Strengthening Methods for Subsoil under Existing Railway Lines

A. Smekal
Banverket, Borlänge, Sweden

Abstract
Many currently available methods for strengthening of subsoil require an interruption of railway
traffic. Track and sleepers have to be removed ballast, sub-ballast and often the embankment
fill have to be excavated in order to perform the strengthening works. Such methods are
complicated, time consuming and always very expensive. There is a desire to perform
strengthening with a minimal impact on railway traffic without or with only marginal reduction of
actual train speeds and axle loads. Practical application of such methods considerably
eliminates the costs for the remedial measures and expenses due to traffic interruption. The
paper provides overview of those methods that can be utilized for strengthening of subsoil
under existing railways with the minimal impact on train operation. The second part of the paper
presents the description of a practical case there strengthening of subsoil using inclined lime-
cement column walls is suggested.

Introduction
Many railway lines in the world are 60 to 100 years old, and are not designed in accordance
with requirements for modern railway traffic. Due to the future demands for faster and heavier
transports, railway structures can experience problems, such as reduced stability, increase of
settlements, and possibility of extensive vibrations. These issues have an adverse effect on the
safety, reliability, and economy of the railway operations. Therefore, many existing railways
require upgrading before the opening for new traffic conditions. Engineers are faced with the
task to assess the performance of structures and if necessary to design appropriate
strengthening measures.

There are many methods to improve stiffness of subsoil on the market. Contractors can offer
various strengthening suggestions for all types of geotechnical conditions, track and subsoil
geometries. In many cases decision about using a certain method depends on available
machines and contract limits for each project. To find best solution and decide about feasible
method for soil improvement of a new constructed railway line, use not to be a problem. Much
more complicated is to carry out some remedial work under existing track and under train
operations. There are two possibilities. Either close the train operations and remove the track
and embankment and perform strengthening, or to execute subsoil stabilization without traffic
interruption. It is well known that the first described option is very expensive and time
consuming. An indication how the distribution of costs can look like for an actual project is
obvious from the Figure 1.

Figure 1: Distribution of cost for the countermeasure - Lime/cement columns Ledsgård, Sweden

1
Presented figures show costs for strengthening work only [4]. The additional costs due to the
fact that that the track could not been open for train operation under a certain period and the
traffic had to be redirected are not included. One can see that the cost for installation of
lime/cement columns is 16% of the total cost only. If it is compared with 56 %, the cost for
ground and track works it is very remarkable. It is clear that there is a great economical and
traffic interest to use soil improvements methods that can be used without any, or very little,
interference with existing railway track.

Overview of strengthening methods for subsoil under existing railway lines

There are number of railway, installation and geotechnical related issues to be solved before
feasible soil improvement is chosen. The first one is always the cause of problem for what a
strengthening has to be performed. Basically there are three types of problems. Settlements,
stability and track or environmental vibrations are the main causes that can require
strengthening of subsoil. In all those cases increasing of subsoil stiffness is the main objective.
It is not a method of strengthening which is different for mitigation above mentioned problems,
but placement and dimensions of strengthening that can be different from case to case. As
regards an installation there are two possible ways. Installation can be performed from the track
or from sides of railway embankment. Both methods have advantages and disadvantages.

Installation of strengthening from the track is usually done by equipment and tools mounted
on railway vehicles. Results are commonly good since strengthening is placed directly under the
track. If the traffic should not be restrained, installation has to been done between sleepers.
Space about 40 cm between sleepers often requires a special tool. There can be even
restriction about the available time for installation of strengthening due to demanded train traffic.
Further issues which have to be considered are the cables placed in formation and
embankment like security space between installation machines and contact wire, poles and
catenary suspensions. In many cases it is not possible to carry out installation with absence of
voltage in the wires. Some methods especially those ones using bindings can pollute ballast
during the installation. Again special tools have to be utilised to assure clean ballast otherwise
the strengthening method applied from the track is not acceptable.

