm, and σeqv is expressed in MPa.

The numerical response is stable because the plastic dissipation of the total energy in the bar is much more
significant than the jump in energy due to either non-conservation of energy during time integration or the
dissipation of energy because of added numerical damping.

Although the peak values for stresses and strains are comparable for different choices, the contour plots for
equivalent plastic strain and von Mises stress indicate that satisfaction of impact constraints (which conserves
energy for the contact interface) gives a better distribution of the stresses and strains, as shown in the fol-
lowing figures:

Figure 19.8 Elastoplastic Impact: Newmark Method with No Damping

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Chapter 19: Impact of a Metal Bar on a Rigid Wall

Figure 19.9 Elastoplastic Impact: Newmark Method with Damping

Figure 19.10 Elastoplastic Impact: HHT Method with Damping

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 19.7.4. Performance Summary

Figure 19.11 Animation: Elastoplastic Impact Using the HHT Method with Damping

19.7.4. Performance Summary

Simulation time for the bar impact depends on the material model being used. The rigid-impact simulation
requires the least amount of time, followed by the elastic-impact and then the elastoplastic-impact simulations.
For each model, computational time (CPU time) depends most noticeably on the element-level time-incre-
mentation controls used (KEYOPT(7) = 0, 3 or 4 on the CONTA174 element).

In the following table, a comparison of computational times (in seconds) indicates that using impact con-
straints with automatic time-increment adjustment (KEYOPT(7) = 4) requires the least amount of time in all
cases:

CONTA174 Key Option Setting NMK with No Damping NMK with Damping HHT with Damping
Rigid Impact
KEYOPT(7) = 0 39 42 45
KEYOPT(7) = 3 179 321 190
KEYOPT(7) = 4 45 41 44
KEYOPT(7) = 4 with Lagrange
38 41 41
Multiplier
Elastic Impact
KEYOPT(7) = 0 783 638 753
KEYOPT(7) = 3 12186 11511 13091
KEYOPT(7) = 4 404 413 507
Elastoplastic Impact
KEYOPT(7) = 0 976 697 834

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Chapter 19: Impact of a Metal Bar on a Rigid Wall

KEYOPT(7) = 3 24048 23330 25976

KEYOPT(7) = 4 591 556 621

By using impact constraints with automatic time-increment adjustment, fewer substeps and equilibrium it-
erations are necessary to obtain the transient response.

With no control (KEYOPT(7) = 0), more analysis time is required, as more substeps and equilibrium iterations
are required. The absence of energy conservation at the contact interface forces smaller time increments.

Using element-level time-incrementation control based on contact status changes (KEYOPT(7) = 3) requires
the most time, as smaller time increments are necessary to avoid sudden changes in the contact status.

19.8. Recommendations
When performing a similar type of impact simulation, consider the following recommendations for obtaining
better accuracy and faster performance:
• Activate impact constraints (KEYOPT(7) = 4 on the CONTA174 element) to enforce energy conservation
at the contact interface. This option helps to maintain accuracy of the nonlinear transient response over
long simulation times.
• Specify automatic time-increment adjustment (SOLCONTROL,ON,ON command) for faster performance.
• For rigid- or elastic-impact scenarios, use the HHT time-integration method with small numerical
damping (0.1) to damp out high-frequency noise.

19.9. References
The following references were used for this problem:

1. Carpenter, N.J., R.L. Taylor, and M.G. Katona. "Lagrange constraints for transient finite element surface
contact." International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering. 32 (1991): 103-128.
2. Hallquist, J.O. and D.J. Benson. "DYNA3D User's Manual." Report No. UCID-19592 (1987). Rev. 3. Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory.
3. Kamoulakos, A. "A Simple 'Benchmark' for Impact." Bench Mark. (1990): 31-35.
4. Simo, J.C. "Algorithms for Static and Dynamic Multiplicative Plasticity that Preserve the Classical Return
Mapping Schemes of the Infinitesimal Theory." Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering.
68 (1998): 1-31.
5. Wilkins, M.L. and M.W. Guinan. "Impact of Cylinders on a Rigid Boundary." Journal of Applied Physics.
44.3 (1973): 1200-1206.

19.10. Input Files

The following files were used in this problem, with each file corresponding to one of the three impact
scenarios examined:

• impact_rigid.dat -- Input file for the rigid-impact scenario.

• impact_elastic.dat -- Input file for the elastic-impact scenario.
• impact_plastic.dat -- Input file for the elastoplastic scenario.
• impact_rigid.cdb -- Common database file for the rigid-impact simulation (called by impact_ri-
gid.dat ).

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 19.10. Input Files

• impact_elastic.cdb -- Common database file for the elastic-impact simulation (called by im-
pact_elastic.dat).
• impact_plastic.cdb -- Common database file for the elastoplastic-impact simulation (im-
pact_plastic.dat).

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-17). See Obtaining the Input Files for more
information.

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Chapter 20: Buckling and Post-Buckling Analysis of a Ring-Stiffened
Cylinder Using Nonlinear Stabilization
This example demonstrates how to perform a nonlinear buckling and post-buckling analysis using nonlinear
stabilization. The problem uses a stiffened cylinder subjected to uniform external pressure to show how to
find the nonlinear buckling loads, achieve convergence at the post-buckling stage, and interpret the results.

Topics related to this example problem follow:

20.1. Introduction
20.2. Problem Description
20.3. Modeling
20.4. Material Properties
20.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
20.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
20.7. Results and Discussion
20.8. Recommendations
20.9. References
20.10. Input Files

20.1. Introduction
Buckling analysis is crucial to successful structure design and simulation, especially when thin structures
such as shells and beams are involved. While linear buckling analysis is comparatively straightforward, it is
limited by approximations and cannot simulate post-buckling phenomena. Nonlinear buckling analysis does
not have these limitations and is therefore preferred, even if it is a little more complicated and requires
some trial-and-error experimentation.

By analogy, it is also difficult in the physical world to determine the initiation of buckling. “From a scientific
and engineering point of view, the interesting phases of buckling phenomena generally occur before the
deformations are very large when, to the unaided eye, the structure appears to be undeformed or only
slightly deformed."[1 (p. 285)] To perform a nonlinear buckling analysis, special nonlinear analysis techniques
are necessary to overcome the convergence difficulties, and a few trials are usually needed.

The following techniques are available for solving instability or buckling problems:

• Nonlinear stabilization

This capability deals with both local and global instabilities of buckling and can be used with any other
nonlinear technique except the arc-length method.
• Arc-length method

This method deals only with global instability or buckling when forces are applied, and can simulate
the negative slope region of a load-displacement curve.
• Running a static problem as a "slow dynamic" analysis

This technique uses the dynamic effect to prevent divergence, but can be difficult to use.

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Chapter 20: Buckling and Post-Buckling Analysis of a Ring-Stiffened Cylinder Using Nonlinear Stabilization

For more information, see Unstable Structures in the Structural Analysis Guide.

This example uses a ring-stiffened cylinder under external hydrostatic pressure to demonstrate how to predict
buckling loads and simulate post-buckling phenomena with the aid of nonlinear stabilization. The numerical
simulation results are compared to the reference experimental results.[2 (p. 285)]

20.2. Problem Description

A circular cylinder made of bare 2024-T3 aluminum alloy is stiffened inside with five Z-section rings. Its ends
are closed with thick aluminum bulkheads. A riveted L section exists between the top plate and the top ring
and the bottom plate and bottom ring.

The cylinder is subjected to a differential external pressure. The pressure causes a local buckling phenomenon
characterized by buckling of the skin between stiffening rings, leading eventually to collapse. The buckling
pressure, buckling and collapse pattern, number of waves into which the cylinder buckled, and load-displace-
ment curve are examined and compared to the reference results.

The following table shows the dimensions of the cylinder, ring spacing, and the thicknesses of both cylinder
and Z-section rings. The dimensions chosen are based on the reference model.

Dimension Value (mm)

Cylinder Radius
355.69
(r)
Cylinder length
431.8
(L)
Ring Spacing (bs) 95.3
Skin thickness
1.034
(ts)
Ring thickness
0.843
(tw)
Ratio of r/ts 344
Plate thickness 25
Plate diameter 760

20.3. Modeling
The finite element model of the ring stiffened cylinder is meshed with 26,796 SHELL281 elements with an
element size of 10 mm. The fine mesh is required for buckling analysis, and a full 360-degree model is ne-
cessary because the deformation is no longer axisymmetric after buckling occurs.

All shell elements have uniform thickness. Five sections are created in the model with no offsets, so the shell
sections are offset to the midplane by default.

The following figure shows the mesh (a) and the expanded solid representation (b) of the shell mesh
(/ESHAPE):

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 20.3. Modeling

Figure 20.1 Geometry and Finite-Element Model

a)
Meshed shell model (/ESHAPE,0)

b)
Expanded solid representation of the shell mesh (/ESHAPE,1)

This figure shows a cylinder sector of 45 degrees of the cylinder, plates and Z rings:

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Chapter 20: Buckling and Post-Buckling Analysis of a Ring-Stiffened Cylinder Using Nonlinear Stabilization

Figure 20.2 Inside View of a 45-Degree Sector

This figure shows the stiffening ring detail and its dimensions:

Figure 20.3 Stiffening Ring Detail with Dimensions

20.4. Material Properties

The cylinder, rings and plates are made of 2024-T3 sheet aluminum alloy and have the following material
properties (according to AMS 4037 property data):

Cylinder, Ring, and Plate Material Properties

Young's Modulus (GPa) E = 73
Poisson's Ratio (ν) 0.33

The plastic part of the material is modeled using the von Mises yield criteria coupled with an isotropic
hardening (TB,BISO), described by a bilinear stress-strain curve with the following constants:

Plastic Material Properties

Yield Stress (MPa) σy = 268.9
Tangent Modulus (MPa) ET = E / 1000 = 73

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 20.6.1. Performing the Nonlinear Buckling Analysis

The tangent modulus is assumed, as no data is provided for this property in the reference information. Because
the reference [2 (p. 285)] does not provide all necessary material data, some of the material data are obtained
from other publications detailing the properties of the same material.

20.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

The cylinder type for this problem is used extensively for supporting external pressure loads in submarine
hulls and in aerospace applications; therefore, the reference experiment models the cylinder as a free floating
object for testing.

For this numerical analysis, the only required boundary conditions are those to prevent the six rigid body
motions. A total of six displacements are therefore applied to three nodes located on the top plate at 0, 90,
and 270 degrees; the nodes are restricted so that all rigid translations and rotations are not possible for the
cylinder.

Loading consists of a uniformly distributed external differential pressure: Pext = 0.24 MPa

20.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

In most cases, a linear buckling analysis provides only an upper limit to the buckling behavior of an actual
structure. It is generally preferable, therefore, to perform a nonlinear buckling analysis, which can account
for the influence of nonlinear material behavior and large-deflection response.

The following analysis and solution-control topics are available:

20.6.1. Performing the Nonlinear Buckling Analysis
20.6.2. Post-Buckling Analysis
20.6.3. Applying Nonlinear Stabilization

20.6.1. Performing the Nonlinear Buckling Analysis

The method for obtaining the nonlinear buckling and collapse of the ring-stiffened cylinder is based on the
following sequence of actions:

1. Run a Linear (Eigenvalue) Buckling Analysis (p. 269)

2. Generate Imperfections (p. 270)
3. Run the Nonlinear Buckling Analysis (p. 270)

20.6.1.1. Run a Linear (Eigenvalue) Buckling Analysis

This preliminary analysis predicts the theoretical buckling pressure of the ideal linear elastic structure (perfect
cylinder) and the buckled mode shapes used in the next step to generate the imperfections. It is also an
efficient way to check the completeness and correctness of modeling.

To run the linear buckling analysis, a static solution with prestress effects must be obtained, followed by
the eigenvalue buckling solution using the Block Lanczos method and mode expansion, as shown in the
following example input:
/solu
pstres,on ! Activate the prestress option
solve
finish
/solu
outres,all,all
antype,buckle ! Buckling analysis
bucopt,lanb,10, ! Mode extraction is Block Lanczos

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Chapter 20: Buckling and Post-Buckling Analysis of a Ring-Stiffened Cylinder Using Nonlinear Stabilization

mxpand,10 ! Expand mode shapes

solve
finish

20.6.1.2. Generate Imperfections

If a structure is perfectly symmetric (that is, its geometry--including the mesh patterns--and loading are both
symmetric), nonsymmetric buckling does not occur numerically, and a nonlinear buckling analysis fails because
nonsymmetric buckling responses cannot be triggered.

In this problem, the geometry, elements, and pressure are all axisymmetric. It is not possible, therefore, to
simulate nonaxisymmetric buckling with the initial model. To overcome this problem, small geometric im-
perfections (similar to those caused by manufacturing a real structure) must be introduced to trigger the
buckling responses.

Although small perturbation loads can also be introduced to serve the same purpose, it is not an ideal
method because it is difficult to determine how large the loads should be and where to apply them. Also,
a perturbation load that is too large can change the problem completely.

The geometric imperfections can be generated either in the shape of the buckling mode or in a given shape
with a random amplitude:

• The imperfections in the buckling mode shapes are obtained by running a preliminary linear buckling
analysis, then updating the geometry of the finite-element model to the deformed configuration. This
technique is done by adding the displacements of the mode shapes reduced by a scaling factor. It is
safe to add a few mode shapes to avoid any bias in the imperfections.
• Introduce pseudo-random imperfections by modifying the coordinates of the nodes with a random
number (using the RAND parametric function).

The imperfection magnitudes are generally dependent on the geometry and should be in the same range
as the manufacturing tolerance (typically less than one percent) so that they do not change the problem
during analysis.

For this problem, the imperfections are added as a sum of the first 10 modes shapes extracted in the prelim-
inary buckling analysis. (While random imperfections can also be used, their disadvantage is that they cannot
be repeated; therefore, the results would differ each time the analysis is run.)

Because the radius of the cylinder is 355.69 mm and the maximum displacement of a mode shape is 1 mm,
a factor of 0.1 is applied when updating the geometry with mode shapes. The factor assumes the manufac-
turing tolerance of the radius to be on the order of 0.1. The following input example shows how the imper-
fections are added:
/prep7
*do,i,1,10
upgeom,0.1,1,i,buckling,rst ! Add imperfections as a tenth of each mode shape
*enddo
finish

20.6.1.3. Run the Nonlinear Buckling Analysis

The nonlinear buckling analysis is a static analysis performed after adding imperfections with large deflection
active (NLGEOM,ON), extended to a point where the stiffened cylinder can reach its limit load.

To perform the analysis, the load must be allowed to increase using very small time increments so that the
expected critical buckling load can be predicted accurately.

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 20.6.2. Post-Buckling Analysis

The following example input runs the nonlinear buckling analysis:

/solu ! Run static analysis
antype,static
nlgeom,on ! Specify large deflection
pred,off ! No prediction occurs
time,1
nsubst,100,500,10 ! Minimum time increment is 2e-3
rescontrol,define,all,1 ! Write all files for multiframe restart
outres,all,all ! Write all solution items to the database
solve
finish

Some convergence difficulty at or after buckling is expected, so is useful to have all restart files available for
resuming the analysis with nonlinear stabilization. It is best to have the restart files at each substep
(RESCONTROL,DEFINE,ALL,1)--or at least for every few substeps--as it is virtually impossible to know for
certain when the buckling is initiated and therefore when to activate the stabilization via the restart.

