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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

A metal matrix composite is a type of composite material with at

least two constituent parts, one being a metal. The other material may be a
different metal or another material, such as a ceramic or organic compound.
The matrix is the monolithic material into which the reinforcement is
embedded, and is completely continuous. This means that there is a path
through the matrix to any point in the material, unlike two materials
sandwiched together. In structural applications, the matrix is usually a lighter
metal such as aluminium, magnesium, or titanium, and provides a compliant
support for the reinforcement. In high temperature applications, cobalt and
cobalt-nickel alloy matrices are common.

The reinforcement material is embedded into the matrix. The

reinforcement does not always serve a purely structural task (reinforcing the
compound), but is also used to change physical properties such as wear
resistance, friction coefficient, or thermal conductivity. The reinforcement can
be either continuous, or discontinuous. Discontinuous MMCs can be
isotropic, and can be worked with standard metalworking techniques, such as
extrusion, forging or rolling. In addition, they may be machined using
conventional techniques, but commonly would need the use of polycrystalline
diamond tooling.
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Continuous reinforcement uses monofilament wires or fibers such

as carbon fiber or silicon carbide. Because the fibers are embedded into the
matrix in a certain direction, the result is an anisotropic structure in which the
alignment of the material affects its strength. One of the first MMCs used
boron filament as reinforcement (Chernshova 1988). Discontinuous
reinforcement uses whiskers, short fibers, or particles. The most common
reinforcing materials in this category are alumina and silicon carbide.

The major advantages of Aluminium Matrix Composites compared

to unreinforced materials are as follows:

Greater strength

Improved stiffness

Reduced density (weight)

Improved high temperature properties

Controlled thermal expansion coefficient

Thermal/heat management

Enhanced and tailored electrical performance

Improved abrasion and wear resistance

Control of mass (especially in reciprocating applications)

Improved damping capabilities.

MMCs have seen successful, by used in niche applications in the

aerospace, automotive, electronic packaging, and recreational product
markets. Significant examples include:

Chevrolet Corvette and GM S/T pick-up truck drive shafts

Plymouth Prowler brake rotors and GM EV-1 brake drums

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Toyota diesel engine pistons

Pratt and Whitney 4000 series engine fan exit guide vanes

Motorola’s Iridium Satellites and GM EV-1 electronic

packaging applications

F-16 fighter aircraft ventral fins and fuel access covers

Bicycle components and golf clubs from a variety of

producers

Carbide drills are often made from a tough cobalt matrix with
hard tungsten carbide particles inside.

Discontinuously reinforced aluminum materials have the potential

for redefining the limits of aluminum materials because of their unique
combinations of properties: the stiffness of titanium, better wear resistance
than steel and tailorable coefficient of thermal expansion, all while
maintaining the light weight characteristics of aluminum. These properties,
combined with continued development of low-cost processing methods, offer
the potential for significantly expanded use.

1.2 FABRICATION OF METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

1.2.1 Materials

Aluminium alloy 6082(Al6082) is a medium strength alloy with

excellent corrosion resistance. It has the highest strength of the 6000 series
alloys. Alloy 6082 is known as a structural alloy. As a relatively new alloy,
the higher strength of 6082 has seen it replace 6061 in many applications. The
addition of a large amount of manganese controls the grain structure, which in
turn results in a stronger alloy.
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Typical uses of Al6082

High stress applications

Trusses

Bridges

Cranes

Transport applications

Ore skips

Beer barrels

Milk churns

Chemical Composition

The chemical composition for aluminium alloy 6082 is given in

Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Chemical composition of Aluminium 6082

Element % Present
Si 0.7 to 1.3%
Fe 0.5%
Cu 0.1%
Mn 0.4 to 1.0%
Mg 0.6 to 1.2%
Zn 0.2%
Ti 0.1%
Cr 0.25%
Al Balance
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Physical Properties

Typical physical properties for aluminium alloy 6082 are given in

Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 Physical properties of Aluminium 6082

Property Value
3
Density 2.70 g/cm
Melting Point 555°C
Modulus of Elasticity 70 GPa
Electrical Resistivity 0.038 × 10-6 .m
Thermal Conductivity 180 W/m.K
Thermal Expansion 24 × 10-6 /K

Temper

The most common tempers for aluminium 6082 are:

O – annealed wrought alloy

T4 – Solution heat treated and naturally aged

T6 – Solution heat treated and artificially aged

T651 - Solution heat treated, stress relieved by stretching and

then artificially aged

Silicon Carbide is a synthetic material with an outstanding

hardness, only superseded by Diamond, CBN and B4C. The chemical
inertness to most of the alkaline and acids in combination with its excellent
heat and abrasion resistance make Silicon Carbide every suitable under
extreme operating conditions. Silicon Carbide is the only chemical compound
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of carbon and silicon. It was originally produced by a high temperature

electro chemical reaction of sand and carbon. Silicon carbide is an excellent
abrasive and has been produced and made into grinding wheels and other
abrasive products for over one hundred years. Today the material has been
developed into a high quality technical grade ceramic with good mechanical
properties. It is used in abrasives, refractories, ceramics and numerous high
performance applications

The key properties of silicon carbide are:

Low density

High strength

Low thermal expansion

High thermal conductivity

High hardness

High elastic modulus

Excellent thermal shock resistance

Superior chemical inertness

Typical uses of silicon carbide

Fixed and moving turbine components

Suction box covers

Seals, bearings

Ball valve parts

Hot gas flow liners

Heat exchangers

Semiconductor process equipment

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Physical Properties of Silicon carbide

Typical physical properties for Silicon carbide are given in

Table 1.3.

