NFS Journal 21 (2020) 16–21

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

NFS Journal
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/nfs

Lignin is the main determinant of total dietary fiber differences between

date fruit (Phoenix dactylifera L.) varieties
Navomy Georgea, Annica A.M. Anderssonb, Roger Anderssonb, Afaf Kamal-Eldina,
⁎

a
Department of Food, Nutrition, and Health, College of Food & Agriculture, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 15551, United Arab Emirates
b
Department of Molecular Sciences, BioCentre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O Box 7015, SE 75007, Sweden

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Date fruits (Phoenix dactylifera) of ten varieties, collected in the United Arab Emirates, were studied to determine
Dietary fiber their dietary fiber content and composition. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy indicated that the
Dates dietary fiber components in all the date fruit varieties was similar. The major dietary fiber components, in-
Phoenix dactylifera cluding cellulose, hemicellulosic components, lignin, and pectin, were analyzed by the Uppsala method. The
Lignin
total dietary fiber content in the date fruits analyzed (5.2%–8.3%) is comparable to commonly consumed dried
Cellulose
Hemicelluloses
fruits and is correlated with the content of lignin. The lignin was the main determinant of the total dietary fiber
content in dates and its content was higher in semi-hard and hard fruit varieties.

1. Introduction effects on blood glucose and serum cholesterol levels [8,9].

Date fruits represent a rich source of dietary fiber (6.5–11.5%), of
Meta-analyses of prospective epidemiological studies revealed that which 84–94% is insoluble and 6–16% is soluble [10,11]. Cellulose,
fruits and vegetables have moderate but significant associations with hemicelluloses, and lignin make up the insoluble dietary fiber fractions
decreased risk of mortality and metabolic diseases including obesity, in dates, whereas pectin, fructooligosaccharides, inulin, galacto-
cardiovascular disease and some cancers [1,2]. The consumption of mannan, and β-glucan (among others) contribute to the soluble dietary
fruits and vegetables are found to improve the overall diet profile by fiber fractions. Some of these dietary fiber fractions will now be de-
increasing the intakes of carbohydrates, dietary fiber, and micro- scribed in more detail. Cellulose is an unbranched linear chain of sev-
nutrient vitamins and minerals [3]. The dietary fiber is effective in eral thousand glucose units with β-1,4-glucosidic linkages. It is not
potentiating health, e.g. by increasing fecal bulking and viscosity and digested to any extent by the enzymes of the human gastrointestinal
decreasing the contact time of inflammatory agents and carcinogens system [12]. Hemicelluloses also contain backbones of glucose units
and mucosal cells, enhancing the production of short chain fatty acids with β-1,4 glucosidic linkages, but they differ from cellulose as they are
and the binding between bile acids and harmful dietary components smaller in size, are usually branched, and contain a variety of sugars,
such as estrogen and carcinogenic compounds, and by supplying anti- which primarily include xylose with some galactose, mannose, arabi-
oxidants to the body [4]. The Institute of Medicine (IOM) set a fiber nose, and other sugars [12,13]. Neither cellulose nor hemicelluloses,
allowance intake value of 14 g/1000 kcal, which is equivalent to 25 g/ which together comprise the main constituents of insoluble dietary
day for women and 38 g/day for men in the age range 19–50 years [5]. fiber in dates, are soluble in ethanol. Lignin is a complex polymer
Dietary fiber is composed of various fractions including cellulose, containing about 40 oxygenated phenyl propane units including con-
non-cellulosic polysaccharides such as hemicelluloses, and non-carbo- iferyl, sinapyl, and p-coumaryl alcohols that have undergone a complex
hydrate fractions such as lignin. These are also are the main structural dehydrogenative polymerization. Due to strong intramolecular
components of the cell wall in plants. Dietary fibers can typically be bonding, which includes carbon to carbon linkages, lignin is relatively
classified as soluble or insoluble according to their water solubility [6]. inert. It also demonstrates a greater resistance to digestion than any
Major dietary fiber fractions such as cellulose, hemicelluloses, and other naturally occurring polymer. Finally, pectic substances are a
lignin are insoluble; they have beneficial effects on the human intestine complex group of polysaccharides in which D-galacturonic acid is a
[7]. The soluble dietary fiber fractions include non-cellulosic poly- chief constituent. They are also structural components of plant cell
saccharides, oligosaccharides, pectin, and gums; they have beneficial walls and act as intercellular cementing substances. Pectin is highly

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Kamal-Eldin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nfs.2020.08.002
Received 19 June 2020; Received in revised form 10 August 2020; Accepted 13 August 2020
Available online 19 August 2020
2352-3646/ © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier GmbH on behalf of Society of Nutrition and Food Science e.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
N. George, et al. NFS Journal 21 (2020) 16–21

Fig. 1. The ten date varieties analyzed for dietary fiber composition in this study.