20.6.2. Post-Buckling Analysis

An unconverged solution of the nonlinear static analysis could mean that buckling has occurred, but that
is not always the case. The buckling begins to occur before the deformations become very large, when the
structure appears to be undeformed or only slightly deformed.

Buckling initiation is difficult to detect by visual inspection but can be observed by plotting a load-displace-
ment curve or by a monitor file inspection. To detect the moment of buckling initiation, carefully study the
monitor file at this stage, as shown in this figure:

Figure 20.4 Monitor File of Initial Run

From the monitor file, several observations can be made to help determine if buckling has started to occur
and at what time, as follows:

• Difficulties in convergence occur. The program bisects the load-step increment and attempts a new
solution at a smaller load
• The maximum displacement monitored has an instantaneous change in value. This is a good indic-
ator of large displacement for a smaller load increment specific to buckling.
• The maximum displacement monitored has an instantaneous change in sign. This is another good
indication that buckling has begun to occur.

In this example, the change in time (or load) increment, and displacement value, occurs between substeps
10 and 11, which corresponds to TIME = 0.51781 and TIME = 0.53806 and to a pressure between 0.124 MPa
and 0.129 MPa. It is therefore very likely that buckling occurred at this time; to be sure, the analysis is con-
tinued. The goal is to verify the assessment made at this stage by obtaining the load-displacement behavior
over a larger range.

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Chapter 20: Buckling and Post-Buckling Analysis of a Ring-Stiffened Cylinder Using Nonlinear Stabilization

If the convergence difficulty is caused by buckling, resuming the analysis means starting a post-buckling
analysis. Because the post-buckling state is unstable, special techniques are necessary to compensate. In a
static analysis, nonlinear stabilization is the best option. When local buckling or time-dependent material
exists, it is the only option.

A substep experiencing convergence difficulty in the initial run (13 in this case) should generally be avoided
as the substep from which to restart; therefore, to continue with a post-buckling analysis, stabilization is
activated from substep 12 (the substep before the last converged substep, typically the first choice for the
restart.) If convergence occurs at this substep, and assuming minimal stabilization energy, this solution can
be accepted.

The following example input runs the post-buckling analysis:

/solu ! Run static analysis
antype,,restart,1,12 ! Perform multiframe restart at substep 12
nsubst,100,10000,10
stabilize,constant,energy,0.00075 ! Use energy method with constant option
solve
finish

If convergence does not occur, an earlier substep should be tried.

20.6.3. Applying Nonlinear Stabilization

Two methods are available for controlling the stabilization force:

• Apply a damping factor (STABILIZE,,DAMPING,,,)

• Apply an energy ratio (STABILIZE,,ENERGY,,,)

Selecting which method to use, and then choosing the right value for the energy or damping factor, are
not trivial decisions. The best option and value to use depends on the type of instability, the type and size
of the elements used in the model, and the end time and number of substeps used for the load step. In
most cases, the decision is based on a trial-and-error correction process. The goal is to achieve convergence
with the smallest stabilization force, which can be controlled in turn by either an energy ratio or damping
factor.

For more information, see Understanding Nonlinear Stabilization in the Structural Analysis Guide.

The following topics describe the nonlinear stabilization methods tried in the ring-stiffened cylinder problem:
20.6.3.1. Damping Method
20.6.3.2. Energy Method

20.6.3.1. Damping Method

The first trial is typically done using the energy option because:

• It has a specific range of values that can be used (between 0 and 1), and
• After running, it calculates a damping factor at the beginning of the next substep, providing a reference
value for the damping factors that can be used (if damping is chosen as the stabilization method).

The first energy value tried provided a damping factor of 0.1e-2, which helped convergence but without
producing significant buckling. The damping values were then gradually reduced to 0.1e-5 and, even though
in each case convergence was achieved, the collapse due to buckling did not occur. A value of 0.1e-6 did
not result in convergence and the trials for applying the damping factor method ceased.

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 20.7. Results and Discussion

The observed is due to the localized phenomena inherent in this problem. When damping is applied, the
specified value is used for all elements. When the applied damping value is too large, too much stabilization
force is applied to the structure, so the system is too stiff and converges easily without much deformation.
Conversely, when the applied damping is too small, the unstable elements do not benefit from sufficient
stabilization forces, so the solution diverges.

The conclusion is that the damping option is not ideal for problems involving significant local buckling.

20.6.3.2. Energy Method

Because this problem is characterized by local rather than global instabilities, the energy method for stabil-
ization is more helpful. The energy method uses different damping values for different elements, so elements
with large instability have higher damping values and elements with little instability have small damping
values. It is therefore possible to compensate for the instability without the system becoming too stiff.

After determining that this problem should use stabilization via the energy method, several trials were per-
formed using energy ratios in a range from 0.001 to 0.0005. The trials showed that larger energy ratios result
in convergence, but with no significant deformation and excessive stabilization energy, and smaller energy
ratios result in no convergence.

The smallest stabilization energy ratio to offer convergence was found to be 0.00075. With that value, the
analysis converges and the full loading is reached, while significant buckling is observed and global stabiliz-
ation energy is kept at the lowest possible level.

The following figure shows a time-history plot of the stiffness and stabilization energies:

Figure 20.5 Time-History Plot of Stiffness Energy (SENE) and Stabilization Energy (STEN)

20.7. Results and Discussion

In the following figure, the linear buckling analysis results show 40 circumferential full waves at buckling:

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Chapter 20: Buckling and Post-Buckling Analysis of a Ring-Stiffened Cylinder Using Nonlinear Stabilization

Figure 20.6 Load Factor and Mode Shape for the First Eigenvalue

The number of waves is more than the number obtained in the reference experiments, predicted by theory,
or obtained by the current nonlinear buckling analysis together with post-buckling analysis.

All extracted eigenvalues cluster around a critical value of 0.63, which is equivalent to a buckling pressure
of 0.15 MPa . This behavior is expected and is characteristic of a highly symmetrical system such as a ring-
stiffened cylinder under hydrostatic pressure. As is the case in this problem, a completely symmetrical system
is known to be very sensitive to imperfections because many different modes are associated with the same
eigenvalue or closely spaced eigenvalues.[1 (p. 285)]

Generally, the results from the nonlinear buckling analysis with stabilization agree with the reference results,
as follows:
20.7.1. Buckling Behavior Is Expected
20.7.2. Number of Buckles Decreases
20.7.3. Buckle Size and Behavior Is Consistent with Reference Results
20.7.4. Plasticity Affects Buckling Results Insignificantly

20.7.1. Buckling Behavior Is Expected

Buckling occurs between TIME = 0.5178 and TIME = 0.556, which translates into pressures between 0.124
and 0.133 MPa. These values correlate closely to the reference buckling pressure of 0.121 MPa.

The results can be verified from the plots of applied pressure versus axial shortening for a node located
under the first ring. The following figure shows (a) the applied load versus axial shortening for one node,
and (b) the axial shortening with time for the same node but using a shorter range of strain (up to 0.002):

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 20.7.1. Buckling Behavior Is Expected

Figure 20.7 Applied Pressure and Axial Shortening

a)
Applied pressure vs. axial shortening

b)
Time vs. axial shortening

The shorter range of strain used in plot (b) in the figure above allows changes in the slope of the curve to
be easily observed and buckling time (pressure) to be easily predicted. Buckling occurs when the slope of
load-displacement curve (the pressure-axial shortening curve in this case) becomes zero or reduces suddenly
and significantly.

The displacement is almost constant between times 0.5178 and 0.556, where the load-vs.-displacement slope
is zero or slightly negative. As the load approaches the maximum value, the rate of deformation increases
very quickly until the cylinder fails.

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Chapter 20: Buckling and Post-Buckling Analysis of a Ring-Stiffened Cylinder Using Nonlinear Stabilization

From TIME = 0.98 to TIME = 1, the total deformation increases from 11.38 to 42 mm, at which point the
rings and the skin between rings fails. The curves agree closely with the experimental results.

Note

Some material properties are not reported in the reference, and the cylinder used to obtain the
reference results may have had defects in addition to the geometric imperfections. Any additional
imperfections or differences in material data would of course affect the comparison to the exper-
imental results.[2 (p. 285)]

The following figure offers a much better view of the buckling phenomenon, given by the applied pressure
vs. radial displacement curve for the node with maximum deformation:

Figure 20.8 Applied Pressure vs. Radial Displacement

A complex buckling mechanism is evident. Buckling clearly begins to occur at approximately 0.129 MPa,
when the displacement ceases to be linear and the slope inverses its direction. The displacement continues
with changes in the slope sign (from negative to positive), corresponding to inward and outward displace-
ments of the buckles up to 0.235 MPa. At this point, the displacement increases dramatically and leads to
failure.

The following figure shows the total deformation at TIME = 0.5178 (buckling pressure 0.124 MPa) when
buckling is initiated; the deformation is hardly detectable by visual inspection, yet the buckling has already
occurred:

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 20.7.1. Buckling Behavior Is Expected

Figure 20.9 Total Deformation at the Time of Buckling Initiation

The following figure shows the deformation at TIME = 0.555 (pressure 0.133 MPa), corresponding to the
zero-slope plateau on the applied pressure-axial shortening curve. The results are comparable to the reference
data and observations.

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Chapter 20: Buckling and Post-Buckling Analysis of a Ring-Stiffened Cylinder Using Nonlinear Stabilization

Figure 20.10 Total Deformation at Zero Slope on the Load-Deformation Curve

20.7.2. Number of Buckles Decreases

As shown in the following animation, the number of buckles decreases throughout the simulation (a beha-
vior also observed in the reference experiment results):

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 20.7.3. Buckle Size and Behavior Is Consistent with Reference Results

The number of buckles (20) is consistent with theory (20) and close to the reference results (19).

20.7.3. Buckle Size and Behavior Is Consistent with Reference Results

The deepest buckles are merged from two waves and are located between the second and third ring. The
size of the deepest buckles at collapse is 260 mm (close to the reference size of 300 mm).

The size of the buckles between the first and second ring and the third and fourth ring is 140 mm, which
is in good agreement with the corresponding buckle size of 140 mm from the reference results.

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Chapter 20: Buckling and Post-Buckling Analysis of a Ring-Stiffened Cylinder Using Nonlinear Stabilization

Figure 20.11 Total Deformation at the End of the Post-Buckling Analysis

The buckles formed on one side of the cylinder before the other side, which is consistent with the reference
observations.

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 20.7.4. Plasticity Affects Buckling Results Insignificantly

Figure 20.12 Another Total Deformation View

20.7.4. Plasticity Affects Buckling Results Insignificantly

Plasticity was not observed to have influenced the reference results nor the simulation results. The von Mises
stresses are lower than the yield stress (269 MPa) at buckling, as shown in this figure:

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Chapter 20: Buckling and Post-Buckling Analysis of a Ring-Stiffened Cylinder Using Nonlinear Stabilization

Figure 20.13 Von Mises Stress Distribution at Buckling Initiation

Only localized areas of high stresses exist at the failure locations between the rings, as shown in this figure:

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 20.8.1. Buckling Analysis Guidelines

Figure 20.14 Von Mises Stress Distribution at the End of the Analysis

20.8. Recommendations
When setting up a similar nonlinear buckling and post-buckling analysis, consider the following hints and
recommendations:
20.8.1. Buckling Analysis Guidelines
20.8.2. Nonlinear Stabilization Guidelines

20.8.1. Buckling Analysis Guidelines

When performing the nonlinear buckling analysis, consider the following hints and recommendations:

• Understand that a nonlinear buckling analysis can be complex.

A nonlinear buckling or post-buckling analysis is not a single-run analysis but a set of analyses. Some
advanced nonlinear techniques such as stabilization are necessary in the static analysis which may require
trial-and-error experimentation.
• Perform a linear buckling analysis first.

It is best to start with a linear buckling analysis to verify the correctness and completeness of the
model, and to get a general idea of how large the buckling load may be. In the linear analysis, the mode
shapes can be expanded to predict the buckled mode shapes (used for introducing geometric imper-
fections later).
• Geometric imperfections or perturbation loads should be introduced.

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Chapter 20: Buckling and Post-Buckling Analysis of a Ring-Stiffened Cylinder Using Nonlinear Stabilization

Geometric imperfections introduced with modes from the linear buckling analysis are recommended.
The magnitude of imperfection should be within the range of manufacturing tolerances.
• Examine the monitor file.

When nonlinear analysis stops due to convergence difficulty, the monitor file should be inspected
carefully. Many bisections in the substeps indicate instability, and a significant change in the displacement
values could mean that buckling is starting to occur.
• Restart the analysis using nonlinear stabilization.

To verify the nonlinear buckling load and to perform post-buckling analysis, the analysis should be re-
started using some advanced nonlinear technique to examine the load-displacement behavior for a
larger range of loads. In a static analysis, nonlinear stabilization is preferred and is the only option if
local buckling or time-dependent materials exist.
• Determine the optimal displacement to find the buckling load on the load-displacement curve.

The buckling load is the load at which the slope of the load-displacement curve reduces significantly.
For which node and for which direction the displacement should be chosen depends upon the problem
being solved, and a few trials may be necessary to find the optimal displacement. Some displacements
show the start of buckling more clearly than others.

20.8.2. Nonlinear Stabilization Guidelines

To apply nonlinear stabilization to achieve convergence in the post-buckling analysis, consider the following
guidelines:

• Establish what type of buckling (local or global) is present.

The buckling type helps to determine which stabilization method to use (damping or energy). For local
buckling, the energy method is the only option. For global buckling, either the energy or damping
method can be used.
• Always try the energy method first using a small value.

Obtain the damping factor value and use it as a reference value if damping is the desired method to
control the stabilization.

Energy is the preferred method in the post-buckling analysis. Because the energy ratio ranges only from
0 to 1, however, damping can be used to obtain very fine control of stabilization forces if necessary.
The damping factor can be any positive number, but should not stray too far from the reference value.

When different energy ratios are tried, do not change the number of substeps or time, as this will affect
your comparison and therefore your decision as to which stabilization method you should use.
• Use the smallest damping factor or energy ratio possible.

The specified energy ratio or damping factor should be large enough to circumvent divergence and
small enough to avoid excessive stiffness. The best solution should be the one converged using the
smallest energy ratio or damping factor.
• Activate stabilization via a multiframe restart.

Although you can activate nonlinear stabilization at the beginning of the solution, in most cases it is
more efficient and accurate to activate stabilization in a multiframe restart.

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 20.10. Input Files

If you do so, save the restart files and restart from the substep before the last converged substep. If the
substep has many bisections or a large number of iterations, try one substep before, or the substep at
which monitored displacement shows significant change (as it is likely the point where buckling starts).
• Check results after applying stabilization.

Accuracy can be affected if the stabilization damping or energy values are excessive. The stabilization
energy should be much less than the strain energy. Results checking can be done in either the POST1
(/POST1) or POST26 (/POST26) postprocessor.

20.9. References
The following references were used for this problem:

1. Bushnell, D. Computerized Buckling Analysis of Shells. New York: Springer, 1985.

2. Dow, Donaldson A. "Buckling and Postbuckling Tests of Ring-Stiffened Circular Cylinders Loaded by
Uniform External Pressure." NASA Technical Note NASA TN D-3111. Langley Research Center: November,
1965.

20.10. Input Files

The following files were used in this problem:

• buckling.dat -- The input file used for the buckling/post-buckling analysis.

• buckling.cdb -- The common database file containing the model information for this problem (called
by buckling.dat).

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-21). See Obtaining the Input Files for more
information.