Installation of strengthening from sides of railway embankment is easier to perform since

there is less contact with existing track and catenaries. But not in all cases there is a sufficient
space on sides of the railway, since there can be not removable objects like houses etc. close to
the track. In some projects working platforms has to be constructed for heavy machines used for
soil improvement installation.

Risk dealing with railway operations during the installation work has to be avoided. Effects of
strengthening methods and installations on track and environment are well known. All methods
used for soil improvement under the rail traffic have impact on track geometry during the
installation. Expected deterioration and limits for track geometry are important to assess
together with allowable train speed and axle loads during the construction. A plan for control
and measurements for the time of the contract work have to be prepared before the beginning
of the work. Often even a plan for track levelling is recommended especially if the track
deterioration can be predicted. In some cases often a more advanced monitoring is inevitable.
An automatic stop of a train can be required to avoid a derailment in case of the sudden
deterioration of the track due to strengthening is feared. Soil strength directly after the
installation has to be considered. There are methods there soil strength can considerably
decrease for certain time after the installation, followed by increase of strength with time. This
phenomenon can have an impact on train transport and access of heavy and speedy trains.
Sometimes it is not possible to carry out installation in a stretch and division to certain stages is
necessary. Again the impact on the track has to be considered and shifts of installation
machines can be required.

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Geotechnical issues and their impact on safety and limits for operation are very important.
Parameters of soil before, during and after strengthening must be assessed with consideration
of time related connections. Of course the design of the soil improvement has to assess degree
of safety for the improved structure and for all stages of strengthening work. Especially stability
and conditions for possible failures of railway have to be evaluated. Deformations in form of
settlements, horizontal movements and twist should be estimated. This helps with planning of
machines and number of track levelling during and immediately after the subsoil improvement.

Can be Reduce
Increase
performed of
Scheme Method Principle Applicable soils of
without affecting Settleme
Stability
traffic nts

Mixes in-situ soils with Wet method: most

a) Deep Mixing, soft soil types;
cementitious materials
beside railway Yes X
to form a vertical stiff Dry method: soft
embankment
inclusion in the ground fine-grained soils

a) Deep Mixing, Mixes in-situ soils with Wet method: most

installed inclined cementitious materials soft soil types;
Yes X X
under to form an inclined stiff Dry method: soft
embankment inclusion in the ground fine-grained soils

a) Deep Mixing, Mixes in-situ soils with No Wet method: most

installed through cementitious materials (Yes, if performed soft soil types;
X X
the track and to form a vertical stiff during periods Dry method: soft
embankment inclusion in the ground with no traffic) fine-grained soils

Erodes soil in situ and Yes

(Same three
mixes with cementitious (unless installed
configurations as b) Jet grouting Most soil types X X
materials to form stiff beneath
for Deep Mixing)
inclusion in the ground embankment)
Compacted material
c) Stabilizing
constructed adjacent to
berms, alone or
embankment. Driven
in combination Yes Clay X
walls provide resistance
with anchored
against horizontal
walls
movements.

Low slump grout is

pumped into the
d) Compaction Granular soil
ground, which displace Yes X X
grouting Cavities
and densify the soil or
fill voids in rock

Installation of piles on
No(Yes, if
both sides of railway,
e) Concrete slab performed during
precasted slabs fixed on All soil types X X
on piles periods with no
piles in short stages
traffic)
with traffic interruption
No(Yes, if
Soil nails installation performed during
f) Soil nailing All soil types X
between sleepers periods with no
traffic)
g) Vibro
compaction
Vibro Compaction of soil, Granular soils
No
replacement transfer of loads to (Vibro
(Yes, if performed compaction)
(stone columns) more competent strata X X
during periods
Grouted stone through friction or end- All soil types
with no traffic)
columns bearing (Other methods)
Vibro concrete
columns
Table 1: Overview of existing strengthening methods