Fig. 2. Fourier transform infrared absorbance spectra of ten Emirati date fruit varieties.

Table 1
Peak positions and assignments of various chemical groups as evidenced from the Fourier transform infrared spectra of the UAE date fruit varieties.
Wave number for a region in the Characteristic chemical groups and their behavior Molecules responsible
spectrum (cm−1)

3600–3200 OeH stretching vibrations of the hydroxyl groups, inter- and intramolecular Cellulose, water molecule due to the moisture
hydrogen bond vibrations content
2960–2830 Stretching vibrations of the CeH of alkyl groups Cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose
1700–1500 C]C aromatic skeletal vibrations, arising from acetyl, and ester groups Lignin, hemicelluloses
1022 CeO stretching of the pyranose ring Cellulose
1740–1600 From various carbonyl groups, bending vibrations Pectins bound water
1645–1612 CeO stretching of conjugated or aromatic ketones and in flavones Lignin
1200–1400 CeO stretching, CeH stretching, CeH vibrations, CH2 bending, and asymmetric Hemicelluloses, cellulose, pectin
stretching mode vibration of methyl ester
1050–1040 CeO, CeC, and CeOH stretching vibrations, aromatic CeH in plane deformation Cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, arabinose
1010–1018 CeO, C]C, and CeCeO stretching backbone vibrations Galactomannans, pectins
910–750 CeH bending of syringyl units, aromatic ring; antisymmetric out-of-phase ring Hemicellulosic compounds
stretching

Compiled from the references [18–21].

17
N. George, et al. NFS Journal 21 (2020) 16–21

water-soluble and is almost completely metabolized by colonic bacteria

TDF including fructans
[12].
Date fruits, with their inherent polyphenols, are considered to be a
nutritious and healthy source of dietary fiber with the added benefit of
antioxidant activity [14]. Given the potential health benefits of dates, it
is important to understand how various varieties of the fruit can con-
5.30
6.09
7.56
6.71
6.20
5.92
8.42
6.65
7.43
7.01
tribute to human nutrition and, ultimately, well-being. Therefore, the
aim of this study was to analyze the content of total dietary fiber in
dates from ten Emirati varieties of Phoenix dactylifera collected from
0.03
0.01
0.06
0.04
0.08
0.08
0.09
0.19
0.05
0.06
different locations in the United Arab Emirates (UAE).
Fructans

±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±

Values of the different dietary fiber component represent the mean ± SD for three samples per variety. TDF is obtained by adding all the presented dietary fiber components.
0.42
0.13
0.24
0.28
0.36
0.35
0.28
0.43
0.30
0.50 2. Materials and methods

2.1. Samples
0.03
0.08
0.01
0.08
0.16
0.04
0.01
0.11
0.22
0.03
Uronic acids

Fully mature (tamar stage) fruits of ten P. dactylifera date varieties

±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±

were collected in 2017, each from three locations of the following in

0.78
0.82
0.97
0.92
0.93
0.83
1.12
1.02
0.81
0.91

UAE (Al Saad, Al Foah, Bak Riya, Gummed, Al Dahid, and Wadi Al
Khar). The ten studied varieties are presented in Fig. 1.
0.09
0.10
0.24
0.14
0.27
0.17
0.32
0.32
0.44
0.23
Klason lignin

2.2. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
1.24
1.93
2.94
2.35
1.64
1.54
3.18
1.99
3.00
2.33

The date fruit samples were placed directly into the sample holder
of a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy instrument
(PerkinElmer Spectrum Two™ FT-IR spectrometer, USA). The absor-
0.04
0.07
0.05
0.11
0.23
0.09
0.02
0.09
0.07
0.07

bance was obtained after recording the background signal for the
spectral range from 400 to 4000 cm−1 using Spectrum software.
Total dietary fiber (TDF) content and relative composition of fiber components (g/100 g dry weight) in UAE date fruit varieties⁎.