Table 1.3 Physical properties of silicon carbide

Property Value
3
Density 3.1 g/cm
Modulus of Elasticity 410 GPa
Poisson’s ratio 0.14
Hardness 2800 kg/mm2
Thermal conductivity 120 W/moK

1.2.2 Manufacturing Process of Metal Matrix Composites

MMCs manufacturing process can be broken into three types: solid,

liquid, and vapour.

Solid state methods

Powder blending and consolidation (powder metallurgy):

Powdered metal and discontinuous reinforcement are mixed
and then bonded through a process of compaction, degassing,
and thermo-mechanical treatment (possibly via hot isostatic
processing (HIP) or extrusion).

Foil diffusion bonding: Layers of metal foil are sandwiched

with long fibers, and then pressed through to form a matrix.
The process is cumbersome and obtaining high fibre volume
fraction and homogeneous fibre distribution is difficult. The
process is not suitable to produce complex shapes and
components.
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Liquid state methods

Electroplating / Electroforming: A solution containing metal

ions loaded with reinforcing particles is co-deposited forming
a composite material.

Stir casting: Discontinuous reinforcement is stirred into

molten metal, which is allowed to solidify.

Squeeze casting: Molten metal is injected into a form with

fibers preplaced inside it.

Spray deposition: Molten metal is sprayed onto a continuous

fiber substrate.

Reactive processing: A chemical reaction occurs, with one of

the reactants forming the matrix and the other reinforcement.

Vapor deposition

Physical Vapour deposition: The fiber is passed through a

thick cloud of vaporized metal, coating it.

In situ fabrication technique

Controlled unidirectional solidification of a eutectic alloy can

result in a two-phase microstructure with one of the phases,
present in lamellar or fiber form, distributed in the matrix

1.3 FORMING PROCESS

Metal working is the process of working with metals to create

individual parts, assemblies, or large scale structures. The term covers a wide
range of work from large ships, bridges and oil refineries to delicate
jewellery. It therefore includes a correspondingly wide range of skills and the
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use of many different types of metalworking processes and their related tools.
Metal working generally is divided into the following categories, forming,
cutting and joining. Each of these categories contains various processes.

Forming processes modify the shape of the object being formed by

deforming the object, that is, without removing any material. Forming is a
collection of processes wherein the metal is rearranged into a specified
geometry (shape) by:

heating until molten, poured into a mold, and cooled,

heating the metal, until it becomes plastically deformable by

the application of mechanical force,

By the simple application of mechanical force.

Forming process can be grouped into:

Rolling

Extrusion

Spinning

Stamping

Raising

Forging

Rolling is a metal working process in which the metal is deformed

by passing it through a set of rollers:

Cold rolling is a metal working process in which metal is

deformed by passing it through rollers at a temperature below its
recrystalisation temperature. Cold rolling increases the yield strength and
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hardness of a metal by introducing defects into the metal's crystal structure.

These defects prevent further slip and can reduce the grain size of the metal.

Hot rolling is a metal working process where large pieces of metal,

such as slabs or billets, are heated above their recrystalisation temperature and
then deformed between rollers to form thinner cross sections. Hot rolling
produces thinner cross sections than cold rolling processes with the same
number of stages. Hot rolling, due to recrystalisation, will reduce the average
grain size of a metal while maintaining an equiaxed microstructure where as
cold rolling will produce a hardened microstructure

Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross

sectional profile. A material is pushed or drawn through a die of the desired
cross-section. The two main advantages of this process over other
manufacturing processes are its ability to create very complex cross-sections
and work materials that are brittle, because the material only encounters
compressive and shear stresses. It also forms finished parts with an excellent
surface finish. Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing
indefinitely long material) or semi-continuous (producing many pieces). The
extrusion process can be done with the material hot or cold. Commonly
extruded materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, and foodstuffs.

Forging is the term for shaping metal by using localized

compressive forces. Cold forging is done at room temperature or near room
temperature. Hot forging is done at a high temperature, which makes metal
easier to shape and less likely to fracture. Warm forging is done at an
intermediate temperature between room temperature and hot forging
temperatures. Forged parts can range in weight from less than a kilogram to
170 metric tons. Forged parts usually require further processing to achieve a
finished part.
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Forging is one of the oldest known metalworking processes.

Forging was done historically by a smith using hammer and anvil. The smithy
has evolved over centuries to the forge shop with engineered processes,
production equipment, tooling, raw materials and products to meet the
demands of modern industry. In modern times industrial forging is done either
with presses or with hammers powered by compressed air, electricity and
hydraulics.