3
Short description and principals for soil strengthening methods

Table1. gives the principal overview of the main known existing strengthening methods that can
be relevant for strengthening of subsoil without total stopping of railway operations [3], [4], [9].
There can be found more methods and variations on the market, since contractors continuously
develop or improve methodology suitable for their machines, local geotechnical conditions and
railway related needs.

a) Deep Mixing Method

The deep mixing method is a technology that mixes in-situ soils with cementitious materials to
form a vertical stiff inclusion in the ground [2], [5], [6], [8], [10], [15]. A mixing tool is rotated
down to the design depth and once the design depth is reached, the direction of rotation of the
mixing tool is reversed and the tool is withdrawn at a constant rate. During advancement and/or
withdrawal of the mixing tool, agents such as quicklime, slaked lime, cement, and fly ash are
forced into the ground. The agents, widely referred to as binders, may be introduced in the form
of either a dry powder or wet slurry. The wet methods of deep mixing are usually designed to
provide higher unconfined compressive strengths values than the dry method. The MDM
(Modified Dry Mixing) switches seamless from wet to dry during each individual installation. This
technique facilitates penetration of stiff soils, fluidises low plastic clays as well as ensures the
complete hydration of the added binder. The deep mixing method produces columns in the
ground that can be installed singularly, or in rows, grids, or blocks. The design spacing,
diameter and length of columns depends on such factors as the allowable total and differential
settlements, and the required capacity to prevent stability failures. Single dry-mixed columns are
typically spaced at 1.0 to 1.6 m, center-to-center, and diameters range from 0.4 to 1.0 m. Single
wet-mixed columns are typically installed with diameters ranging from 0.9 to 2.4 m. The
maximum depths of treatment for the dry and wet methods of deep mixing are about 35 m and
40 m, respectively.
Experience with the installation of deep mixed columns through existing railway embankments
from field test performed in Germany and United Kingdom have been published [11], [13], [14].

b) Jet Grouting

The jet grouting technology is very similar to the deep mixing technology except that very high-
pressure fluids are used in the jet grouting technology to erode subsurface soil particles and mix
them with cement. The jet grouting uses hydraulic energy in order to erode the soil, and to
mix/replace the eroded soil with an engineered grout of water and cement to form a solidified in
situ element. Jet grouted elements can be installed in a variety of subsurface geometries.
Columns with diameters of 0.6 to 2 m are typical. Jet grouted columns can be formed vertically,
horizontally, or at an angle. There are three traditional jet grouting techniques. Single-fluid jet
grouting uses high pressure (400 to 500 bar) grout only; double fluid-jet grouting uses high
pressure grout sheathed in compressed air; and triple-fluid jet grouting uses high pressure water
sheathed in air followed by a second jet of high pressure grout. The equipment to perform jet
grouting remains specialized but many contractors are available to carry out this technology.
Drills range from relatively small electrically powered units up to the large crane supported
systems, and some drills have the ability to create a wide variety of jet grouted geometries.
Theoretically, treatment depth is unlimited, but jet grouting has rarely been performed in depths
deeper than 50 m.

c) Anchored walls Combined with Stabilising Berms

Stabilising berms are often constructed adjacent to existing railway embankments to increase
the resistance of the embankment to prevent stability failures. Stabilising berms consist of a few
meters of compacted material and can be about 1 to 2 m high. The use of loading berms is an
effective way of increasing stability conditions, and the costs are often competitive compared to
other methods. However a main disadvantage of the method is that it does not reduce
settlements or vibration effects. In fact, the settlements of the railway embankment can increase

4
when loading berms are used. This negative effect can be reduced by combining the loading
berms with walls installed along the railway embankment. Figure 2 shows an example of the
sheet pile wall used for stabilising of existing embankment [7]. Walls can be created for example
as pile walls using concrete, steel or wooden piles. Sheet piles had been used as well like
diagphram walls. Material used for supporting wall depends on geotechnical conditions, load
and geometrical situation of the particular project.

(a)

(b)
Figure 2: Exempel of anchored sheet pile walls in combination with stabilizing berms: (a)
principle of technology, and (b) photo of the wall at a site in Vitmossen, Sweden.