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Chapter 21: Rotordynamics of a Shaft Assembly Based on a
Representative Model of Nelson-Vaugh Rotor
Rotordynamics plays a crucial role in identifying critical speeds, and to ultimately design rotating structures
that tolerate extremely high vibrations. This example illustrates the application of rotordynamics analysis
procedures using the Nelson-Vaugh rotor model.

A 2-D axisymmetric representation of the 3-D solid model is used to perform a rotordynamic analysis. The
results of the 2-D axisymmetric model analyses are compared to the full 3-D solid model results.

This problem demonstrates the following concepts and techniques:

• Axiharmonic meshing of a 3-D geometry

• Disc and bearing modeling
• Gyroscopic effects in rotating structures and modal analysis
• Campbell diagram analysis
• Determination of critical speeds
• Unbalance response analysis
• Orbit plot
• Performance benefits of 2-D axisymmetric models

Topics related to this example problem follow:

21.1. Introduction
21.2. Problem Description
21.3. Modeling
21.4. Material Properties
21.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
21.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
21.7. Results and Discussion
21.8. Recommendations
21.9. References
21.10. Input Files

21.1. Introduction
Rotating machines such as steam or gas turbines, turbo-generators, internal combustion engines, motors,
and disk drives can develop inertia effects that can be analyzed to improve the design and decrease the
possibility of failure. Current trends in rotating equipment design focus on increased speeds, which increase
operational problems caused by vibration. At higher rotational speeds, the inertia effects of rotating parts
must be consistently represented to accurately predict rotor behavior.

Inertia effects in rotating structures are usually caused by gyroscopic moment introduced by the precise
motions of the vibrating rotor as it spins. As spin velocity increases, the gyroscopic moment acting on the
rotor becomes critical. Not accounting for inertia effects at the design level can lead to bearing and support

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Chapter 21: Rotordynamics of a Shaft Assembly Based on a Representative Model of Nelson-Vaugh Rotor

structure damage. It is also important to consider bearing stiffness, support structure flexibility, and damping
characteristics to understand the stability of a vibrating rotor.

In the sections that follow, modeling details and analysis procedures for a rotating structure are detailed.
Generally, a 3-D model directly available from the CAD can be used for the analysis; however, 3-D models
result in a large number of nodes and elements models. This example demonstrates how to extract a plane
2-D model from the 3-D model, which can be analyzed using far fewer nodes and elements. The ease of
use, accuracy, and performance of 2-D and 3-D model analyses are compared.

For more information about rotordynamics, refer to the Rotordynamic Analysis Guide and Rotating Structure
Analysis in the Advanced Analysis Techniques Guide)

21.2. Problem Description

The model for the problem is a 3-D geometry model of a Nelson-Vaugh rotor, as shown in the figure below.
The model consists of a flexible rotor with one rigid disk supported by two orthotropic bearings. The mod-
eling details of the original model can be found in Reference [1].

Figure 21.1 3-D Geometry of Nelson-Vaugh Rotor

Modal, Campbell diagram, and unbalance response analyses are performed on the 2-D axisymmetric model
represented in the figure below. The effect of gyroscopic moment on the rotating structure dynamics is
observed in each analysis.

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 21.3.1. 3-D Modeling of Flexible Rotor Component

Figure 21.2 2-D Axisymmetric Geometry of Nelson-Vaugh Rotor

To validate the accuracy of the results obtained with the 2-D axisymmetric model, the same analyses were
performed with the corresponding 3-D solid model. The results are then used as a benchmark for the 2-D
axisymmetric model results.

21.3. Modeling
The following modeling topics are discussed in this section:
21.3.1. 3-D Modeling of Flexible Rotor Component
21.3.2. Axisymmetric Modeling of the Flexible Rotor Component from 3-D Geometry
21.3.3. Disk and Bearing Modeling

21.3.1. 3-D Modeling of Flexible Rotor Component

The 3-D model is meshed with SOLID187 elements, as shown in the figure below. The default settings of
SOLID187 elements are used.

Figure 21.3 3-D Model Meshed with SOLID187 Elements

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Chapter 21: Rotordynamics of a Shaft Assembly Based on a Representative Model of Nelson-Vaugh Rotor

21.3.2. Axisymmetric Modeling of the Flexible Rotor Component from 3-D

Geometry
The following process uses the ANSYS Workbench product to extract the 2-D axisymmetric geometry the 3-
D geometry:

1. Freeze the highlighted portion of the model shown below.

Figure 21.4 3-D Geometry

2. Use the Slice by Plane operation on the unfrozen portion of the model as shown below.

Figure 21.5 2-D Axisymmetric Geometry Extracted from 3-D Geometry

3-D Geometry

Extracted 2-D Axisymmetric Geometry

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 21.3.2. Axisymmetric Modeling of the Flexible Rotor Component from 3-D Geometry

The extracted 2-D geometry is then meshed with the general axisymmetric SOLID272 elements as shown
in the figure below.

Figure 21.6 2-D Axisymmetric Geometry Meshed with SOLID272 Elements

For modeling, three Fourier nodal planes along the circumferential direction are considered with KEYOPT(2)
= 3 as pictured in the figure below.

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Chapter 21: Rotordynamics of a Shaft Assembly Based on a Representative Model of Nelson-Vaugh Rotor

Figure 21.7 2-D Axisymmetric Model with Fourier Nodal Planes

The 3-D mesh is generated based on the 2-D mesh of master planes using the axis of symmetry of the rotor
model. It is defined using the SECTYPE and SECDATA commands as follows:
! Define the axis of symmetry

SECT, 1, axis
SECDATA, 1, x1,y1,z1, x2,y2,z2 ! Coordinates to define the axis of symmetry

Finally, using the axis of symmetry and the NAXIS command, the 3-D mesh is automatically generated as
shown in the figure below.

Figure 21.8 3-D View of SOLID272 Mesh

21.3.3. Disk and Bearing Modeling

The following modeling topics are available:
21.3.3.1. Disk Modeling
21.3.3.2. Modeling Bearings

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 21.3.3. Disk and Bearing Modeling

21.3.3.1. Disk Modeling

The rigid disk is modeled as a concentrated mass using MASS21 element as shown in the figure below.
KEYOPT(3) = 0 is used to define the 3-D mass with rotary inertia.

Figure 21.9 Rigid Disk Modeled Using MASS21 Element (3-D Solid Model)

Following is the general process for modeling the rigid disk:

1. Create the contact pairs at the interface corresponding to the location of the rigid disk (the geometry
is sliced beforehand at this location).
2. Mesh the contact surfaces of the 3-D solid model with CONTA174 elements, and contact surfaces of
the 2-D axisymmetric model with CONTA175 elements.
3. Define a pilot node scoped to the surfaces.
4. Create a point mass at this pilot node.

In the case of the 3-D solid model, bonded surface-to-surface contact pairs are used to define contact
between the cross sectional elements and the pilot node. The pilot node is located at the center of the cross
section. The cross sectional elements and/or contact surfaces are meshed using CONTA174 elements (3-D
8-node surface-to-surface contact) as shown in the figure above.

Similarly, for the 2-D axisymmetric model, bonded node-to-surface contact pairs are used to define contact
between the cross sectional nodes and the pilot node. CONTA175 elements (2-D/3-D node-to-surface contact)
are used to mesh the cross sectional nodes and/or contact surfaces as shown in the figure below.

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Chapter 21: Rotordynamics of a Shaft Assembly Based on a Representative Model of Nelson-Vaugh Rotor

Figure 21.10 Disk Modeled Using MASS21 Element (2-D Axisymmetric Model)

The Multipoint Constraints (MPC) algorithm is used for bonded contact through KEYOPT(2) = 2 when mod-
eling both contact pairs.

TARGE170 elements are used to mesh the pilot node in both models. All degrees of freedom (DOF) of this
pilot node are constrained through KEYOPT(4) = 111111.

The following input fragments show the steps involved in creating the contact pairs for the 2-D axisymmetric
model:
/prep7

et, 1, conta175 ! Define Contact 175 element

et, 2, targe170 ! Define Target 170 element
keyopt, 2, 2, 1 ! Don't fix the pilot node
keyopt, 2, 4, 111111 ! Constrained all DOFs
keyopt, 1, 12, 5 ! Bonded Contact
keyopt, 1, 4, 1 ! Deformable RBE3 style load
keyopt, 1, 2, 2 ! MPC style contact

nsel, s, loc, x, 89.01 ! Select nodes at the user specified location

nplot
cm, contactp1, node

type, 1
real, 1
mat, 1

/com, Creating bonded contact pairs for defining Point Mass

nn = 0
*get, numn, node,, count
*do, i, 1, numn ! Loop to create contact elements on selected nodes
nn = ndnext(nn)
e, nn ! Create contact elements on node one by one
*enddo
allsel, all, all

*set, _npilot, 2 ! Set node 2 as a pilot node (user defined)

type, 2
mat, 1
real, 1
tshape, pilo
e, _npilot ! Create target element on pilot node
tshape

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 21.3.3. Disk and Bearing Modeling

21.3.3.2. Modeling Bearings

Bearings are used to support the rotor in the lateral direction. Two identical undamped and linear orthotropic
bearings were modeled using COMBI214 elements, as shown in the figure below and in Figure 21.13 (p. 296).

KEYOPT(2) = 1 is used to define the elements in a plane parallel to the YZ plane. The DOFs of these elements
are then UY and UZ.

The X, Y, and Z axes should be added to the following figure (see Figure 21.4 (p. 290) for the directions).

Figure 21.11 Bearings Modeled with COMBI214 Elements (3-D solid model)

Following is the general process for modeling the bearings:

1. Create the contact pairs at the bearing locations (the geometry is sliced beforehand at these locations).
2. Mesh the contact surfaces with CONTA174 elements for the 3-D solid model, and CONTA175 elements
for the 2-D axisymmetric model.
3. Create nodes at the center of the cross section of the rotor at each bearing location (i.e. at the pilot
node locations). It will represent the second node of the bearing.
4. Create the COMBI214 elements using these nodes and the pilot nodes.

The contact pairs shown in the figure below must be created to model the bearings. The contact pairs are
modeled in a similar fashion to the disk modeled in the previous section.

Figure 21.12 Bonded Contact Pairs at Bearing Locations (3-D Solid Model)

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Chapter 21: Rotordynamics of a Shaft Assembly Based on a Representative Model of Nelson-Vaugh Rotor

To model an orthotropic bearing, an additional node is created at the center of the cross section of the rotor
at the bearing location. This node is then connected to pilot node using COMBI214 elements. To visualize
this element, offset the node along the Y-direction without altering the results as shown in the figure below
and in Figure 21.11 (p. 295).

Figure 21.13 Bearings Modeled with COMBI214 Elements (2-D Axisymmetric Model)

21.4. Material Properties

The unit system for this example problem is shown in the table below.

Unit System Metric (mm, tonne, N)

Angle Degrees
Rotational Velocity rad/s

Material properties of the 3-D/2-D Model of a Nelson Rotor are shown in the table below.

Density 7.85e-009 tonne mm-3

Young's Modulus 2.0e+005 tonne mm-2
Poisson's Ratio 0.3

The properties of the point mass (rigid disk) are shown in the table below.

Mass (X, Y and Z directions) 1.401e-3 tonne

Polar Inertia 2.0 tonne-mm2

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 21.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

Diametral Inertia 13.6 tonne-mm2

The stiffness properties of the two identical orthotropic bearings are shown in the table below.

K11 = K22 3.503e+004 N/mm

K12 = K21 -8.756e+003 N/mm

21.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

Fixed support conditions are applied to the second node of the bearing elements, as shown in the figure
below. Translational and rotational DOFs about the axis of rotation at the bearing locations are constrained.

Figure 21.14 Boundary Conditions (3-D Solid Model)

3-D Solid Model

2-D Axisymmetric Model

The effect of the unbalanced mass on the disk is represented by forces acting in the two directions perpen-
dicular to the spinning axis. The forces are applied on a node located on the axis of rotation at the same
location as the point mass. The amplitude of the unbalance force is equal to the mass multiplied by the
distance of the unbalance mass to the spin axis.

The following input fragment shows the steps to apply the unbalance force:

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Chapter 21: Rotordynamics of a Shaft Assembly Based on a Representative Model of Nelson-Vaugh Rotor

/com, Force, f0 = mass * radius

f0 = 1.90e-3
nodeUnb = node(89.01, 0, 0)

/com, Applying rotating force in the clockwise direction.

F, nodeUnb, FY, -f0 ! Real FY component at node ' nodeUnb'

F, nodeUnb, FZ,, f0 ! Imaginary FZ component at node ' nodeUnb'

21.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

This section discusses the following topics:
21.6.1. Modal Analysis
21.6.2. Campbell Diagram Analysis
21.6.3. Unbalance Response Analysis

21.6.1. Modal Analysis

Modal analyses of the 2-D axisymmetric model with and without gyroscopic effects included are discussed
in this section.

21.6.1.1. Modal Analysis without Gyroscopic Effects

The modal analysis without gyroscopic effects is performed using the Block Lanczos (LANB) solver, extracting
twelve modes.

The following input fragment shows the steps to extract these modes:
/solu

antype, modal ! Perform Modal analysis

modopt, lanb, 12 ! Use Block Lanczos solver to extract 12 modes
mxpand, 12 ! Expands all the modes
solve
finish

21.6.1.2. Modal Analysis with Gyroscopic Effects

The rotational velocity is specified with the OMEGA or CMOMEGA command. The gyroscopic effects of the
rotating structure are included using the CORIOLIS command.

The modal analysis with gyroscopic effects is performed on the model using the complex QRDAMP eigen-
solver.

The following input fragment shows the steps to perform the modal analysis with gyroscopic effects:
/SOLU

/com, Select all the rotating elements supporting Coriolis command

esel,,ename,,272
esel,a,ename,,21
cm,rot_part, elem
esel, all

/com, Specify rotational velocity to the structure/rotating elements.

pival = acos(-1)
spinRpm = 50000 ! Rotational velocity in rpm
spinRds = spinRpm*pival/30
cmomega, rot_part, spinRds ! Apply rotational velocity along rotating velocity (X)

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 21.6.2. Campbell Diagram Analysis

/com, Activate Coriolis command and choose QRDAMP eigensolver

antype, modal ! Perform Modal analysis

modopt, qrdamp, 12,,, on ! Use QRDAMP solver to extract 12 complex modes
mxpand, 12 ! Expand all the modes
coriolis, on,,, on ! Last field specifies stationary reference frame
solve
finish

21.6.2. Campbell Diagram Analysis

Before performing a Campbell diagram analysis, a modal analysis must be performed with multiple load
steps corresponding to different angular velocities. A Campbell diagram plot (PLCAMP command) shows
the evolution of the natural frequencies with respect to the rotational speed. The PRCAMP command prints
out the critical speeds based on the Campbell diagram plot for a synchronous (unbalanced) or asynchronous
force.