Forging results in metal that is stronger than cast or machined metal

parts. This stems from the grain flow caused through forging. As the metal is
pounded the grains deform to follow the shape of the part, thus the grains are
unbroken throughout the part. Some modern parts take advantage of this for a
high strength-to-weight ratio. Alloys that are amenable to precipitation
hardening, such as most alloys of aluminium and titanium, can also be hot
forged then hardened. Other materials must be strengthened by the forging
process itself.

Hot forging is defined as working a metal above its recrystalisation

temperature. The main advantage of hot forging is that as the metal is
deformed the strain-hardening effects are neglected by the recrystalisation
process Cold forging is defined as working a metal below its recrystalisation
temperature, but usually around room temperature. If the temperature is above
0.3 times the melting temperature (on an absolute scale) then it qualifies as
warm forging

Forging Processes: There are many different kinds of forging

processes available however they can be grouped into three main classes:

Drawn out: length increases, cross-section decreases

Upset: Length decreases, cross-section increases

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Squeezed in closed compression dies: produces

multidirectional flow

Common forging processes include: roll forging, swaging, cogging,

open-die forging, impression-die forging, press forging, automatic hot forging
and upsetting.

Open-die drop-hammer forging: Open-die forging is also known

as smith forging. In open-die forging a hammer comes down and deforms the
work pieces, which is placed on a stationary anvil. Open-die forging gets its
name from the fact that the dies (the working surfaces of the forge that
contract the work piece) do not enclose the work piece, allowing it to flow
except where contacted by the dies. Therefore the operator needs to orient and
position the work piece to get the desired shape. The dies are usually flat in
shape, but some have a specially shaped surface for specialized operations.
For instance, the die may have a round, concave, or convex surface or be a
tool to form holes or be a cut-off tool.

Impression-die drop-hammer forging: Impression-die forging is

also called closed-die forging. In impression-die work metal is placed in a die
resembling a mold, which is attached to the anvil. Usually the hammer die is
shaped as well. The hammer is then dropped on the work piece, causing the
metal to flow and fill the die cavities. The hammer is generally in contact with
the work piece on the scale of milliseconds. Depending on the size and
complexity of the part the hammer may be dropped multiple times in quick
succession. Excess metal is squeezed out of the die cavities; this is called
flash. The flash cools more rapidly than the rest of the material; this cool
metal is stronger than the metal in the die so it helps prevent more flash from
forming. This also forces the metal to completely fill the die cavity and after
forging the flash will be trimmed off.
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Closed-die forging has a high initial cost due to the creation of dies
and required design work to make working die cavities. However, it has low
recurring costs for each part, thus forgings become more economical with
more volume. This is one of the major reasons forgings are often used in the
automotive and tool industry. Another reason forgings are common in these
industrial sectors is because forgings generally have about a 20% higher
strength to weight. A lubricant is always used when forging to reduce friction
and wear. It is also used to as a thermal barrier to restrict heat transfer from
the work piece to the die. Finally the lubricant acts as a parting compound to
prevent the part from sticking in one of the dies.

Press forging: Press forging is variation of drop-hammer forging.

Unlike drop-hammer forging, press forges work slowly by applying
continuous pressure or force. The amount of time the dies are in contact with
the work piece is measured in seconds (as compared to the milliseconds of
drop-hammer forges). The press forging operation can be done either cold or
hot.

The main advantage of press forging, as compared to drop-hammer

forging, is its ability to deform the complete work piece. Drop-hammer
forging usually only deforms the surfaces of the work piece in contact with
the hammer and anvil; the interior of the work piece will stay relatively
unreformed. There are a few disadvantages to this process, most stemming
from the work piece being in contact with the dies for such an extended
period of time. The operation is a time consuming process due to the amount
of steps and how long each of them take. The work piece will cool faster
because the dies are in contact with work piece; the dies facilitate drastically
more heat transfer than the surrounding atmosphere. As the workpiece cools it
becomes stronger and less ductile, which may induce cracking if deformation
continues. Therefore heated dies are usually used to reduce heat loss, promote
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surface flow, and enable the production of finer details and closer tolerances.
The workpiece may also need to be reheated. When done in high productivity,
press forging is more economical than hammer forging. The operation also
creates closer tolerances. In hammer forging a lot of the work is absorbed by
the machinery, when in press forging, the greater percentage of work is used
in the work piece. Another advantage is that the operation can be used to
create any size part because there is no limit to the size of the press forging
machine. New press forging techniques have been able to create a higher
degree of mechanical and orientation integrity. By the constraint of oxidation
to the outer most layers of the part material, reduced levels of micro cracking
take place in the finished part. A typical forging press is shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Typical forging press

Press forging can be used to perform all types of forging, including

open-die and impression-die forging. Impression-die press forging usually
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requires less draft than drop forging and has better dimensional accuracy.
Also, press forgings can often be done in one closing of the dies, allowing for
easy automation.