The anchored wall system reduces or eliminates shear deformations. By extending the walls so
that the slopes can be made less steep, the creep of steep slopes of embankments is mitigated.
Furthermore, the use of the anchored wall system allows often required widening of existing
railways. Stabilising berms are constructed using compacted fill. If walls are installed on both
sides of the railway embankment, anchors can be installed to connect the walls on opposing
sides of the embankment. The anchors are post-tensioned to reduce horizontal movements in
the walls. Stabilising berms can only be constructed above soil with adequate bearing capacity.
Prior to constructing stabilising berms, the predicted total and differential settlements should be
evaluated. It could be problematic to install driven elements, like for example sheet piles,
through subsurface soils containing cobbles or boulders. In this case drilled or predrilled
structures are more feasible.

5
d) Compaction Grouting

The compaction grouting is a technology that injects a low slump grout into the ground to form a
stiff, homogenous mass in the subsoil. The grout does not enter soil pores but remains in a stiff
mass that gives controlled displacement in order to compact granular soils. The compaction
grouting is commonly used to increase the density of soils. The grouted mass also add the
strength in the vertical axis, since the grout compressive strength is much higher than that of the
native soil. There are a number of applications of compaction grouting including remediation of
embankment settlements, soil densification for site improvement, filling of voids in rock
formations and liquefaction mitigation. Compaction grouting is performed by injecting a very stiff
grout through a casing at a high pump pressure; the casing is withdrawn incrementally and a
column of interconnected grout bulbs is created. The grout is performed through the use of
vertical or inclined grout pipes.

e) Concrete Slab on Piles

Advantage of this method is that piles and longitudinal beams are installed in advance on both
sides of the existing railway without any disturbance of traffic. The pre-cast slabs are placed on
piles after replacement of track in short traffic brakes usually during nights and than the track is
reopen for the train operations again [16]. In this way a continuous long distance of track can
be mitigated with a minimal impact on traffic. Principe of Concrete Slab on Piles is shown in the
Figure 3.

Figure 3: Principe of Concrete Slab on Piles

f) Soil Nailing

Soil nails can be driven from the track to the underground from the space between sleepers. En
example of trial soil nailing is shown in the Figure 4. Soil nails can be installed through the
ballast to all designed inclination and positions [12]. The technique is very effective and simple
with minimal disturbance of the tack level. Tamping of ballast after nails installation is usually
required. This method is relatively cheap with high production in comparison to the other
described methods. Further development and more studies of effectiveness of this method are
desirable.

6
 Figure 4: An example of soil nailing [12] – Courtesy to University of Birmingham UK

g) Vibro Compaction, Vibro Replacement (Stone/Gravel Columns), Grouted Stone and

Vibro Concrete Columns

Vibro Compaction is a suitable method for densification of cohesion less granular soils like
sands, gravel or crushed rocks. Principle of this method is the reduction of pores content and
increase of stiffness by vibration. Usually a vibrator penetrates to designed depth and than this
is withdrawn in steps until required compaction is achieved. During compaction additional
material has to be added since volume decreases. This method has to be applied very carefully
on operated railways because the settlements of the track can be up to 15 % of the treated
volume. Additional ballast, sub-ballast like more friction material is recommended to be available
for immediate levelling of the track.

Vibro Replacement can be used for all types of soils. This method is combination of vibration
and replacement of cohesive soils with granular material. The vibrator penetrates to a design
depth and cavities are filled with course material free of clay or silt. In this way non-
compactable soils are improved with well graded load bearing columns. Gravel, crushed stones
or sand can be used as a filling of columns. In case air pressure is used one speaks about “dry
bottom feed technique” and “wet bottom feed technique” is called installation if pressurised
water is used. The dry bottom feed technique is more suitable for railways due to the less risk
for unacceptable settlements and change of consistency of cohesive soils under the track. The
risk for excessive settlements during the installation is lower than for Vibro Compaction but
certain care has to be taken and even here additional ballast, sub-ballast like more friction
material have to be available in case levelling of the track is required. In soft soils there is often
a steel casing pipe vibrated to the soil. This method is called displacement installation of
stone/gravel columns. When pipe is withdrawn filling material is vibrated in, to create the stone
or sand columns. Even geotextile tube can be used to stabilize and improve performance of the
columns. In this case the method is called “Geotextile Coated Columns (GCC)”.