The following input fragment shows the steps to perform the Campbell Diagram Analysis:
/SOLU

/com, Select all rotating elements supporting Coriolis command

esel,,ename,,272
esel,a,ename,,21
cm, rot_part, elem
esel, all

/com, Activate Coriolis command and pick the QRDAMP eigensolver

antype, modal ! Perform Modal analysis

modopt, qrdamp, 12,,,on ! Use QRDAMP solver to extract 12 complex modes
mxpand, 12 ! Expand all the modes
coriolis, on,,, on ! Last field specifies stationary reference frame

/com, Solve modal analysis for different angular velocities

pival = acos(-1)
spinRpm = 0 ! Rotational velocity in rpm
spinRds = spinRpm*pival/30
cmomega, rot_part, spinRds
solve

spinRpm = 50000 ! Rotational velocity in rpm

spinRds = spinRpm*pival/30
cmomega, rot_part, spinRds
solve

spinRpm = 100000 ! Rotational velocity in rpm

spinRds = spinRpm*pival/30
cmomega, rot_part, spinRds
solve
finish

/com, Post process the Campbell diagram plot

/POST1

prcamp,, 1.0, rpm,, rot_part ! Prints Campbell diagram data

/show, png
/rgb, index, 100, 100, 100, 0 ! Set white background
/rgb, index, 0, 0, 0, 15
plcamp,, 1.0, rpm,, rot_part ! Plots Campbell diagram data
finish

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Chapter 21: Rotordynamics of a Shaft Assembly Based on a Representative Model of Nelson-Vaugh Rotor

21.6.3. Unbalance Response Analysis

A harmonic response analysis of the 2-D axisymmetric model is performed within a speed range of 0 to
100,000 rpm (a frequency range of 0 to 1666.67 Hz) using 200 substeps. The first seven modes in this frequency
range are excited.

In this analysis, the unbalance is considered as loading. (see Boundary Conditions and Loading (p. 297) for
more details).

A damping ratio of 1 percent is considered (DMPRAT).

The frequency of excitation is specified as synchronous with the rotational velocity (SYNCHRO). The rotational
velocity (CMOMEGA) determines only the rotational velocity direction vector of the rotating component.
The spin of the rotor is automatically calculated (HARFRQ).

The following input fragment shows the steps to perform the unbalance response analysis:
/SOLU

spinRds = 1 ! Rotating velocity of the shaft to specify the spin axis

spinRpm1 = 0 ! Begin speed in rpm

spinRpm2 = 100000 ! End speed in rpm
begin_freq = spinRpm1/60 ! Equivalent begin frequency in Hz
end_freq = spinRpm2/60 ! Equivalent end frequency in Hz

antype, harmic ! Perform Harmonic analysis

hropt, full ! Select Full Harmonic analysis option
nsubst, 200
harfrq, begin_freq, end_freq ! Defines the frequency range
kbc, 1

dmprat, 0.01 ! Specify damping ratio of 1%

synchro,,rot_part ! Specify synchronous analysis

cmomega,rot_part,spinRds ! Define the rotational velocity direction vector
coriolis,on,,, on ! Includes gyroscopic effect
solve

finish

21.7. Results and Discussion

The natural frequencies of the 2-D axisymmetric model without rotation are evaluated and compared with
the results of 3-D solid model in the following table.

Mode # 2-D Axisymmetric Mod- 3-D Solid Model (Hz) Error (%)
el (Hz)
1 188.90 189.00 0.05
2 207.83 208.04 0.10
3 637.97 639.59 0.25
4 653.25 653.25 0.00
5 731.00 732.77 0.24
6 805.05 805.64 0.07
7 987.91 991.73 0.39
8 1777.40 1782.50 0.29

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 21.7. Results and Discussion

Mode # 2-D Axisymmetric Mod- 3-D Solid Model (Hz) Error (%)
el (Hz)
9 1777.90 1785.20 0.41
10 2005.50 2009.60 0.20
11 2082.70 2086.90 0.20
12 3275.90 3287.80 0.36

The natural frequencies of the 2-D axisymmetric model in rotation (50,000 rpm) also show good agreement
with the 3-D solid model results, as shown in the following table.

Mode # 2-D Axisymmetric Mod- 3-D Solid Model (Hz) Error (%)
el (Hz)
1 168.07 168.25 0.11
2 231.63 231.75 0.05
3 625.80 627.19 0.22
4 651.20 651.39 0.03
5 749.85 751.59 0.23
6 806.61 807.25 0.08
7 987.91 991.73 0.39
8 1759.90 1766.00 0.35
9 1795.70 1802.00 0.35
10 1919.80 1923.50 0.19
11 2183.00 2187.60 0.21
12 3275.90 3287.80 0.36

The /POST1 results of the Campbell diagram analysis are shown in the figure that follows.

Figure 21.15 Campbell Diagram

2-D Axisymmetric Model

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Chapter 21: Rotordynamics of a Shaft Assembly Based on a Representative Model of Nelson-Vaugh Rotor

3-D Solid Model

With the help of the Campbell diagram analysis, we can identify the forward (FW) and backward (BW) whirls,
as well as possible unstable frequencies (though none are present in this example). In the table below, the
whirls and natural frequencies of the 2-D axisymmetric model at maximum rotational speed (100,000rpm)
are compared with the 3-D solid model results.

Frequency (Hz)
Whirl 100000 rpm
Mode # 2-D Axisymmetric 3-D 2-D Axisymmetric 3-D
1 BW BW 143.95 144.17

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 21.7. Results and Discussion

Frequency (Hz)
Whirl 100000 rpm
Mode # 2-D Axisymmetric 3-D 2-D Axisymmetric 3-D
2 FW FW 263.85 263.92
3 BW BW 600.39 601.48
4 BW BW 648.34 648.72
5 FW FW 790.53 791.73
6 FW FW 812.76 813.99
7 FW BW 987.91 991.73
8 BW BW 1742.12 1748.14
9 FW FW 1813.99 1820.05

The Campbell diagram analysis helps to determine the critical speeds of the rotating structure (PRCAMP ).
Critical speeds are compared in the table below. For a synchronous excitation, the critical speeds correspond
to the intersection points between the frequency curves and the 1.0 slope line. The critical speeds of the 2-
D axisymmetric and 3-D solid models show strong agreement.

Critical Speed (rpm)

Mode # 2-D Axisymmetric Mod- 3-D Solid Model Error (%)
el
1 11057.56 11064.65 0.06
2 12836.54 12847.70 0.09
3 37726.96 37812.80 0.23
4 39098.86 39107.83 0.02
5 44875.36 44982.13 0.24
6 48393.45 48431.91 0.08
7 59274.64 59503.56 0.38
8 none none -
9 none none -

The results of the unbalance response analysis post processed in /POST26 are shown in the following figure.
The logarithmic plots show the variation of the displacement amplitudes of two selected nodes with respect
to the frequency of excitation. The first node is located near the rigid disk, and it corresponds to the light
blue curve. The second node is located near the bearing location, and it corresponds to the purple curve.

The critical frequencies appear where the amplitudes are largest, and correspond to the critical speeds.

Figure 21.16 Unbalance Response

2-D Axisymmetric Model

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Chapter 21: Rotordynamics of a Shaft Assembly Based on a Representative Model of Nelson-Vaugh Rotor

3-D Solid Model

The orbits after a full harmonic analysis can be plotted in POST1 as shown in the figure below (PLORB
command). For the solid element as well as for the axisymmetric element model, we need to add massless
line elements using BEAM188 on the rotational velocity axis to plot these orbits. The orbits of the 2-D

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 21.7.1. Performance Benefits of the 2-D Axisymmetric Model

axisymmetric model at a frequency of 1666.67 Hz are shown in the figure below. The rotor line is in dark
blue, while the orbits are in light blue.

The following input fragment shows the steps to produce an orbits plot at a given frequency:
/POST1
esel,r,ename,, 188 ! Select BEAM188 elements to produce orbits
set,1, 200 ! Visualize orbits at frequency 1666.67 Hz
/view,,1,1,1
plorb ! Displays the orbital motion of a rotating structure

Figure 21.17 Orbits Plot of 2-D Axisymmetric Model

21.7.1. Performance Benefits of the 2-D Axisymmetric Model

The memory and CPU usage of the 2-D model is shown in the following table.

2-D Axisymmetric Model

Elements # Nodes # No. of Equa- Memory re- CPU Time (Sec)
tions quired for in-
core (MB)
Campbell Dia-
53.283 17.30
gram Analysis
2208 6751 20225
Unbalance Re-
118.325 1347.53
sponse Analysis

The memory and CPU usage of the 3-D model is shown in the following table.

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Chapter 21: Rotordynamics of a Shaft Assembly Based on a Representative Model of Nelson-Vaugh Rotor

3-D Solid Model

Elements # Nodes # No. of Equa- Memory re- CPU Time (Sec)
tions quired for in-
core (MB)
Campbell Dia-
186.141 45.56
gram Analysis
9239 15123 45341
Unbalance Re-
605.464 4645.95
sponse Analysis

The CPU times for the unbalance response analysis are represented in the following bar graph.

Figure 21.18 CPU Time of 2-D Axisymmetric and 3-D Solid Models (Unbalance Response
Analysis)

21.8. Recommendations
• In the CAD geometry, identify the axisymmetric and non-axisymmetric parts. A non axisymmetric part
should be considered as follow:
– If inertia is negligible, create a non-rotating component based on this part. The gyroscopic effect
will not be taken into account.
– If inertia is not negligible, delete the part and create an equivalent axisymmetric geometry so that
its gyroscopic effects are included. The simplest way to do this is to add a point mass on the rota-
tional velocity axis. The point mass characteristics are based on the part mass and inertias. Keep in
mind that the two rotary inertias perpendicular to the rotational velocity axis must be equal to
guaranty the axisymmetry.
• For 3-D and 2-D axisymmetric modeling, the geometry is sliced at rigid disks and bearing locations so
that those components are easily created and connected to remote points attached to the interfaces.
• When meshing a 2-D axisymmetric model using SOLID272 or SOLID273, choose an appropriate number
of Fourier nodes in the circumferential direction to ensure good accuracy and minimize the computa-
tional cost. For typical rotordynamics problems in linear dynamics, three Fourier nodes are sufficient.
• When performing a Campbell diagram of a structure, always check the eigenfrequencies at zero rota-
tional velocity first. If the supports (e.g., bearings or boundary conditions) are symmetric, bending fre-
quencies should appear in pairs. If that is not the case in a 3-D model, try refining the mesh.

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 21.10. Input Files

• To perform the unbalance response analysis of 3-D and 2-D axisymmetric models, the unbalance response
is introduced using complex forces defined at a node on the rotational velocity axis. The unbalance
response may be defined using a point mass away from the rotational velocity axis only in the case of
a nonlinear transient analysis.

21.9. References
The following references are cited in this example problem:

1. H.D. Nelson and J.M. Mc Vaugh. The Dynamics of Rotor-Bearing Systems Using Finite Elements. Journal
of Engineering For Industry. ASME. May 1976.
2. Beley, A., C. Rajakumar, P. Thieffry. “Computational Methods for Rotordynamics Simulation.” NAFEMS
World Congress, 2009.

21.10. Input Files

The following files were used in this problem:

2-D Axisymmetric Model Input

• 2-D_axi_symm.cdb -- The common database file for a 2-D axisymmetric model of the Nelson-Vaugh
rotor.
• 2-D_axi_symm_campbell.dat -- Input file for performing a Campbell diagram analysis of the 2-D
axisymmetric model.
• 2-D_axi_symm_harm.dat -- Input file for performing an unbalance response analysis of the 2-D
axisymmetric model.

3-D Solid Model Input

• 3D_solid_model.cdb -- The common database file for a 3-D solid model of the Nelson-Vaugh rotor.
• 3D_solid_campbell.dat -- Input file for performing Campbell diagram analysis of the 3-D solid
model.
• 3D_solid_harm.dat -- Input file for performing unbalance response analysis of the 3-D solid model.

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-14). See Obtaining the Input Files for more
information.

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Chapter 22: Viscoelastic Analysis of an All-Ceramic Fixed Partial
Denture
This example problem demonstrates the fictive-temperature material model using the Tool-Narayanaswamy
(TN) shift function to examine residual stresses in an all-ceramic fixed partial denture (FPD). A coupled-field
solution process, including transient thermal and nonlinear structural analyses, is used in the problem simu-
lation.

The following capabilities are highlighted:

• Using the fictive temperature model for viscoelastic material.

• Running a transient thermal analysis to determine the temperature profile at various time steps.
• Applying thermal analysis results as temperature loads for structural analysis.
• Running a nonlinear structural analysis to determine residual stresses due to thermal loading.

Topics related to this example problem follow:

22.1. Introduction
22.2. Problem Description
22.3. Modeling
22.4. Material Properties
22.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
22.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
22.7. Results and Discussion
22.8. Recommendations
22.9. References
22.10. Input Files

22.1. Introduction
Materials are generally considered to be viscoelastic if they have an elastic and viscous behavior. The elastic
behavior is typically rate-independent and represents the recoverable deformation due to loading, while
the viscous behavior is typically rate-dependent and represents dissipative mechanisms within the material.

A wide range of materials (such as polymers, glassy materials, soils, biological tissue, and textiles) exhibit
viscoelastic behavior. Viscoelastic materials exhibit viscous fluid behavior at high temperatures and solid
behavior at low temperatures.

For most viscoelastic materials, the effect on the material properties caused by changes in temperature is
similar to that of the effect caused by changes in the time scale. Such materials are considered to be ther-
morheologically simple. A general material property called the shift function can reduce the constitutive re-
lation at a reference temperature and shifted time. The shift function can lessen the amount of experiment-
ation needed to determine the material parameters.

The following shift functions are available for representing thermorheologically simple materials:
• Williams-Landel-Ferry (WLF) -- Suitable for many types of polymers.

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Chapter 22: Viscoelastic Analysis of an All-Ceramic Fixed Partial Denture

• Tool-Narayanaswamy (TN) -- Suitable for glassy materials.

• TN with fictive temperature -- Suitable for the melting and solidification process of viscoelastic mater-
ials such as glass and stiff polymers.

The shift functions reproduce the behavior of a wide range of viscoelastic materials. For special requirements,
user-defined shift functions can also be defined.

The fictive temperature is the temperature at which the current microstructure of glass is in an equilibrium
state. For the TN shift function with fictive temperature model, the fictive temperature is used to model
materials containing an intrinsic equilibrium temperature that typically differs from the ambient temperature
of the material. The fictive temperature relaxes toward the ambient temperature similar to the way that
deviatoric and volumetric stiffness constants of the viscoelastic material relax toward the long time-elastic
constants.

With the shift function, the evolution of the fictive temperature for any thermal history can be calculated.
As the fictive temperature approaches the actual temperature, the viscoelastic material becomes more relaxed.
The fictive temperature model is often used to model the melting and solidification process of viscoelastic
materials such as glass and stiff polymers. This problem uses a fixed partial denture (FPD) model to determine
the residual stresses due to the solidification of a glass veneer on a ceramic core material.

Metal-free ceramic materials are biocompatible, chemically durable, and aesthetically desirable. Such mater-
ials are therefore ideal for FPDs. Thermal loading during the glass layer manufacturing process causes residual
stresses in FPDs. Higher residual stresses caused by thermal contraction incompatibility between the veneer
and core materials can lead to failure under occlusal loading in the oral cavity.[1 (p. 320)] The ability to de-
termine residual stresses in an FPD subjected to thermal loading is useful for predicting the life of the FPD.

22.2. Problem Description

The FPD is a combination of glass veneer and ceramic core, as shown in the following two figures, respectively:

Figure 22.1 FPD Viscoelastic (Glass) Veneer Geometry

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 22.3.1. Denture Modeling

Figure 22.2 FPD Ceramic Core Geometry (Inside the Veneer)

A 3-D model of the FPD is constructed from the digitized scanning data of a reference FPD.[1 (p. 320)] Because
the original model is unavailable, a similar geometry of a three-unit FPD is created in ANSYS DesignModeler
for use in this problem.