Upset forging: Upset forging increases the diameter of the work

piece by compressing its length. Based on number of pieces produced this is
the most widely used forging process. A few examples of common parts
produced using the upset forging process are engine valves, couplings, bolts,
screws, and other fasteners. Upset forging is usually done in special high
speed machines called crank presses, but upsetting can also be done in a
vertical crank press or a hydraulic press.

Equipment: A forging press, often just called a press, is used for

press forging. There are two main types: mechanical and hydraulic presses.
Mechanical presses function by using cams, cranks or toggles to produce a
preset (a predetermined force at a certain location in the stroke) and
reproducible stroke. Due to the nature of this type of system difference forces
are available at different stroke positions. Mechanical presses are faster than
their hydraulic counterparts (up to 50 strokes per minute). Their capacities
range from 3 to 160 MN (300 to 18,000 tons). Hydraulic presses use fluid
pressure and a piston to generate force. The advantages of a hydraulic press
over a mechanical press are its flexibility and greater capacity. The
disadvantages are that it is slower, larger, and more costly to operate.

1.4 HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS

Heat treatment is a method used to alter the physical, and

sometimes chemical, properties of a material. The most common application
is metallurgical. Heat treatments are also used in the manufacture of many
other materials, such as glass. Heat treatment involves the use of heating or
chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as
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hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques include

annealing, case hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering and
quenching. It is noteworthy that while the term heat treatment applies only to
processes where the heating and cooling are done for the specific purpose of
altering properties intentionally, heating and cooling often occur incidentally
during other manufacturing processes such as hot forming or welding.

Metallic materials consist of a microstructure of small crystals

called "grains". The nature of the grains (i.e. grain size and composition) is
one of the most effective factors that can determine the overall mechanical
behavior of the metal. Heat treatment provides an efficient way to manipulate
the properties of the metal by controlling rate of diffusion, and the rate of
cooling within the microstructure.

Annealing: Annealing is a technique used to recover cold work and

relax stresses within a metal. Annealing typically results in a soft, ductile
metal. When an annealed part is allowed to cool in the furnace, it is called a
"full anneal" heat treatment. When an annealed part is removed from the
furnace and allowed to cool in air, it is called a “normalizing” heat treatment.
During annealing, small grains recrystallise to form larger grains. In
precipitation hardening alloys, precipitates dissolve into the matrix,
“solutionizing” the alloy. Typical annealing processes include, “normalizing”,
“stress relief” annealing to recover cold work, and full annealing.

Hardening and tempering (quenching and tempering): To

harden by quenching, a metal (usually steel or cast iron) must be heated into
the austenitic crystal phase and then quickly cooled. Depending on the alloy
and other considerations (such as concern for maximum hardness vs. cracking
and distortion), cooling may be done with forced air or other gas (such as
nitrogen), oil, polymer dissolved in water, or brine. Upon being rapidly
cooled, a portion of austentite (dependent on alloy composition) will
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transform to martensite, a hard brittle crystalline structure. The quenched

hardness of a metal depends upon its chemical composition and quenching
method. Cooling speeds, from fastest to slowest, go from polymer (i.e.
silicon), brine, fresh water, oil, and forced air.

Precipitation hardening: Precipitation hardening, also called age

hardening, is a heat treatment technique used to strengthen malleable
materials, including most structural alloys of aluminium, magnesium, nickel
and titanium, and some stainless steels. It relies on changes in solid solubility
with temperature to produce fine particles of an impurity phase, which impede
the movement of dislocations, or defects in a crystal’s lattice. Since
dislocations are often the dominant carriers of plasticity, this serves to harden
the material. The impurities play the same role as the particle substances in
particle-reinforced composite materials. Just as the formation of ice in air can
produce clouds, snow, or hail, depending upon the thermal history of a given
portion of the atmosphere, precipitation in solids can produce many different
sizes of particles, which have radically different properties. Unlike ordinary
tempering, alloys must be kept at elevated temperature for hours to allow
precipitation to take place. This time delay is called ageing.

One essential attribute of a precipitation-hardening alloy system is a

temperature-dependent equilibrium solid solubility characterized by
increasing solubility with increasing temperature. The major aluminum alloy
systems with precipitation hardening include:

Aluminum-copper systems with strengthening from CuAl2

Aluminum-copper-magnesium systems (magnesium

intensifies precipitation)
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Aluminum-magnesium-silicon systems with strengthening

from Mg2Si

Aluminum-zinc-magnesium systems with strengthening from

MgZn2

Aluminum-zinc-magnesium-copper systems

Precipitation hardening consists of three main steps: solution

treatment, quenching, and aging. Solution treatment involves heating the alloy
to above the recrystalization temperature, which creates a homogeneous solid
solution of one phase. At this stage, all of the solute is dissolved into the
solution. Quenching refers to the cooling of the solution in a medium. During
this step, the solute becomes supersaturated. Aging is the process where the
solute particles diffuse into clusters that distort and strengthen the material.
The precipitation process differs widely in composition and in the
microstructures formed.