7
Grouted Stone Columns (GSC)

Lateral support in very soft clay or peat is usually not sufficient for adequate stability and
bearing capacity of columns. In the description of the Vibro Replacement method there is
mention application of geotextile to achieve a better lateral support. Another way to improve
stone columns is to use cement grout suspension during the installation process. Cement grout
suspension forms together with course material a stiff body of the column. Of course such
columns show much higher bearing capacity than previous described methods. Even possible
impact on the track during installation is lower but the time for hardening of the cement grout
has to be considered together with the next train operations.

Vibro Concrete Columns (VCC)

Rigid piles like deep foundation elements of high bearing capacity can be created by using the
Vibro Concrete method. In this case the concrete is directly pumped to the tip of bottom feed
depth vibrator. Those columns are usually considered as end bearings columns since
foundation base penetrates to bearable layers. Those columns are suitable for very soft soils
when higher loads need to be transferred to stiffer and bearable strata and reduce settlements
to minimum. Under existing railways the head columns should be enlarged to obtain better
support for sleepers. To avoid concentration of stresses in ballast the top of column head should
be placed deeper in the formation. It is a common design that is applied for driven or pre-cast
concrete piles under railway embankments.

Strengthening of subsoil with inclined lime-cement column walls – case study

Author of this paper participates in railway related European Union project INNOTRACK that
started in the autumn 2006. Measurements and assessment of status of existing railway lines,
like development of substructure strengthening methods which can be applied without
interruption of railway operations are the main objectives of the research in civil engineering part
of the INNOTRACK project. Since there is an urgent need for upgrading of existing railway lines
and at the same time there is no possibility to close lines for operations to improve subsoil under
the track, the needs to test and develop new methods for the subsoil strengthening are obvious.
Questions dealing with impact of the strengthening on existing railway under the installation of
subsoil improvement are further issues of the INNOTRACK project.

The deep mixing method has been used since 1970-ties in Japan and Nordic to stabilize subsoil
under embankments. The deep mixing procedures produce improved ground that has greater
strength, lower ductility, and lower compressibility than the original ground. The degree of
improvement depends on the amount and type of stabilizer, installation process, characteristics
of the original ground, and the curing time. The deep mixing method is a technology that mixes
in-situ soils with cementitious materials to form a vertical stiff inclusion in the ground. A mixing
tool is rotated down to the design depth, and once the design depth is reached, the direction of
rotation of the mixing tool is reversed and the tool is withdrawn at a constant rate. During
advancement and/or withdrawal of the mixing tool, agents such as quicklime, slaked lime,
cement, and fly ash are forced into the ground. The deep mixing method produces columns in
the ground that can be installed singularly, or in rows (walls), grids, or blocks. When installed
vertically the soft soil beneath the railway is stabilized. Vertical strengthening is normally used
for new constructed railways and there is an extensive experience with the application of deep
mixed columns to support new railway embankments.

However, there is little experience with the installation of deep mixed columns through existing
railway embankments [11], [13], [14]. It is well known, that there is a good experience in
Scandinavia with installation of vertical columns beside the railway embankment to increase the
stability of subsoil. On the other hand there is a limited experience with the installation of
inclined overlapping deep mixed columns in walls under the existing railway embankment. The

8
objective of the presented research performed by Banverket is to develop and demonstrate a
new innovative solution of the subsoil improvement. Suggested test site is situated on the
Southern Main Railway Line, railway between Norrköping and Linköping, at a place named Torp.
An insufficient stability of the embankment has to be increased to allow an upgrading this
railway line to axle load 25 t. (22, 5 t axle load at the present time). Strengthening of the sub-soil
with inclined lime cement columns walls is suggested and a design was finished in the autumn
2006. Figure 5 demonstrates a layout of soil improvement with inclined lime cement column
walls.