Sintering is commonly used for glass coatings. The high temperatures (~700° C) used during sintering are
reduced to room temperature (30° C) via free convection. Initially, some free thermal expansion occurs in
the core material due to the high temperature; however, this free expansion may not affect stresses developed
during free convection of the veneer and core together. For demonstration purposes, a uniform initial tem-
perature for both the veneer and the core is assumed, with no initial thermal expansion of the ceramic core.

The temperature distribution in the FPD is needed to determine the thermal residual stresses in the veneer
and core. A transient thermal analysis with a duration of 600 seconds is performed on the FPD. The initial
temperature is 700° C, and free convection cools the FPD to a room temperature of 30° C. A convective heat
transfer coefficient of 3.4E-5 W/mm2 °C is specified on all free surfaces, reducing sintering temperature to
the steady-state room temperature.

The temperature results are stored every 60 seconds. The results are used as input for a subsequent nonlinear
structural analysis to determine the residual stresses.

22.3. Modeling
Following are the modeling topics available for this problem:
22.3.1. Denture Modeling
22.3.2. Contact Modeling

22.3.1. Denture Modeling

For both the veneer and core meshes, thermal element SOLID87 is used for the transient thermal analysis,
as shown in this figure:

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Chapter 22: Viscoelastic Analysis of an All-Ceramic Fixed Partial Denture

Figure 22.3 FPD Veneer and Core Mesh (SOLID87)

A 3-D surface-to-surface contact is used for creating the contact pair. The contact between veneer and core
is meshed with CONTA174 and TARGE170 elements, as shown in the following figure:

Figure 22.4 Contact Between Veneer and Core (CONTA174 and TARGE170)

The temperature profile (obtained in the thermal analysis) is used in a nonlinear structural analysis to de-
termine the residual stress in the veneer. The temperature results are read in as thermal loads at different
time steps (LDREAD).

The structural analysis requires the same mesh as that used for the thermal analysis. It is therefore necessary
to change the thermal elements to structural elements (ETCHG). In this case, thermal element SOLID87 is
converted to structural solid element SOLID187. The contact CONTA174 and target TARGE170 elements are
compatible with SOLID187, so those elements remain; contact element options are modeified as necessary
(KEYOPT).

The following example input changes the element type:

ETCHG,TTS ! Change thermal elements to structural elements
KEYOPT,3,1,0 ! Change degrees of freedom for TEMP to UX, UY, and UZ

The FPD model contains 164,041 nodes. The model has 110,275 3-D 10-node tetrahedral structural solid
elements (56,811 veneer elements and 53,464 core elements), and 10,568 3-D 8-node surface-to-surface
contact elements.

22.3.2. Contact Modeling

Bonded surface-to-surface contact pairs define the contact between the veneer and the core. The contact
pair modeled for the thermal analysis is converted for the structural analysis (ETCHG).

The following example input creates the element pair:

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 22.4.2. Static Structural Analysis Material Properties

/COM, CONTACT PAIR CREATION - START

ET,3,170 ! Define TARGET170 element
ET,4,174 ! Define CONTACT174 element
KEYOPT,4,1,2 ! Select temperature degree of freedom for thermal analysis
REAL,3 ! Set the element real constant
RMODIF,3,14,4e-005 ! Define Thermal Contact Conductance (TCC)

! Generate the target surface

NSEL,S,,,VENEER.TGT ! Selected user-defined nodal component for target
TYPE,3 ! Element type for target elements
ESLN,S,0 ! Select elements attached to nodal component
ESURF ! Generate target mesh on the free faces of selected elements
ALLSEL,ALL

! Generate the contact surface

NSEL,S,,,CORE.CNT ! Selected user-defined nodal component for contact
TYPE,4 ! Element type for contact elements
ESLN,S,0 ! Select elements attached to nodal component
ESURF ! Generate contact mesh on the free faces of selected elements
ALLSEL
/COM, CONTACT PAIR CREATION - END

22.4. Material Properties

The veneer is represented by viscoelastic material behavior while the core is assumed to behave elastically.

The following material property data is available for this problem:

22.4.1.Transient Thermal Analysis Material Properties
22.4.2. Static Structural Analysis Material Properties

22.4.1. Transient Thermal Analysis Material Properties

The following material properties are used for the transient thermal analysis:

Temperature (°C) Conductivity (W/mm2 °C) Specific Heat (J/kg °C) Density (kg/mm3)
Core
30 0.004002012 914.540
200 0.003254307 1119.296
2.514E-6
500 0.002973238 1284.875
700 0.003255384 1347.341
Veneer
30 0.010005623 742.274
200 0.006603368 947.144
2.531E-6
500 0.004560125 1105.625
700 0.004299903 1167.299

The thermal contact conductance is 4E-05 J/(sec-°C).

22.4.2. Static Structural Analysis Material Properties

The following material properties are used for the static structural analysis:

Core

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Chapter 22: Viscoelastic Analysis of an All-Ceramic Fixed Partial Denture

Coefficients of
Young’s Modulus
Poisson's Ratio Density (kg/mm3) Temperature (°C) Thermal Expan-
(GPa)
sion
30 1.00E-05
40 9.87E-06
50 9.68E-06
60 9.51E-06
100 8.90E-06
96 0.24 2.514E-6
200 8.20E-06
300 8.65E-06
400 1.02E-05
500 1.30E-05
700 2.20E-05

Veneer

Young’s Modulus Reference Temper-

Poisson's Ratio Density (kg/mm3) H/R (° K) *
(GPa) ature Tref (°C)
65 0.26 2.531E-6 700 46400

* H/R = activation energy / ideal gas constant

Prony Series Shift Function Constants

Gi / G0 τi Fictive Temperature (°C) Weight Relaxation Time (Sec)
0.48844 1.58E-05 750 0.25 1.58E-05
0.44003 0.000163 726 0.25 0.000163
0.03576 0.003853 705 0.25 0.003853
0.00487 0.008050 687 0.25 0.008050

Following are the polynomial coefficients for glass and liquid thermal expansion:

αg0 = 10.7510E-6 ppm / °C

αg1 = -2.4208E-8 ppm / °C
αg2 = 5.7267E-11 ppm / °C
α10 = -39.1180E-6 ppm / °C
α11 = 1.1526E-7 ppm / °C

22.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

The following boundary and loading condition data is available for this problem:
22.5.1.Thermal Analysis BC and Loading
22.5.2. Structural Analysis BC and Loading

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 22.5.2. Structural Analysis BC and Loading

22.5.1. Thermal Analysis BC and Loading

An initial temperature of 700° C is applied on all nodes. A convective heat-transfer coefficient of 3.4E-5
W/mm2 °C is specified on all free surfaces of the FPD.

The following example input defines the initial temperature and convection coefficient:
NSEL,ALL ! Select all nodes
IC,ALL,TEMP,700 ! Specifies initial temperature at nodes

! Apply convection on the outer areas of the FPD

CMSEL,S,VOAN,NODE ! Select veneer outer area nodes

CMSEL,A,BAN,NODE ! Select FPD bottom area nodes
SF,ALL,CONV,3.4E-5,30 ! Convection

The following figure shows the model with the initial temperature and convection on the FPD surface applied:

Figure 22.5 FPD Boundary Conditions: Thermal Analysis

For the contact pair, a thermal contact conductance of 4E-05 J/(sec-°C) is used for heat conduction between
the veneer and the core.

22.5.2. Structural Analysis BC and Loading

Rigid body motion is constrained with appropriate displacement constraints at the midline of the FPD base.
Vertical displacement constraints are applied to all base nodes. The thermal load is applied (LDREAD).

The following example input reads the temperature from the thermal analysis results:
LDREAD,TEMP,,,TIME,0,'thermal','rth' ! Read temperature from thermal analysis results file

The temperature is read at every load step (LDREAD). The TIME value represents the final solution time of
each load step.

The following figure shows the displacement boundary conditions and body force at TIME = 60 seconds.

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Chapter 22: Viscoelastic Analysis of an All-Ceramic Fixed Partial Denture

Figure 22.6 FPD Boundary Conditions: Structural Analysis

22.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

A transient thermal analysis is performed to determine the temperature distribution and a linear static ana-
lysis is run to determine the residual stress.

Thermal Analysis Solution

The analysis type is defined as a transient thermal analysis (ANTYPE,TRANS).

The following example input obtains the solution for the thermal analysis:
ANTYPE,TRANS ! Perform a transient analysis
TRNOPT,FULL ! Specifies transient analysis options
TIME,600 ! Final time for solution
OUTRES,ALL,-10 ! Saved results at every 60 seconds

Structural Analysis Solution

A linear static analysis (ANTYPE,STATIC) is performed. For the stress analysis, SOLID87 elements are converted
to SOLID187 elements.

The Tool-Narayanaswamy (TN) shift function with fictive temperature is used with the viscoelastic constitutive
model. As with other time-temperature superposition models, the shift function is accessible via the TB,SHIFT
command, as shown in the following input example:
TB,SHIFT,1,1,4,FICT ! Specify Tool-Narayanaswamy shift function
TBDATA, 1,700,46400,0.3 ! TN constants - Reference temperature, H/R and X
TBDATA, 4, 750, 0.25, 1.58E-5 ! Fictive T, weight, relaxation time
....
TBDATA, 16, 10.7510E-6, -2.4208E-8, 5.7267E-11 ! glass CTE coefficients

! Time-dependent behavior of shear and bulk modulus can be

! represented via Prony series. Prony series for deviatoric
! Maxwell elements is defined as follows:

TB,PRONY,1,1,4,SHEAR
TBDATA,1, 0.48844 , 1.58E-5 ! Prony pairs
....

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 22.7. Results and Discussion

According to the reference results, volume relaxation for glass occurs much less rapidly than the shear relax-
ation.[1 (p. 320)] The Prony series input for volume decay is therefore not considered in this problem.

22.7. Results and Discussion

The following three figures show the distribution of temperature at different time steps in both the FPD
veneer and core, with the temperature for both reaching the steady-state room temperature at 600 seconds:

Figure 22.7 Temperature Distribution in Veneer and Core at 60 Seconds

Figure 22.8 Temperature Distribution in Veneer and Core at 300 Seconds

Figure 22.9 Temperature Distribution in Veneer and Core at 600 Seconds

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Chapter 22: Viscoelastic Analysis of an All-Ceramic Fixed Partial Denture

The following three figures show the von Mises stress distribution at different time steps in both the FPD
veneer and core:

Figure 22.10 Von Mises Stress in Veneer and Core at 60 Seconds

Figure 22.11 Von Mises Stress in Veneer and Core at 300 Seconds

Figure 22.12 Von Mises Stress in Veneer and Core at 600 Seconds

The von Mises stresses in both veneer and core change with temperature due to natural convection on the
veneer surface. The stresses correspond to temperature loadings at 60, 300 and 600 seconds. At high tem-
peratures, the von Mises stresses are very high in the veneer as compared to the core.

As the veneer cools through the transition, the elastic moduli no longer relax on the time scale of the cooling
and--due to the different thermal contraction coefficients of the veneer and core--a jump in the stress distri-
bution occurs at the veneer-core interface, bringing the higher von Mises stresses in the veneer close to the
core stress at room temperature.

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 22.8. Recommendations

Stresses in the inner veneer surface at the interface are not significantly different from the core outer surface
stresses due to the stabilized fictive temperature (equal to the actual temperature) at lower temperatures.

The following figure shows tension in the core and compression in the veneer at the room temperature re-
sidual stress pattern:

Figure 22.13 Residual Principal Stress Distribution in Veneer and Core 600 Seconds

The tension is present because the surface cools most rapidly and becomes rigid, while the inner surface of
the veneer (at interface with the core) is still at a higher temperature. When the interface becomes rigid and
cools, it forces the surface under more compression. These residual stresses can be used for analyzing FPDs
under occlusal loading in the oral cavity and subsequently to predict the life of the FPDs.[1 (p. 320)]

The following figure shows the maximum residual principal stress distribution in the veneer and the core
from the reference results [1 (p. 320)], which agree closely with the simulated results from this problem:

Figure 22.14 Reference Results: Residual Principal Stress Distribution in Veneer and Core

22.8. Recommendations
To perform a similar type of viscoelastic analysis, consider the following hints and recommendations:

• Save the thermal analysis results (OUTRES) at required time steps so that the temperatures can be read
in for the structural analysis.
• Specify the correct path for the thermal analysis results (.rth file) during the structural analysis
(LDREAD).
• The sum of the fictive-temperature relaxation coefficients (specified in the table data activated via the
TB,SHIFT,,,,FICT command) should be 1.0.

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Chapter 22: Viscoelastic Analysis of an All-Ceramic Fixed Partial Denture

For more information, see Viscoelastic Material Model in the Element Reference and Shift Functions in the
Theory Reference for the Mechanical APDL and Mechanical Applications.

22.9. References
This analysis was based on the following reference work:

1. DeHoff, Paul H. et al. “Viscoelastic Finite Element Analysis of an All-Ceramic Fixed Partial Denture.”
Journal of Biomechanics. 39 (2006): 40-48.

22.10. Input Files

The following files were used in this problem:

• denture_model.cdb -- Common database file for the fixed partial denture (FPD) finite-element
model and contact pair.
• denture_thermal.dat -- Input file for the transient thermal analysis.
• denture_structural.dat -- Input file for structural analysis.

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-18). See Obtaining the Input Files for more
information.

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Chapter 23: Modal Analysis of a Wind Turbine Blade Using Beam
Elements
This example problem demonstrates how current-technology beam elements can be used effectively in the
simulation of slender composite structures such as a wind turbine blade.

The following features and capabilities are highlighted:

• The meshed beam-section subtype for conveniently representing the built-up sections with complex
geometry and nonuniform materials.
• The tapered-beam section type for defining varying cross-section geometry.
• Cubic interpolation option for improving computational efficiency and accuracy.
• The nonaveraged results file format for storing results from an analysis involving composite materials.

Topics related to this example problem follow:

23.1. Introduction
23.2. Problem Description
23.3. Modeling
23.4. Material Properties
23.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
23.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
23.7. Results and Discussion
23.8. Recommendations
23.9. Input Files

For related information, see "Beam Analysis and Cross Sections" in the Structural Analysis Guide.

23.1. Introduction
Wind turbines play an important role in harvesting alternative sources of energy. The turbine blade is the
critical component in a wind turbine. An optimal blade design is crucial to the ultimate efficiency and strength
of the turbine.

For their excellent formability and density to strength ratios, fiber-reinforced composite materials are now
extensively used in the blade construction. Compared to their conventional counterparts, composite mater-
ials introduce a number of additional design parameters, such as the matrix and fiber material properties,
laminar thicknesses, and fiber orientations.

Each blade design must be carefully verified. For example, to avoid a catastrophic failure, a design must not
lead to a natural frequency close to any of the resonance frequencies. Without the aid of an effective simu-
lation tool for design verification, the design process of a composite blade can be excessively time-consuming.

Because of the complex blade geometry, a typical strategy is to create a 3-D finite-element model of the
turbine blade using shell or solid elements. With a detailed 3-D model, both global and local mechanical
responses of the blade can be adequately predicted with shell or solid elements. The disadvantage of using
shells or solids becomes apparent when design changes are necessary.

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Chapter 23: Modal Analysis of a Wind Turbine Blade Using Beam Elements

A small variation in the design can lead to partial or even complete reconstruction of the 3-D model. Because
3-D models are generally difficult to build and modify, frequent modifications during the design process
may be impractical.

In some circumstances, especially during the preliminary design stage, only the global mechanical responses
of the blade are sought. A simplified model, such as a 1-D beam model, is more desirable for such situations.
The current-technology beam elements, with their advanced beam-section modeling capabilities, can be
used to accurately predict natural frequencies of a typical composite turbine blade with minimal modeling
effort and computational costs.