Precipitation hardening is often employed in Aluminum alloys to

improve the mechanical properties, such as strength and hardness. This
change in properties is the result of the formation of finely dispersed second
phase particles in the alloy. These particles induce lattice strain in the
Aluminum matrix that restricts dislocation flow. The material is then heated
again to a temperature below the recrystalization temperature and held for
some amount of time. This temperature is known as the age hardening
temperature. The purpose of heating the alloy again to decrease the time
needed to age the material.
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1.5 THRESHOLD STUDIES OF MECHANICAL AND FATIGUE

PROPERTIES

1.5.1 Mechanical Properties

1.5.1.1 Density

The density of a material is defined as its mass per unit volume. For
a homogeneous object, the mass divided by the volume gives the density. The
mass is normally measured with an appropriate scale or balance; the volume
may be measured directly (from the geometry of the object) or by the
displacement of a fluid.

ASTM specification D792-00 describes the steps to measure the

density of a composite material. The density is calculated by the
Equation (1.1).

Wa
(1.1)
Wa (Ww Wb )

Where is the density of the composite material, in g/cm3 and

Wa is the weight of the specimen when hung in the air

Ww is the weight of the specimen when immersed fully in distilled

water, along with the partly immersed wire holding the specimen

Wb is the weight of the partly immersed wire holding the specimen

0.9975 is the density in g/cm3 of the distilled water at 23°C.

1.5.1.2 Porosity

Porosity is a measure of the void spaces in a material, and is

measured as a fraction, between 0–1, or as a percentage between
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0–100 percent. The term is used in multiple fields including ceramics,

metallurgy, materials, manufacturing, earth sciences and construction.

The porosity of the samples was estimated by the difference

between the calculated values and the observed densities of the samples given
by the Equation (1.2).

Difference between the calculated density

and observed density
% Porosity =
Calculated density (1.2)

1.5.1.3 Hardness

Hardness is the characteristic of a solid material expressing it’s

resistance to permanent deformation. Hardness refers to various properties of
matter in the solid phase that gives it high resistance to various shape change
when force is applied. In materials science there are three operational
definitions of hardness:

Scratch hardness: Resistance to fracture or plastic (permanent)

deformation due to friction from a sharp object

Indentation hardness: Resistance to plastic (permanent)

deformation due to impact from a sharp object

Rebound hardness: Height of the bounce of an object dropped

on the material, related to elasticity.

Hardness can be measured on the Mohs scale or various other

scales. Some of the other scales used for indentation hardness in engineering -
Rockwell, Vickers, and Brinell can be compared using practical conversion
tables.
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Scratch hardness: In mineralogy, hardness commonly refers to a

material's ability to penetrate softer materials. An object made of a hard
material will scratch an object made of a softer material. Scratch hardness is
usually measured on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. One tool used to
make this measurement is the sclerometer.

Pure diamond is the hardest known natural mineral substance and

will scratch any other natural material. Diamond is therefore used to cut other
diamonds; in particular, higher-grade diamonds are used to cut lower-grade
diamonds. The hardest substance known today is aggregated diamond nano
rods, with hardness of more than twice and stiffness of 1.11 times of that of
diamond. Estimates from proposed molecular structure indicate the hardness
of beta carbon nitride should also be greater than diamond (but less than ultra
hard fullerite). This material has not yet been successfully synthesized. Other
materials which can scratch diamond include boron suboxide and rhenium
diboride.

Indentation hardness: Primarily used in engineering and

metallurgy, indentation hardness seeks to characterise a material's hardness;
i.e. its resistance to permanent, and in particular plastic, deformation. It is
usually measured by loading an indenter of specified geometry onto the
material and measuring the dimensions of the resulting indentation.

There are several alternative definitions of indentation hardness, the

most common of which are:

Brinell hardness test (HB)

Janka Wood Hardness Rating

Knoop hardness test (HK) or micro hardness test, for

measurement over small areas
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Meyer hardness test

Rockwell hardness test (HR)

Shore durometer hardness, used for polymers

Vickers hardness test (HV), has one of the widest scales

Barcol hardness test, for composite materials, scale from

0 to 100

There is, in general, no simple relationship between the results of

different hardness tests. Though there are practical conversion tables for hard
steels, for example, some materials show qualitatively different behaviours
under the various measurement methods. The Vickers and Brinell hardness
scales correlate well over a wide range, however, with Brinell only producing
overestimated values at high loads.

It is important to note that hardness of a material to deformation is

dependent to its micro durability or small-scale shear modulus in any
direction, not to any rigidity or stiffness properties such as its bulk modulus or
Young's modulus.

Rebound hardness: Also known as dynamic hardness, rebound

hardness measures the height of the "bounce" of a diamond-tipped hammer
dropped from a fixed height onto a material. The device used to take this
measurement is known as a scleroscope. One scale that measures rebound
hardness is the Bennett Hardness Scale.