Figure 5: Design of strengthening of subsoil using inclined lime cement column walls

A full scale IN -SITU test is planed to be performed in 2008. The investigations will comprise of
assessment of subsoil properties below the existing embankment. The long-term behaviour of
natural and improved soil like related modelling dealing with new methodology of subsoil
strengthening is going to be the part of suggested studies. The full scale test will prove an
efficiency of strengthening of subsoil using inclined lime cement columns walls situated under
the railway and impact on the track geometry during the installation. The suggested
methodology is designed with consideration of a minimum influence on the traffic (track
availability for railway operations) and the environment of this existing railway. The planed
measurements will concentrate on the first place on the impact of installation on the existing
railway track. There is not allowed to decrease the contemporary train speed of 180 km/hour.
Regular controls have to be done during the whole soil strengthening work and special checks
after passage of each particular train will be necessary. The limits for track geometry
deterioration will be assessed like the values there some track leveling have to be done before
the operation will be allowed, in case of some track movements. Further measurements are
going to control displacements of the track and the surroundings in vertical and horizontal
direction. Inclinometers, settlement measurement devices like pore pressure and ground water
indicators are planned to be installed in order to get comprehensive information about behavior
of the embankment, subsoil and the lime cement strengthening. Suggested plan of
measurements and position of instrumentation is shown in the Figure 6. An important part of the
project is a control of the quality of soil improvement. The strength of soil after dry mixing in
walls, geometry and homogeneity are the main objectives of in-situ tests sampling and
laboratory testing during and after installation of the strengthening. Complementary geophysical
investigations like a seismic tomography are suggested to carry out with an aim to assess the
geometrical form and homogeneity of individual lime cement inclined walls. The full scale IN-
SITU tests are an introduction part of the total soil improvement of about 1200 m of railway.
After finishing and evaluation of the full scale test the design for the main project is going to be
adjusted and the main strengthening is going to be performed.

9
 Figure 6: Suggested instrumentation and plan for measurements

Conclusions

Strengthening of the subsoil under existing tracks and keeping train operations at the same time
is a very difficult task. Combination of two objectives like achievement of perfect stabilization of
soil and minimize an impact on track geometry is very difficult to fulfil at the same time. In many
cases a considerable decrease of the train speed is necessary to assure a safety of the train
operations. There is an experience that a low speed at the section there the strengthening is
carried out for a limited time, is more acceptable, than a complete long term closing of the entire
railway line. Since the work is always done very close to the operated track, monitoring of all
deformations of the track and at the vicinity is necessary during the time of the strengthening
work. Usually a monitoring plan is prepared there limit values have to be assessed. A trespass
of those values results in to a track levelling or at a limit case to a total traffic stop up to the time
problem is mitigated and the track can be reopened again for the allowed speed and axle loads.

The strengthening methods described in this article are according to the author knowledge the
main ones recently actual to mitigate settlements, stability or vibration problems related to
railways. It is possible that there are more other methods or their variations than those ones
described in this paper. The soil stabilization depends very much on machines and tools
developed for this work. In many cases contractors dealing with foundation works use to
developed their own methods that are suitable to certain area (country) geotechnical conditions
and tools that are adjusted for their own machineries. Choosing the best method is always a
process to find the best solution considering a number of technical, economical and railway
related isues. The problem has to be mitigated with most effective technical and economical
method, within a very short time and with the minimal impact on the operated track.

Acknowledgements
The knowledge presented in this paper have been obtained within the frame of the European
projects Sustainable Bridges – Sixth Framework Programme and INNOTRACK – Innovative
Track Systems Project no. TIP5-CT – 2006-031415O, like in other papers which are mentioned
in “References”. All authors and contributors are gratefully acknowledged.

10
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11