23.2. Problem Description

The following figure shows a model of a single turbine blade with a length of 30 meters, consisting of three
primary structural components (the skin, the spar caps, and the shear webs):

Figure 23.1 Wind Turbine Blade Geometry and Structural Components

In an actual application, all three components of the blade can be made using layered composites. For illus-
trative purposes, this problem adopts a three-layered construction for the skin only, with homogenous and
orthotropic materials used for the spar caps and shear webs.

The blade geometry is defined via representative cross-sections at eight locations along the longitudinal
axis, as shown in this figure:

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 23.3.1. Wind Turbine Blade: BEAM188 Models

Figure 23.2 Representative Blade Cross-Section Areas at Various Locations

The geometry is assumed to be linearly tapered between each pair of adjacent cross-sections. The natural
frequencies and modes of the blade are analyzed using three comparative models:

• A BEAM188 model with linear interpolation (KEYOPT(3) = 0) and a fine mesh

• A BEAM188 model with cubic interpolation (KEYOPT(3) = 3) and a coarse mesh
• A detailed 3-D reference model using SHELL281 elements

23.3. Modeling
The following models for the wind turbine blade are described:
23.3.1. Wind Turbine Blade: BEAM188 Models
23.3.2. Wind Turbine Blade: SHELL281 Reference Model

23.3.1. Wind Turbine Blade: BEAM188 Models

Following is the general process for modeling the wind turbine blade using beam elements:
1. Create the geometry models of the representative blade cross sections.

For this problem, the geometry was created using DesignModeler.

The root part is contained within the first two round sections (the area between sections #1 and #2).
The root part is made of the skin material only.

Two sections (sections #3 and #4) are defined at the same location. While section #4 and the remaining
sections consist of all three section components (skin, spar caps, and shear webs), section #3 contains
only the skin component. Because sections #2 and #3 are topologically consistent, a transition part is
defined between sections #2 and #3, connecting the root part to the airfoil part.

The airfoil part starts at section #4 and ends at section #9.

2. Mesh the section-area geometry.

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Chapter 23: Modal Analysis of a Wind Turbine Blade Using Beam Elements

The section-area geometry is meshed using MESH200 elements in a quadrilateral shape with eight
nodes (KEYOPT(1) = 7), and appropriate material property types are assigned to different components
within the sections.

The section meshes are output to external files (SECWRITE).

The following example input stores the mesh information for section #1:
CMSEL, s, area1 ! Select area component of first blade cross-section.
ALLSEL, below, area ! Select everything below the selected area
SECWRITE, mesh1,sect,,1 ! Output mesh to file "mesh1.sect"

3. Define constant beam sections types(BEAM), each with a meshed subtype (MESH).

Beam sections with a mesh subtype are defined (SECTYPE), and the section meshes from the prior
step are restored (SECREAD).

The following example input reads the mesh information contained in the mesh1.sect file and as-
sociates it with beam section #1:
SECTYPE,1,beam,mesh ! Specify beam section 1 with mesh subtype
SECREAD,mesh1,sect,,mesh ! Import mesh from file “mesh1.sect”

4. Define seven tapered-beam section types (TAPER).

Using the constant previously defined beam sections, define seven beam sections (SECTYPE) of section
type TAPER.

The sections are assigned later to beam elements in the various blade parts (root, transition, and airfoil).

The following example input defines section #11 for the transition part:
SECTYPE,11,taper ! Specify tapered-beam section type
SECDATA,2,2.0 ! Put BEAM section 2 at global X location 2.0 as the starting section
SECDATA,3,4.0 ! Put BEAM section 3 at global X location 4.0 as the ending section

5. Create a line diagram of the blade model.

Following is a line diagram of the blade model:

Figure 23.3 Line Diagram of Wind Turbine Blade Model

Line segments end where the constant beam sections are defined so that no elements are split by the
sections.

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 23.3.2. Wind Turbine Blade: SHELL281 Reference Model

6. Generate both beam meshes.

Two BEAM188 meshes are generated, one a fine mesh with the linear interpolation option (KEYOPT(3)
= 0), the other a coarse mesh with the cubic interpolation option (KEYOPT(3) = 3). The following two
figures show both models, respectively:

Figure 23.4 BEAM188 Blade Model with Fine Mesh and Linear Interpolation

Figure 23.5 BEAM188 Blade Model with Coarse Mesh and Cubic Interpolation

The elements are visualized with the expanded solid display option (/ESHAPE) to show the 3-D section
details.

The following example input meshes line #3, representing the transition part:
SECNUM,11 ! Set the current section as section 12
LMESH,3 ! Mesh line number 3

23.3.2. Wind Turbine Blade: SHELL281 Reference Model

To generate a reference solution, an equivalent 3-D model is created using SHELL281 elements, as shown
in the following figure:

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Chapter 23: Modal Analysis of a Wind Turbine Blade Using Beam Elements

Figure 23.6 SHELL281 Reference Blade Model

Material properties and boundary conditions in this model are identical to those of the BEAM188 models.

23.4. Material Properties

Five orthotropic materials are used for the three layers in the skin, the shear webs, and the spar caps, respect-
ively. The material properties are as follows:

23.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

Boundary conditions for the beam and the reference shell models are given separately, as follows:
23.5.1. BEAM188 Blade Model Boundary Conditions
23.5.2. SHELL281 Blade Model Boundary Conditions

23.5.1. BEAM188 Blade Model Boundary Conditions

For the beam models, the root end of the blade is completely constrained, as shown in the following figure:

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 23.5.2. SHELL281 Blade Model Boundary Conditions

Figure 23.7 Boundary Conditions on the BEAM188 Blade Model

23.5.2. SHELL281 Blade Model Boundary Conditions

For the reference shell model, the root end of the blade is also completely constrained, as shown in this
figure:

Figure 23.8 Boundary Conditions on the Reference SHELL281 Blade Model

Extensive constraint equations (CEs) are used for properly assembling the three structural components (in-
dicated by the green areas in the figure above).

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Chapter 23: Modal Analysis of a Wind Turbine Blade Using Beam Elements

As a result of the simplified model, an abrupt section-property change exists from the three-component
airfoil section to the skin-only transition section. Significant section deformation is expected at this connection
location.

While the SHELL281 reference model can simulate the section deformation, the same capability in the
BEAM188 models is greatly limited due to basic beam characteristics. To create a comparable reference
model, an artificially rigid plane is inserted at this location, indicated by the red symbols in the figure above.
Similarly, another rigid plane is inserted at the connection of the root part and the transition part.

This technique does not invalidate the beam modeling, as these types of sudden section-property changes
do not exist in actual blade designs.

23.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

Modal analyses are conducted with the three wind turbine blade models. The Block Lanczos solver is used
to extract the first ten natural frequencies and mode shapes, as shown by the following example input:
ANTYPE, modal
MODOPT, lanb,10
MXPAND, 10, , ,yes
SOLVE

23.7. Results and Discussion

The following table summarizes the natural frequency results from the analyses of the three blade models:

The first five frequencies predicted by the three comparative models are consistent within a range of five
percent. The difference increases in higher modes.

The following figure shows the mode shapes of the first five matching frequencies:

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 23.7. Results and Discussion

Figure 23.9 Comparison of Mode Shapes Predicted by BEAM188 and SHELL281 Models

In the SHELL281 reference model, local deformation is evident in higher modes.

The current-technology beams are shown to be effective for simulating slender structures. Compared to 3-
D modeling using shell and solid elements, beam modeling greatly reduces model-creation time and effort
while generally leading to acceptable overall results.

The applicability of current-technology beam elements, however, is bound by the first-order shear-deformation
(or Timoshenko) theory. Beam elements are therefore not suitable for extremely stubby structures or structures
that may undergo large section deformation (as shown in the higher modes predicted in the SHELL281
model).

With the aid of the mesh (MESH) section subtype, current-technology beam elements can be used for certain
types of composite structures. Consider the applicability of beam elements carefully before adopting them
for composite-structure simulation. When modeled with beam elements, composite structures introduce
these restrictions:

• The materials must be oriented in the beam solution coordinate system.

• The material properties should not exhibit great variation within the section
• Because of beam-theory limitations, some material properties such as Poisson’s ratio, and the coupling
between axial stiffness and twisting/transverse shear stiffness, are ignored in beam elements.

The tapered-beam section type (TAPER) can be used with all standard (and even user-defined) beam sections,
making it a powerful and flexible tool for modeling structures with complex and varying cross-section geo-
metry.

The cubic interpolation option enables the BEAM188 model to generate an equally accurate solution with
far fewer elements than the BEAM188 model with the linear option. Cubic interpolation is also required for
modeling partially distributed or pointed loads within the element.

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Chapter 23: Modal Analysis of a Wind Turbine Blade Using Beam Elements

The typical beam-bending stress results (Sxx) with different results-file formats (KEYOPT(15) in current-tech-
nology beam and pipe elements) are shown in the following two figures:

Figure 23.10 Averaged Bending-Stress Distribution (Corresponding to Third Mode Shape at

Location x = 15m)

With the averaged result format (KEYOPT(15) = 0), continuous bending stress is observed even across the
interfaces between two different materials.

For beams with built-up sections, the nonaveraged format (KEYOPT(15) = 1) is appropriate. As shown in the
following figure, the stress discontinuity in heterogeneous media is properly captured using the nonaveraged
format:

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 23.9. Input Files

Figure 23.11 Nonaveraged Bending-Stress Distribution (Corresponding to Third Mode Shape

at Location x = 15m)

23.8. Recommendations
To perform a similar analysis for a slender composite structure, consider the following hints and recommend-
ations:

• When applicable, use current-technology beam elements (such as BEAM188) to achieve better compu-
tational efficiency and to simplify model creation and modification. Verify that all modeling requirements,
such as slenderness ratio and material orientation, are satisfied.
• Use the meshed beam-section subtype (SECTYPE,,BEAM,MESH) and/or the tapered-beam section type
(SECTYPE,,TAPER) for modeling structures with complex section geometry and profiles.
• Select higher-order interpolation options in BEAM188 if nonuniform deformation along the length is
expected. Because higher-order interpolation options introduce invisible internal elements nodes,
however, carefully inspect boundary conditions and loading to avoid inconsistency.
• Select the nonaveraged results file format for proper postprocessing of the simulation results.

23.9. Input Files

The following files were used in this problem:

• blade_188_linear.inp -- Input file for the modal analyses of the wind turbine blade modeled with
linear BEAM188 elements.
• blade_188_linear.cdb -- Common database file containing the model data for the wind turbine
blade modeled with linear BEAM188 elements (called by blade_188_linear.inp).
• blade_188_cubic.inp -- Input file for the modal analyses of the wind turbine blade modeled with
cubic BEAM188 elements.
• blade_188_cubic.cdb -- Common database file containing the model data for the wind turbine
blade modeled with cubic BEAM188 elements (called by blade_188_cubic.inp).

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Chapter 23: Modal Analysis of a Wind Turbine Blade Using Beam Elements

• blade_281.inp -- Input file for the modal analyses of the wind turbine blade modeled with SHELL281
elements.
• blade_281.cdb -- Common database file containing the model data for the wind turbine blade
modeled with SHELL281 elements (called by blade_281.inp).

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-23). See Obtaining the Input Files for more
information.

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Chapter 24: Modal and Harmonic Frequency Analyses of an
Automotive Suspension Assembly Using CMS
This example problem shows how to use component mode synthesis (CMS) to generate dynamic superele-
ments for use in downstream linear dynamic analyses. The example demonstrates how CMS technology can
greatly reduce the use of computational resources and maintain a level of accuracy similar to that of the
full model in modal and harmonic analyses.

Topics related to this example problem follow:

24.1. Introduction
24.2. Problem Description
24.3. Modeling
24.4. Material Properties
24.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading
24.6. Analysis and Solution Controls
24.7. Results and Discussion
24.8. Recommendations
24.9. References and Acknowledgements
24.10. Input Files

24.1. Introduction
Automotive suspension systems contribute to a car's handling and braking to improve safety, and keep
vehicle occupants comfortably isolated from road noise, bumps, and vibrations. When a car moves on uneven
terrain, the wheels are subjected to base excitation. For analysis purposes, this can be approximated as
harmonic excitation. Because the suspension forms part of the chassis in a car, response of the suspension
system to harmonic displacement excitation is a critical subject for analysis.

Component mode synthesis (CMS) is a form of substructure-coupling analysis frequently used in structural
dynamics. CMS allows for the behavior of the entire assembly to be derived from its constituent components.
First, the dynamic behavior of each component is formulated. Then, the dynamic characteristics of the full
system model are formed by enforcing equilibrium and compatibility along component interfaces. CMS is
more accurate than the Guyan reduction for modal, harmonic, and transient analyses because CMS includes
truncated sets of normal mode generalized coordinates, which capture the basic modal characteristics of
the components.

For more information, see the following resources:

• Substructuring in the Mechanical APDL Advanced Analysis Techniques Guide

• Component Mode Synthesis in the Mechanical APDL Advanced Analysis Techniques Guide
• Component Mode Synthesis (CMS) in the Mechanical APDL and Mechanical Applications Theory Reference

24.2. Problem Description

The model used in this analysis is a slightly asymmetric automotive suspension assembly. The analysis calcu-
lates the response of two points attached to a link on the body due to a harmonic (sinusoidally varying)

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Chapter 24: Modal and Harmonic Frequency Analyses of an Automotive Suspension Assembly Using CMS

displacement excitation at the bottom of the wheels. The displacements of the response points are determined
for a specified frequency range. Modal and harmonic analyses are performed. Results using the CMS generated
models are compared to results for a full (non-substructure) model.

24.3. Modeling
The assembly shown in Figure 24.1 (p. 334) consists of two wheels and a body. A wheel consists of 11 parts,
and the wheels are attached to the body via shafts. The body consists of 53 parts, and the dimension of the
overall bounding box is 0.79594 × 0.79324 × 2.5252 (in meters).

The model uses SOLID186, SOLID187, and BEAM188 elements. SOLID186 is a 3-D 20-node solid element ex-
hibiting quadratic displacement behavior suitable for modeling homogenous structural solids. SOLID187 is
a 3-D 10-node element that exhibits quadratic displacement behavior, but is suitable for modeling irregular
meshes. BEAM188 is a 3-D 2-node linear element used for linear elements to create general welds between
different parts in contact. Bonded contact is assumed. This contact prevents relative displacement between
the different parts of the assembly.

The parts of the model are made of structural steel and have a combined mass of 1250.1 kg.

Figure 24.1 3-D Suspension Model

Tetrahedral and hexahedral dominant meshes are used to mesh the assembly. The model has 305,968 nodes
and 165,901 elements. Figure 24.2 (p. 335) shows the meshed model of the assembly.

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 24.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

Figure 24.2 Meshed Suspension Model

24.4. Material Properties

Isotropic linear elastic materials are used to model all parts.

Material properties for all the components of the

suspension assembly
Young's Modulus (N/m-2) 2.0 E+11
Poisson's Ratio 0.30
-3
Density (Kg/m ) 7850

For the harmonic analysis, a constant damping ratio of 5 percent is used to prevent possible large-response
amplitudes.

24.5. Boundary Conditions and Loading

As shown in the following figure, the six bolts on top of the body are constrained in all directions. Sinusoidal
displacement excitation is applied at three nodes at the bottoms of both wheels.