1.5.1.4 Vickers hardness test

The Vickers hardness test was developed in the early 1920s as an

alternative method to measure the hardness of materials. The Vickers test is
often easier to use than other hardness tests since the required calculations are
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independent of the size of the indenter, and the indenter can be used for all
materials irrespective of hardness. The basic principle, as with all common
measures of hardness, is to observe the questioned materials' ability to resist
plastic deformation from a standard source. The Vickers test can be used for
all metals and has one of the widest scales among hardness tests. The unit of
hardness given by the test is known as the Vickers Pyramid Number (HV).
The hardness number can be converted into units of Pa, but should not be
confused with a pressure, which also has units of Pa. The hardness number is
determined by the load over the surface area of the indentation and not the
area normal to the force, and is therefore not a pressure.

The hardness number is not really a true property of the material

and is an empirical value that should be seen in conjunction with the
experimental methods and hardness scale used. When doing the hardness tests
the distance between indentations must be more than 2.5 indentation
diameters apart to avoid interaction between the work-hardened regions.

The yield strength of the material can be approximated by the

Equation (1.3) as

Hv = C y 3 y (1.3)

where c is a constant determined by geometrical factors usually ranging

between 2 and 4.

Implementation: The Vickers test scheme is given by the

Figure 1.2. The Vickers hardness test uses a diamond, with the shape of
square-based pyramid with an angle of 136° between opposite faces as an
indenter (22° between the indenter face and surface). It is based on the
principle that impressions made by this indenter are geometrically similar
regardless of load. Accordingly, loads of various magnitudes are applied to a
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flat surface, depending on the hardness of the material to be measured. The

Vickers Pyramid Number (HV) is then determined by the ratio F/A where F is
the force applied to the diamond and A is the surface area of the resulting
indentation. A can be determined by the formula by the Equations (1.4) -
(1.6).

A = d2 / (2 sin 136o / 2) (1.4)

this can be approximated by evaluating the sine term to give

A d2 / 1.854 (1.5)

where d is the average length of the diagonal left by the indenter. Hence,

Hv = F / A = 1.854 F / d2 (1.6)

Figure 1.2 Vickers test scheme

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The corresponding units of HV are then kilogram-force per square

millimetre (kgf/mm²). To convert a Vickers hardness number in SI units
(MPa or GPa) one needs to convert the force applied from kgf to Newtons and
the area from mm2 to m2 to give results in Pascals.

1.5.2 Fatigue Properties

In materials science, fatigue is the progressive and localized

structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading.
The maximum stress values are less than the ultimate tensile stress limit, and
may be below the yield stress limit of the material. Fatigue has become
progressively more prevalent as technology has developed a greater amount
of equipment, such as automobiles, aircraft, compressors, pumps, turbines,
etc., subject to repeated loading and vibration. Today it is often stated that
fatigue accounts for al least 90 percent of all service failures due to
mechanical causes.

A fatigue failure is particularly insidious because it occurs without

any obvious warning. Fatigue results in a brittle-appearing fracture, with no
gross deformation at the fracture. On a macroscopic scale the fracture surface
is usually normal to the direction of the principal tensile stress. A fatigue
failure can usually be recognized from the appearance of the fracture surface,
which shows a smooth region, due to the rubbing action as the crack
propagated through the section, and a rough region, where the member has
failed in a ductile manner when the cross section was no longer able to carry
the load. Frequently the progress of the fracture is indicated by a series of
rings, or "beach marks", progressing inward from the point of initiation of the
failure
 26

Factors that affect fatigue-life

Cyclic stress state: Depending on the complexity of the geometry

and the loading, one or more properties of the stress state need to be
considered, such as stress amplitude, mean stress, biaxiality, in-phase or out-
of-phase shear stress, and load sequence,

Geometry: Notches and variation in cross section throughout a part

lead to stress concentrations where fatigue cracks initiate.

Surface quality: Surface roughness cause microscopic stress

concentrations that lower the fatigue strength. Compressive residual stresses
can be introduced in the surface by e.g. shot peening to increase fatigue life.
Such techniques for producing surface stress are often referred to as peening,
whatever the mechanism used to produce the stress. Laser peening and
ultrasonic impact treatment can also produce this surface compressive stress
and can increase the fatigue life of the component. This improvement is
normally observed only for high-cycle fatigue.

Material type: Fatigue life, as well as the behavior during cyclic

loading, varies widely for different materials: E.g. composites and polymers
differ markedly from metals.

Residual stresses: Welding, cutting, casting, and other

manufacturing processes involving heat or deformation can produce high
levels of tensile residual stress, which decreases the fatigue strength.

Size and distribution of internal defects: Casting defects such as

gas porosity, non-metallic inclusions and shrinkage voids can significantly
reduce fatigue strength.
 27

Direction of loading: For non-isotropic materials, fatigue strength

depends on the direction of the principal stress.

Grain size: For most metals, smaller grains yield longer fatigue
lives, however, the presence of surface defects or scratches will have a greater
influence than in a coarse grained alloy.

Environment: Environmental conditions can cause erosion,

corrosion, or gas-phase embitterment, which all affect fatigue life. Corrosion
fatigue is a problem encountered in many aggressive environments.

Temperature: Higher temperatures generally decrease fatigue

strength.

Stress Cycles

The general types of fluctuating stresses, which can cause fatigue,

the Figure 1.3 serves to illustrate typical fatigue stress cycles.

Figure 1.3(a) illustrates a completely reversed cycle of stress

of sinusoidal form. For this type of stress cycle the maximum
and minimum stresses are equal. Tensile stress is considered
positive, and compressive stress is negative.

Figure 1.3(b) illustrates a repeated stress cycle in which the

maximum stress and minimum stress are not equal. In this
illustration they are both tension, but a repeated stress cycle
could just as well contain maximum and minimum stresses of
opposite signs or both in compression.

Figure 1.3(c) illustrates a complicated stress cycle, which

might be encountered in a part such as an aircraft wing, which
is subjected to periodic unpredictable overloads due to gusts.
 28

Figure 1.3 Typical fatigue stress cycles: (a) Reversed stress;

(b) repeated stress; (c) irregular or random stress cycle
[George.E.Dieter, 1988].

A fluctuating stress cycle consists of two components, a mean, or

steady, stress, and an alternating, or variable, stress. The range of stress as can
be seen from figure 1.3b, the range of stress is the difference between the
maximum and minimum stress in a cycle. The stress range and the Mean
stress are given by the Equations (1.7) and (1.8).

Stress range = max - min , Stress amplitude a =( max - min) /2 (1.7)

Mean stress m =( max min ) /2 and Stress ratio R = min max (1.8)

Fatigue life

Fatigue life, Nf, can be defined as the number of stress cycles of a

specified character that a specimen sustains before failure of a specified
nature occurs. The basic method of presenting engineering fatigue data is by
 29

means of the S-N curve, also known as Wöhler curve, a plot of stress against
the number of cycles to failure. A log scale is almost always used for number
of cycles. The value of stress that is plotted can be the mean stress, maximum
stress or minimum stress. The stress values are usually nominal stresses, i.e.,
there is no adjustment for stress concentration. The S-N relationship is
determined for a specified value of m, R (R= min max), or A (A= a m). Most
determinations of the fatigue properties of materials have been made in
completed reversed bending, where the mean stress is zero.

It will be noted that this S-N curve is concerned chiefly with fatigue
failure at high numbers of cycles (N > 105 cycles). For the low-cycle fatigue
region (N < 104 or 105 cycles) tests are conducted with controlled cycles of
elastic plus plastic strain instead of controlled load or stress cycles.

The usual procedure for determining an S-N curve is to test the first
specimen at a high stress where failure is expected in a fairly short number of
cycles, e.g., at about two-thirds the static tensile strength of the material. The
test stress is decreased for each succeeding specimen until one or two
specimens do not fail in the specified numbers of cycles, which is usually at
least 107 cycles. The highest stress at which a run out (non-failure) is obtained
is taken as the fatigue limit. For materials without a fatigue limit the test is
usually terminated for practical considerations at a low stress where the life is
about 108 or 5×108 cycles.

Figure 1.4 shows the fracture of and aluminium crack arm. The
dark area shows the slow crack growth and the bright area the sudden
fracture. The process starts with dislocation movements, eventually forming
persistent slip bands that nucleate short cracks. Fatigue is a stochastic process,
often showing considerable scatter even in controlled environments. The
greater the applied stress range, the shorter the life. Fatigue life scatter tends
 30

to increase for longer fatigue lives. Figure 1.5 shows the surface fatigue
cracks grow as material was further cycled.

Figure 1.4 Fracture of an aluminium crank arm

[Fatigue (material), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_ (material), 15 August 2004.]

Figure 1.5 Micrographs showing the surface fatigue cracks grow as

material was further cycled [Fatigue (material),
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_ (material), 15 August 2004.]
 31

The characteristics of propagation of fatigue cracks are:

Damage is cumulative. Materials do not recover when rested.

Fatigue life is influenced by a variety of factors, such as

temperature, surface finish, presence of oxidising or inert
chemicals, residual stresses, contact (fretting), etc.

Some materials (e.g., some steel and titanium alloys) exhibit a

theoretical fatigue limit below which continued loading does
not lead to failure.

In recent years, researchers (see, for example, the work of

Bathias, Murakami, and Stanzl-Tschegg) have found that
failures occur below the theoretical fatigue limit at very high
fatigue lives (109 to 1010 cycles). An ultrasonic resonance
technique is used in these experiments with frequencies
around 10–20 kHz.

High cycle fatigue strength (about 103 to 108 cycles) can be

described by stress-based parameters. A load-controlled servo-
hydraulic test rig is commonly used in these tests, with
frequencies of around 20–50 Hz. Other sorts of machines—
like resonant magnetic machines—can also be used, achieving
frequencies up to 250 Hz.

Low cycle fatigue (typically less than 103 cycles) is associated

with widespread plasticity; thus, a strain-based parameter
should be used for fatigue life prediction. Testing is conducted
with constant strain amplitudes at 1–5 Hz.
 32

S-N curves are derived from tests on samples of the material

to be characterised (often called coupons) where a regular
sinusoidal stress is applied by a testing machine which also
counts the number of cycles to failure. This process is
sometimes known as coupon testing. Each coupon test
generates a point on the plot though in some cases there is a
run out where the time to failure exceeds that available for the
test (see censoring). Analysis of fatigue data requires
techniques from statistics, especially survival analysis and
linear regression.