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Chapter 24: Modal and Harmonic Frequency Analyses of an Automotive Suspension Assembly Using CMS

Figure 24.3 Suspension Assembly with Boundary Conditions and Displacement Loading

The following example input shows how the boundary conditions are applied in the generation pass of the
CMS model:
/FILNAME, BODY
/SOLU
/COM, SELECT A SUBSET OF THESE NODES
CMSEL, S, BOLT1 ! Select a new subset of components named Bolt1
CMSEL, A, BOLT2 ! Additionally select a set Bolt2 and extend the current set
CMSEL, A, BOLT3 ! Additionally select a set Bolt3 and extend the current set
CMSEL, A, BOLT4 ! Additionally select a set Bolt4 and extend the current set
CMSEL, A, BOLT5 ! Additionally select a set Bolt5 and extend the current set
CMSEL, A, BOLT6 ! Additionally select a set Bolt6 and extend the current set
ESLN ! Select the elements attached to the selected nodes
NSLE ! Select the nodes attached to the selected elements
D, ALL, ALL ! Constrain the nodes for all degrees of freedom

The loading is applied in the form of harmonic displacement in the vertical y direction on a selected set of
nodes on boththe wheels. The sample input shows how the displacement loading is applied in the full har-
monic analysis:
/COM, NODES AT THE BOTTOM OF THE FIRST WHEEL FOR EXCITATION
N1=NODE(-0.13838, -0.28280, 1.0714) ! Node #191882
N2=NODE(-0.13733, -0.28293, 1.0501) ! Node #192365
N3=NODE(-0.13786, -0.28287, 1.0608) ! Node #210243

/COM, NODES AT THE BOTTOM OF THE SECOND WHEEL FOR EXCITATION

N4=NODE(-0.14007, -0.28151, -1.3531) ! Node #260357
N5=NODE(-0.14043, -0.28140, -1.3638) ! Node #278577
N6=NODE(-0.14079, -0.28129, -1.3744) ! Node #259968
FINISH

/SOLU
ANTYPE, HARMONIC ! Perform a harmonic analysis
HROPT, FULL ! Employ the full method
KBC, 1 ! Use the same value of the load for each substeps
DMPRAT, 0.05 ! Set a constant damping ratio of 5%

HARFRQ, 160, 200 ! Choose the frequency range between 160 and 200 Hz
NSUBST, 20 ! Number of substeps = 20

/COM, LOCATION OF THE LOAD ON THE FIRST WHEEL

NSEL, S, NODE, , N1 ! Select the node n1 as a new subset

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 24.6.1. Substructure

NSEL, A, NODE, , N2 ! Additionally select the node n2 and extend the current set
NSEL, A, NODE, , N3 ! Additionally select the node n3 and extend the current set

/COM, LOCATION OF THE LOAD ON THE SECOND WHEEL

NSEL, A, NODE, , N4 ! Additionally select the node n4 and extend the current set
NSEL, A, NODE, , N5 ! Additionally select the node n5 and extend the current set
NSEL, A, NODE, , N6 ! Additionally select the node n6 and extend the current set

D, ALL, UY, 100 ! Define a displacement degree of freedom on these nodes in the y
! direction. This harmonic displacement amplitude = 100.
NSEL, ALL ! Restore the full set of nodes before solving
SOLVE ! Solve the full model for harmonic analysis
FINISH

24.6. Analysis and Solution Controls

The solution control and analysis settings are different for the full and CMS models. CMS generates substruc-
tures with generalized modal coordinates. This section describes substructure and CMS techniques for
modal and harmonic analyses with the relevant analysis settings and solution controls.

24.6.1. Substructure
Substructuring is a procedure that condenses a group of finite elements into one element represented as
a matrix. The single-matrix element is called a superelement. The substructure analysis uses the technique
of matrix reduction to reduce the system matrices to a smaller set of degrees of freedom (DOFs). The use
pass of a substructure reduces the computer time and allows the solution of very large problems with limited
computer resources. The following figure shows how the suspension assembly is divided into three supere-
lements: Wheel1, Wheel2, and Body.

Figure 24.4 Superelements of the Suspension Assembly

A substructure analysis involves three distinct steps called passes: the generation pass, the use pass, and
the expansion pass.

1. Generation pass

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Chapter 24: Modal and Harmonic Frequency Analyses of an Automotive Suspension Assembly Using CMS

The objective of the generation pass is to condense a group of standard finite elements into a single
superelement. The elements are condensed by identifying a set of master degrees of freedom (MDOFs)
known as master nodes. Master nodes are used to define the interface between the superelement and
the other elements and to capture the characteristics for the dynamic analyses.

Proper choice of the interface master nodes is important to maintain continuity among the superele-
ments and the other parts of the model. To optimize solution time, select the interface with the fewest
nodes that still maintains continuity. For a 3-D model, select the interface at a region of minimum
cross-sectional area. For a 2-D model, you would select the interface at a region of minimum length.

As shown in the following figure, the interface master nodes are defined on the shafts connecting the
wheels and the body because the cross-sectional areas of the shafts are minimal compared to the
other parts.

Figure 24.5 Interface Master Nodes Between the Superelements of the Suspension
Assembly

The Master nodes are also defined where boundary conditions or constraint equations are applied, as
shown in the following figure:

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 24.6.1. Substructure

Figure 24.6 Master Nodes Defined at Fixed Bolts

For the harmonic analysis, the points of load application are also defined as master nodes, as shown
in this figure:

Figure 24.7 Master Nodes Defined at Points of Application of Harmonic Displacement

In the use pass (described below), the master nodes are the only nodes available for a superelement.
The interface master nodes associated with Wheel1 and Body are named component “master1.” Master
nodes associated with Wheel2 and Body are named component “master2”. In the substructure analysis,
the superelement Wheel1 consists of the first wheel and the attached shafts up to “master1” and is
termed Wheel1_for_solve. Likewise, the superelement Wheel2 consists of the second wheel and the
attached shafts up to “master2” and is termed Wheel2_for_solve.

The following example input shows how the superelement of the first wheel is created after defining
the master nodes:
/FILNAME, FIRSTWHEEL ! Name of the Superelement is FirstWheel
/SOLU
CMSEL, S, MASTER1, NODE ! Select a new set of interface nodal components named master1

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Chapter 24: Modal and Harmonic Frequency Analyses of an Automotive Suspension Assembly Using CMS

M, ALL, ALL ! Define them as master nodes

/COM, SELECT A SET OF NODES FOR POINT OF APPLICATION OF HARMONIC DISPLACEMENT ON THE FIRST WHEEL
NSEL, S, NODE, , N1 ! Select the node n1 as a new subset
NSEL, A, NODE, , N2 ! Additionally select the node n2 and extend the current set
NSEL, A, NODE, , N3 ! Additionally select the node n3 and extend the current set
M, ALL, ALL ! Define them as master nodes

ALLSEL, ALL
CMSEL, ALL

NUM_MODES = 100 ! Number of modes to extract for each component = 100

/SOLU
ANTYPE, SUBSTR ! Perform a substructure analysis
SEOPT, FIRSTWHEEL, 2 ! Generate the stiffness and mass matrices
CMSOPT, FIX, NUM_MODES, 0, 100000 ! Use fixed-interface method to extract 100 modes between 0 and a
! large number
CMSEL, S, WHEEL1_FOR_SOLVE ! Select a new subset of components to create the superelement
! associated with the first wheel and the attached shaft
ESLN, S ! Select a new set of elements attached to the selected nodes
SOLVE
FINISH
SAVE

2. Use pass

The superelement is used to make it a part of the whole model. The entire model may be a superele-
ment, or the superelement may be connected to non-superelements.

The solution from the use pass consists of only the reduced solution for the superelement, which is
the DOF solution only at the MDOF, and the complete solution for non-superelements.
3. Expansion pass

The results at all DOFs in the superelement are calculated at the start of the expansion pass. If multiple
superelements are used in the use pass, a separate expansion pass will be required for each superele-
ment.

The reduced solution obtained from the use pass is applied to the model as displacement boundary
conditions, and the complete solution within the superelement is solved.

The expansion pass logic for substructuring analysis searches for the superelement .LN22 file and, if
found, uses the sparse solver to perform a back-substitution.

You can specify a load step and a substep for expanding a particular frequency (EXPSOL).

24.6.2. Component Mode Synthesis

Using component mode synthesis (CMS), the dynamic characteristics of the full system model are formed
by first formulating the dynamic behavior of each of the components, and then enforcing equilibrium and
compatibility along component interfaces.

The generated substructure information in CMS is in the .sub file, which is all that is required in the use
pass. Because the internal details of the structure are not exposed using CMS, specialized teams can work
on the same structure without having to provide detailed or proprietary information about the component.
The superelements created in the generation pass are combined in the use pass with knowledge of master
nodes. The superelements are given a new element type: MATRIX50.

The following sample input shows how the superelements are combined in the use pass.

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 24.6.2. Component Mode Synthesis

/FILNAME, USE
/PREP7
*GET, MAX_ETYPE, ETYP, , NUM, MAX ! Retrieve the value of the maximum element type number
! and store it as MAX_ETYPE
ET, MAX_ETYPE+1, 50 ! Define Matrix50 as the next element type number
TYPE, MAX_ETYPE+1 ! Assign this type number to the elements
MAT, 1 ! Assign 1 as the material number to subsequently defined
! elements
REAL, MAX_ETYPE+1 ! Set the element real constant set attribute pointer
SE, FIRSTWHEEL ! Define the superelement associated with the Wheel1
SE, BODY ! Define the superelement associated with the Body
SE, SECONDWHEEL ! Define the superelement associated with the Wheel2
FINISH

The following figure shows the resulting superelements:

Figure 24.8 Superelement of the Suspension Model After the Use Pass

A CMS substructure offers the following additional advantages over a basic substructure:

• More accurate than a Guyan reduction for modal, harmonic, and transient analyses. CMS includes
truncated sets of normal modal generalized coordinates that characterize the behavior of the components
of the structural model.
• The ability to include experimental results, as the substructure model need not be purely mathematical.

A typical use of CMS involves modal analysis of a large, complicated structure (such as an aircraft or nuclear
reactor) where various teams are in charge of the design of a component of the structure. With CMS, design
changes to a single component affect only that component; therefore, additional generation passes are ne-
cessary only for the modified substructure.

The following CMS options are available:

• Fixed-interface (CMSOPT,FIX), where interface nodes are constrained during the CMS superelement
generation pass.

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Chapter 24: Modal and Harmonic Frequency Analyses of an Automotive Suspension Assembly Using CMS

• Free-interface (CMSOPT,FREE), where interface nodes remain free during the CMS superelement gener-
ation pass.
• Residual-flexible free-interface (CMSOPT,RFFB), where interface nodes remain free during the CMS su-
perelement generation pass.

The fixed-interface CMS method is preferable for most analyses. The free-interface method and the residual-
flexible free-interface method are useful when an analysis requires more accurate eigenvalue computation
at the mid to high end of the spectrum. As in substructuring, a component mode synthesis analysis involves
three distinct steps or passes. In CMS generation pass, a group of finite elements are condensed into a single
CMS superelement that includes a set of master degrees of freedom (MDOFs) and truncated sets of normal
mode generalized coordinates. The MDOFs serve to define the interface between the superelements and
the other elements. The CMS use pass and expansion pass utilize the same procedure as a basic substructure
analysis.

As multiple superelements were used for the present model in the use pass, a separate expansion pass
would usually be required for each of them. However, since the response nodes belong to the superelement
Body, expansion of this superelement is sufficient.

24.6.3. Modal Analysis

A modal analysis determines the natural frequencies and mode shapes of a structure. These are important
parameters in the design for dynamic loading conditions, and required to perform a spectrum, mode-super-
position harmonic, or transient analysis. Several mode-extraction methods are available: Block Lanczos, Su-
pernode, PCG Lanczos, reduced, unsymmetric, damped, and QR damped. The damped and QR damped
methods allow inclusion of damping in a structure. The QR damped method also allows for the unsymmet-
rical damping and stiffness matrices.

Modal analysis is a linear analysis aimed at finding the eigensolution; therefore, no force is involved in the
modal analysis. Nonlinearities, such as plasticity and contact (gap) elements, are ignored even if they are
defined. In this model, the Block Lanczos method is used to extract the modes with the boundary conditions
shown in Figure 24.6 (p. 339).

24.6.4. Harmonic Analysis

A harmonic response analysis determines the steady-state response of a linear structure to loads that vary
sinusoidally (harmonically) with time. The structure's response is determined over a range of frequencies
and a response quantity (usually displacements) is plotted versus frequency. Peak responses are then iden-
tified on the graph, and stresses are reviewed at those peak frequencies.

This analysis technique calculates only the steady-state, forced vibrations of a structure. The transient vibra-
tions, which occur at the beginning of the excitation, are not accounted for in a harmonic response analysis.
Harmonic response analysis is typically linear. Some nonlinearities, such as plasticity are ignored, even if
they are defined; however, unsymmetric system matrices (such as those encountered in a fluid-structure
interaction problem ) can be accommodated in the harmonic analysis.

In the present model, base excitation is applied in the form of sinusoidal displacement in the vertical y-dir-
ection at selected nodes on both wheels. Those nodes are defined as master nodes in the generation pass
(as shown in Figure 24.3 (p. 336) and Figure 24.7 (p. 339)).

The response is calculated at the response nodes specified during the expansion pass, as shown in this figure:

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 24.6.4. Harmonic Analysis

Figure 24.9 Non-Master Nodes for Response Calculation in the Expansion Pass

As the response nodes belong to only one of the superelements (Body), the results file of Body is used for
the response calculation. The following example input performs the expansion pass with postprocessing:
/CLEAR, NOSTART
/FILNAME, BODY ! Change the jobname to Body
RESUME, , ! Resume the database file Body.db
/SOLU
EXPASS, ON ! An expansion pass will be performed
OUTRES, ALL, ALL ! Write the solution of the specified solution results item for
! every substep in the database
SEEXP, BODY, USE ! Specify the name of the dsub file as use, containing the
! superelement degree-of-freedom (DOF) solution
NUMEXP, ALL, , , ! Expand all substeps with element results
SOLVE
SAVE
FINISH

/post26

/COM, NODES FOR RESPONSE CALCULATION

N7 = NODE(0.22701, -0.98593E-01, -0.35058) ! Select the node #63121 defined by the coordinates
N8 = NODE(0.22701, -0.98292E-01, 0.42245E-01) ! Select the node #63134 defined by the coordinates

/VIEW, 1, 1, 1, 1 ! Define the viewing direction as isometric

/SHOW, PNG ! Creates PNG (Portable Network Graphics) files that are
! named Body001.png onwards
ALLSEL, ALL
NSOL, 7, N7, U, Y ! Store the nodal data for N13 for y-displacement into the
! variable 7
NSOL, 8, N8, U, Y ! Store the nodal data for N14 for y-displacement into the
! variable 8
PLVAR, 7 ! Plot the data for variable 7
PLCPLX, 0 ! Plot the amplitude of the complex variable
PLVAR, 8 ! Plot the data for variable 8
PLCPLX, 0
PLVAR, 7, 8 ! Plot the data for variables 7 and 8 in the same plot
PLCPLX, 0

/SHOW, CLOSE
FINISH

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Chapter 24: Modal and Harmonic Frequency Analyses of an Automotive Suspension Assembly Using CMS

24.7. Results and Discussion

Both the Modal and harmonic analyses are performed using full and CMS models, and their solution times
are noted. Significant improvement in the solution time is observed for the CMS model with very little loss
of accuracy.