Miner's rule

In 1945 M.A. Miner popularised a rule that had first been proposed
by A. Palmgren in 1924. The rule, variously called Miner's rule or the
Palmgren-Miner linear damage hypothesis, states that where there are k
different stress magnitudes in a spectrum, Si (1 i k), each contributing
ni(Si) cycles, then if Ni(Si) is the number of cycles to failure of a constant
stress reversal Si, failure occurs when:

k
ni
C (1.9)
i 1 Ni

C is experimentally found to be between 0.7 and 2.2. Usually for design

purposes, C is assumed to be 1.This can be thought of as assessing what
proportion of life is consumed by stress reversal at each magnitude then
forming a linear combination of their aggregate. Though Miner's rule is a
useful approximation in many circumstances, it has two major limitations:
 33

It fails to recognise the probabilistic nature of fatigue and

there is no simple way to relate life predicted by the rule with
the characteristics of a probability distribution.

There is sometimes an effect in the order in which the

reversals occur. In some circumstances, cycles of low stress
followed by high stress cause more damage than would be
predicted by the rule. It does not consider the effect of
overload or high stress which may result in a compressive
residual stress. High stress followed by low stress may have
less damage due to the presence of compressive residual
stress.

Low-cycle fatigue

Where the stress is high enough for plastic deformation to occur,

the account in terms of stress is less useful and the strain in the material offers
a simpler description. Low-cycle fatigue is usually characterised by the
Coffin-Manson relation (published independently by L.F. Coffin in 1954 and
S.S. Manson 1953).

p
'f (2N)c (1.11)
2

where p /2 is the plastic strain amplitude;

f' is an empirical constant known as the fatigue ductility

coefficient, the failure strain for a single reversal;

2N is the number of reversals to failure (N cycles);

c is an empirical constant known as the fatigue ductility exponent,

commonly ranging from -0.5 to -0.7 for metals.
 34

Fatigue and fracture mechanics

The account above is purely phenomenological and, though it

allows life prediction and design assurance, it does not enable life
improvement or design optimisation. For the latter purposes, an exposition of
the causes and processes of fatigue is necessary. Such an explanation is given
by fracture mechanics in four stages:

1. Crack nucleation

2. Stage I crack-growth

3. Stage II crack-growth and

4. Ultimate ductile failure

Material change

Changes in the materials used in parts can also improve fatigue life.
For example, parts can be made from better fatigue rated metals. Complete
replacement and redesign of parts can also reduce if not eliminate fatigue
problems. Thus helicopter rotor blades and propellers in metal are being
replaced by composite equivalents. They are not only lighter, but also much
more resistant to fatigue. They are more expensive, but the extra cost is amply
repaid by their greater integrity, since loss of a rotor blade usually leads to
total loss of the aircraft. A similar argument has been made for replacement of
metal fuselages, wings and tails of aircraft.

Infamous fatigue failures

Versailles train crash

On May 8, 1842 one of the trains carrying travelers on their return

from Versailles to Paris, having witnessed the celebrations of the birthday of
 35

Louis Philippe, derailed and caught fire. Though the resulting conflagration
mutilated the dead beyond recognition or enumeration, it is estimated that
53 were perished and around 40 were seriously injured. Figure 1.6 shows the
drawing of a fatigue failure in an axle in 1843.

Figure 1.6 Drawing of a fatigue failure in an axle, 1843. [Fatigue (material),

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_ (material), 15 August 2004.]

The derailment had been the result of a broken locomotive axle.

Rankine's investigation of broken axles in Britain highlighted the importance
of stress concentration, and the mechanism of crack growth with repeated
loading.

De Havilland Comet

Metal fatigue became apparent to aircraft engineers in 1954 after

three de Havilland Comet passenger jets had broken up in mid-air and crashed
within a single year. Investigators from the Royal Aircraft Establishment at
Farnborough in England told a public enquiry that the sharp corners around
the plane's window openings (actually the forward ADF antenna window in
the roof) acted as initiation sites for cracks. The skin of the aircraft was also
too thin, and cracks from manufacturing stresses were present at the corners.
All aircraft windows were immediately redesigned with rounded corners.

Others

The Liberty Ships during World War II

 36

The 1980 capsize of the oil platform Alexander Kielland

United Airlines Flight 232, Japan Airlines Flight 123, China

Airlines Flight 611, Los Angeles Airways Flight 417, and
El Al Flight 1862

The 1957 plane crash of the "Mt. Pinatubo", presidential plane

of Philippine President Ramon Magsaysay who died in the
crash along with 24 others.

The 1919 Boston Molasses Disaster has been attributed to a

fatigue failure

The 1998 Eschede train disaster (crash of an InterCityExpress

train).

The 2005 crash of Chalk's Ocean Airways Flight 101.