24.7.1. Modal Analysis Comparison of Accuracy and Efficiency

Before the harmonic analysis, a modal analysis with the same boundary conditions is performed using both
the full and CMS models. The following table compares the first 50 eigenfrequencies obtained using both
methods:

Table 24.1 Comparison of Eigenfrequencies for Full and CMS Models

Mode # Full Mod- CMS % Diff Mode No Full Mod- CMS % Diff
el Fixed In- el Fixed In-
terface terface
1 31.123 31.3 0.57 26 421.43 422.01 0.14
2 33.133 33.118 0.05 27 438.35 441.6 0.74
3 44.66 44.698 0.09 28 441.79 445.65 0.87
4 53.166 53.088 0.15 29 452.46 469.37 3.74
5 87.882 88.222 0.39 30 496.92 504.88 1.60
6 88.629 88.994 0.41 31 513.9 515.84 0.38
7 144.61 144.85 0.17 32 539.43 543.53 0.76
8 146.77 146.47 0.20 33 553.06 554.18 0.20
9 187.22 187.57 0.19 34 557.25 558.71 0.26
10 223.63 223.83 0.09 35 570.47 571.72 0.22
11 237.48 237.76 0.12 36 620.15 620.72 0.09
12 251.83 251.82 0.00 37 633.79 636.49 0.43
13 256.42 257.05 0.25 38 647.02 650.52 0.54
14 263.33 263.11 0.08 39 675.83 679.1 0.48
15 272.06 272.54 0.18 40 707.77 711.11 0.47
16 274.79 274.99 0.07 41 708.81 714.42 0.79
17 357.55 358.02 0.13 42 714.94 719.22 0.60
18 368.37 368.45 0.02 43 716.93 722.79 0.82
19 368.47 368.5 0.01 44 726.62 734.88 1.14
20 368.5 368.77 0.07 45 734.91 734.92 0.00
21 368.77 369.36 0.16 46 734.93 734.97 0.01
22 372.73 372.78 0.01 47 734.97 752.25 2.35
23 387.18 387.1 0.02 48 734.99 776.9 5.70
24 391.96 395.13 0.81 49 751.62 798.93 6.29
25 415.22 416.62 0.34 50 768.84 835.4 8.66

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 24.7.2. Full Harmonic Analysis Comparison of Accuracy and Efficiency

The following table shows the elapsed and CPU times for modal analysis using the full and CMS models for
100 frequencies. Significant improvement in solution time is achieved during the use pass via the CMS
method.

Table 24.2 Comparison of CPU and Elapsed Times for Modal Analysis
No of Modes = 100 Full Model CMS Fixed Interface
CPU Time (s) 2034.280 Gen Pass 2022.670
Use Pass 4.630
Elapsed Time (s) 1291.000 Gen Pass 1336.000
Use Pass 3.000

24.7.2. Full Harmonic Analysis Comparison of Accuracy and Efficiency

The harmonic analysis is conducted over the frequency range of 162 Hz to 200 Hz in 20 substeps. The fol-
lowing table compares the CMS and full model response amplitudes for the two response nodes.

Table 24.3 Comparison of Response Amplitudes for Full and CMS Models
Node # 63121 Node # 63134
Freq (Hz) Full Mod- CMS % Diff Freq (Hz) Full Mod- CMS % Diff
el Fixed In- el Fixed In-
terface terface
162 39.65 39.7493 0.25 162 44.1064 43.7604 0.78
164 40.8758 40.896 0.05 164 48.6884 48.237 0.93
166 41.9754 41.9335 0.10 166 52.4358 51.9039 1.01
168 43.5616 43.4692 0.21 168 56.0015 55.4024 1.07
170 45.9102 45.7711 0.30 170 59.7247 59.0597 1.11
172 48.9518 48.7638 0.38 172 63.5063 62.7696 1.16
174 52.2104 51.9681 0.46 174 66.7185 65.905 1.22
176 54.7814 54.4813 0.55 176 68.2576 67.3727 1.30
178 55.668 55.3164 0.63 178 67.0837 66.1534 1.39
180 54.4876 54.1044 0.70 180 63.1036 62.1716 1.48
182 51.7678 51.3783 0.75 182 57.3466 56.4547 1.56
184 48.4247 48.0481 0.78 184 51.1398 50.3119 1.62
186 45.1665 44.8127 0.78 186 45.3776 44.6201 1.67
188 42.3427 42.0154 0.77 188 40.4304 39.7395 1.71
190 40.0521 39.7523 0.75 190 36.3475 35.7165 1.74
192 38.2657 37.9946 0.71 192 33.0387 32.4621 1.75
194 36.8948 36.6556 0.65 194 30.3676 29.8435 1.73
196 35.8121 35.6126 0.56 196 28.1851 27.7175 1.66
198 34.8474 34.7009 0.42 198 26.3318 25.9327 1.52
200 33.7753 33.7011 0.22 200 24.6321 24.3226 1.26

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Chapter 24: Modal and Harmonic Frequency Analyses of an Automotive Suspension Assembly Using CMS

The following table shows the elapsed and CPU times for harmonic analysis using full and CMS models for
20 substeps. The use pass includes the expansion. Significant improvement in solution time is achieved via
the CMS method.

Table 24.4 Comparison of CPU and Elapsed Times for Harmonic Analysis
No of Modes = 20 Full Model CMS Fixed Interface
CPU Time (s) 13580.800 Gen Pass 2022.670
Use Pass 1758.800
Elapsed Time (s) 7866.000 Gen Pass 1336.000
Use Pass 1764.000

24.7.3. Analysis of Peak Response

As shown in the following figure, the response amplitude plots for the two nodes show distinctive peaks at
~176 Hz.

Figure 24.10 Nodal Responses Due to Harmonic Displacement Excitation at the Bottom of the
Wheels

The peaks are explained by observing the mode shape at the undamped natural frequency of 187.22 Hz
(Figure 24.11 (p. 347)). The figure shows the configuration of the structure at two extreme deflections. The
mode shape at this frequency is comprised of tilting vibrations of the wheels (in phase) about the x axis
with the associated deflection of part of the body. Harmonic displacement at the bottom of the wheels in
the y direction excites this mode, resulting in peaks at nearby frequencies.

Mode shapes for nearby higher frequencies (223.63 Hz and 237.48 Hz) do not involve significant tilting of
the wheels or deflection of the links attached to the response nodes. Figure 24.12 (p. 347) and Figure
24.13 (p. 348) show the mode shapes at these frequencies.

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 24.7.3. Analysis of Peak Response

Figure 24.11 Mode Shapes at the Undamped Natural Frequency of 187.22 Hz

Figure 24.12 Mode Shapes at the Undamped Natural Frequency of 223.63 Hz

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Chapter 24: Modal and Harmonic Frequency Analyses of an Automotive Suspension Assembly Using CMS

Figure 24.13 Mode Shapes at the Undamped Natural Frequency of 237.48 Hz

24.8. Recommendations
To perform a similar type of analysis, keep the following hints in mind:

• The computational benefits gained from CMS analysis can be increased by reducing the number of in-
terface degrees of freedom defined. For maximum benefit, define as few as possible.
• CMS analysis is more efficient if only part of the structure is redesigned.
• CMS analysis can take advantage of repetitive geometry or parts to make the analysis more efficient

24.9. References and Acknowledgements

1. Craig, R.R. and M. D. D. Bampton. “Coupling of Substructures for Dynamic Analysis.” AIAA Journal. 6.7
(1968): 1313-1319.
2. Craig, R.R. “A Review of Time Domain and Frequency Domain Component Mode Synthesis Methods.”
International Journal of Analytical and Experimental Modal Analysis. 2.2 (1987): 59-67.

24.10. Input Files

The following files were used in this problem:

• Suspension.dat -- Contains FE model details of automotive suspension assembly.

• FullModel.dat -- Modal and harmonic analysis on the suspension assembly.
• CMSModel.dat -- Modal and harmonic analysis on the suspension assembly using CMS method.

The files are available in your subdirectory (\techdemo\td-22). See Obtaining the Input Files for more
information.

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 convergence difficulties: overcoming, 7, 163
Index cooled turbine blade, 179
copper bar, 247
coupled pore-pressure element technology, 47
Symbols creep response, 47
3-D surface flaws, 191
critical speeds: identifying, 287
cubic interpolation, 321
A curve fitting, 55, 123
about this guide, 1 curved-shell structures, 85
adiabatic surfaces, 179 cyclic symmetry analysis, 205
aircraft fuselage construction, 73 and linear perturbation, 205
aluminum liner, 135 example, 205
augmented Lagrangian formulation, 7, 109, 163, 205,
247 D
automatic time stepping, 35
damping, 109, 287
axiharmonic meshing, 287
debonding, 73
axisymmetric and nonaxisymmetric parts: using both,
deformed mesh: repairing, 163
35
delamination, 73
axisymmetric models: performance benefits, 287
denture, 309
Der Kiureghian CQC method, 147
B digger-arm assembly, 221
B-bar method, 163 displacement, 221
back pain, 47 displacement extrapolation method, 191
beam element technology, 321
biomechanics, 47, 309 E
biphasic model, 47
effective plastic strain, 163
Block Lanczos solver, 97, 205, 237, 265, 287, 321
elastic material behavior, 247
BM3 piping system, 147
elastomeric compressive sealing, 7, 55
bonded contact, 35, 73, 109, 205, 237, 287
elastoplastic material behavior, 247
brake squeal, 109
elbow element technology, 97, 147
buckling analysis, 265
element-splitting method, 7
external pressure loading, 265
C
calibrating a hyperelastic constitutive model, 123 F
Campbell diagram analysis, 287
failure criteria (FC) analysis, 135
camshaft, 35
fiber reinforcing, 135
centrifugal impeller blade, 205
fictive temperature, 309
ceramic materials, 309
filament winding, 135
Chaboche nonlinear kinematic hardening material, 97
finite-deformation effects, 221
cohesive zone model, 73
fix partial denture (FPD), 309
complex eigensolvers, 109
flange sealing, 7, 55
complex geometry: representing with beams, 321
flexible and rigid parts, 221
complex material orthotropy, 135
fluid and solid interaction, 47
component mode synthesis (CMS), 221
fluid-pressure penetration loading, 55
composite material, 73, 321
Fourier nodes, 35, 287
composite overwrapped pressure vessel (COPV), 135
Fourier terms: specifying, 97
computational fluid dynamics (CFD), 179
fracture analysis, 191
constitutive model parameters: selecting, 123
frictional contact, 55, 109
contact, 7, 35, 55, 73, 97, 109, 123, 163, 205, 237, 247,
full harmonic cyclic symmetry analysis, 205
287, 309
full linear non-prestressed modal analysis, 109
contour integral, 191
full transient analysis, 147
convection loading, 179

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Index

G multilinear kinematic hardening material, 97

general axisymmetric elements, 35 multiple vertical rezoning, 7
Gupta method, 147 multipoint constraint (MPC), 35, 109, 205, 221, 287
gyroscopic effects, 287
N
H Nelson-Vaugh rotor, 287
HHT time-integration method, 247 nesting, 7
horizontal rezoning, 7, 163 Newmark time-integration method, 247
hyperelastic constitutive model, 123 nonaveraged results file format, 321
hyperelastic seal, 7 nonaxisymmetric and axisymmetric parts: using both,
35
nonlinear buckling analysis, 265
I nonlinear large-deformation analysis, 163
impact, 247 nonlinear perturbed modal analysis, 109
impeller blade assembly, 205 nonlinear sparse solver, 7
input files for these problems, 1 nonlinear stabilization, 55, 73, 265
interaction integral method, 191 nonlinear static analysis, 97, 135
intervertebral disc (IVD), 47 nonlinear structural analysis, 309
introduction, 1 nonlinear transient analysis , 35
nonlinear transient dynamic analysis, 247
J nozzle extension, 85
J-integrals, 191 nuclear piping system, 97, 147
joints, 35, 221
O
L o-ring seal, 55
large-deflection effects, 35, 97, 135, 163 offsets, 85, 135, 265
large-rotation effects, 221 Ogden hyperelasticity, 7, 55
layered-composite structure, 73 orbit plot, 287
Lindley-Yow method, 147 orthotropic thermal expansion , 85
linear (eigenvalue) buckling analysis, 265 output controls, 191
linear elastic fracture mechanics, 191 overconstraint, 221
linear elastic isotropic material, 109 overview, 1
linear perturbation overwrapped pressure vessel, 135
example, 109, 205
linear static analysis, 191 P
lumbar motion segment, 47 Parker seal, 7
partial nonlinear perturbed modal analysis, 109
M plastic strain, 163
mesh distortion: repairing, 163 post-buckling analysis, 265
mesh refinement, 7 power spectral density (PSD) analysis , 237
mesh: axiharmonic , 287 pressure loading, 265
metal bar on rigid wall impact, 247 prestress effects, 205
metal forming, 163 prestressed modal analysis, 97
missing mass response, 147 prestressed modal cyclic symmetry analysis, 205
mixed u-P formulation, 163 printed circuit board (PCB), 237
mixed-mode stress-intensity factors, 191
modal analysis, 97, 237, 287 Q
modal harmonic cyclic symmetry analysis, 205 QRDAMP eigensolver, 109
mode superposition, 237
Mooney-Rivlin hyperelastic models, 123
multibody system, 221 R
multiframe restart, 7, 163 reduced-order CFD model, 179

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 Index

reinforcing, 135 Tool-Narayanaswamy shift function, 309

reinforcing element technology, 135 transient dynamic analysis, 221, 247
remeshing, 7, 163 transient effects , 35
residual stresses, 309 transient thermal analysis, 309
residual vectors, 237 transition zones: defining, 97
response power spectral density (RPSD), 237 turbine blade, 179
response-spectrum analysis (RSA), 147
results discrepancies, 1 U
rezoning, 7, 163 unbalance response analysis, 287
rigid and flexible parts, 221 unstable modes: predicting, 109
rigid material behavior, 247 unstable structures, 265
rigid responses, 147 UNSYM eigensolver, 109
ring-gear forging, 163
rocket nozzle extension, 85
rotating-shaft sealing, 7, 55
V
rotational velocity, 205 validating a hyperelastic constitutive model, 123
rotordynamic analysis, 287 veneer, 309
vertebral body, 47
vertical rezoning, 7
S vibration: extreme, 287
section offsets, 85, 135, 265 viscoelasticity, 309
seismic loading, 97 von Mises stress, 47, 97, 179, 309
shaft assembly, 287 vulcanized natural rubber material, 123
sheet aluminum alloy, 265
shift function, 309
sintering, 309
W
sliding frictional contact, 109 whirl, 287
soft tissue, 47 wind turbine blade, 321
solid and fluid interaction, 47
solid-shell element technology, 73 Z
spectrum analysis, 147 zero period acceleration (ZPA), 147
spinal problems, 47 ZPA frequency, 147
square root of the sum of the squares (SRSS) method ,
147
static pressure, 205
static structural analysis, 309
stiffened composite panel, 73
stress linearization, 135
stress-intensity factors (SIFs), 191
structural-shell element technology, 85
summary of problems presented in this guide, 1
superelements, 221
surface flaws, 191

T
tapered beam section, 321
temperature distribution, 309
thermal analysis, 309
thermal loading, 85
thermal-stress analysis, 179
time integration, 247
time stepping: automatic, 35
time-incrementation controls (element-level), 247

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 Release 13.0 - © SAS IP, Inc. All rights reserved. - Contains proprietary and confidential information
352 of ANSYS, Inc. and its subsidiaries and affiliates.