±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
Glucose

1.24
1.27
1.33
1.31
1.46
1.31
1.54
1.42
1.25
1.30

2.3. Dietary fiber analysis

De-seeded fruit pieces (80 g) were mixed with cold, deionized water
0.02
0.04
0.04
0.07
0.03
0.04
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.00

(160 mL) and grounded in a Sorwall Omni mixer until the sample is
Galactose

±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±

well homogenized. 0.5 g of the mixed sample was used for the analysis
0.25
0.52
0.58
0.53
0.32
0.52
0.53
0.33
0.68
0.46

of dry matter (16 h at 60 °C in a vacuum oven). The dietary fiber

content and composition were determined by the Uppsala method [15].
First, the simple sugars were washed and removed with 80% ethanol.
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.02
0.01
0.01

Subsequently, the sample was treated with enzymes and the soluble
Mannose

dietary fibers were precipitated with 80% ethanol solution. Finally, the
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±

precipitated and insoluble polysaccharides were hydrolyzed with sul-

0.22
0.21
0.23
0.23
0.24
0.24
0.21
0.22
0.21
0.24

phuric acid. The released neutral sugars were quantitated as alditol

acetates by gas-liquid chromatography (GC). Uronic acids in the acid
hydrolysate were determined spectrophotometrically after hydrolysis.
0.04
0.11
0.04
0.09
0.13
0.06
0.03
0.04
0.08
0.01

Klason lignin was determined gravimetrically as ash-free acid-insoluble

±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
Xylose

residue.
0.77
0.80
0.88
0.69
0.77
0.75
1.11
0.77
0.77
0.82

A spectrophotometric method was followed using an enzymatic

assay kit (k-FRUC, Megazyme, Bray, Ireland) to determine the fructan
(fructo-oligosaccharides and fructan polysaccharide) content according
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.04
0.03
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01

to the methods of McCleary, Murphy, and Mugford [16] with some

Arabinose

modifications. The extraction step was completed with a 0.5 g sample,

±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
0.28
0.29
0.27
0.29
0.34
0.27
0.31
0.34
0.29
0.32

which was accurately weighed into a glass tube with 10 mL of deionized

water and kept at 80 °C for 20 min. The filtration step was replaced by
centrifugation: 1 mL of the mixture was centrifuged for 15 min at
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00

10,600 g and 200 μL of the supernatant was then used for analysis. The
samples were treated with α-galactosidase for the removal of raffinose-
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
Fucose

type oligosaccharides. This was completed before the degradation of

Sugar residues (% of dm)

0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03

maltosaccharides and sucrose, as detailed in the kit manufacturer's in-

structions. The sum of the dietary fiber from the Uppsala method and
fructan was defined as the total dietary fiber (TDF).
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.00
Rhamnose

±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±

2.4. Statistical analysis

0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.11
0.08
0.10
0.10
0.09
0.09

Statistical analysis was completed using Minitab, version 19

(https://www.minitab.com/en-us/). One-way ANOVA was used to test
Boumann

Lulu Red

for differences in dietary fiber content and composition among date

Variety

Dabbas

Neghal
Table 2

Khalas

Shishi
Fardh
Barhi

Reziz
Sagei

fruit varieties. p < 0.05 was used as a measure of statistical sig-

⁎

nificance.

18
N. George, et al. NFS Journal 21 (2020) 16–21

Fig. 3. Scatter plot showing the relationships among total dietary fiber contents and the content of the different fiber fractions (mean values for three samples).

Table 3
Dietary fiber in the skin and white parts of date fruits Fardh and Sagei (g/100 g dry matter)⁎.
Variety TDF Sugar residues Klason lignin Uronic acids

Rhamnose Fucose Arabinose Xylose Mannose Galactose Glucose

Skin (mainly collenchyma cells & sclereids)

Fardh 21.8 0.17 0.06 1.10 6.40 0.57 0.87 4.04 6.42 2.22
Sagei 18.9 0.16 0.04 0.98 5.79 0.50 1.01 3.28 5.28 1.82

Inner white fiber bundles of the mesocarp (parenchyma cells)

Fardh 6.13 0.12 0.04 0.46 0.63 0.42 0.47 2.32 nd 1.67
Sagei 5.34 0.11 0.04 0.40 0.61 0.38 0.50 1.94 nd 1.36

TDF, total dietary fiber. nd, not detected.

⁎
Values are means of the analysis of two samples. Analysis of fructans was not performed for these samples.

3. Results and discussion components of the analyzed date fruits are presented in Table 2. The
observed sugar residues resulting from the hydrolysis of the fruit
3.1. FTIR spectral fingerprints of date fruit fibers polysaccharides, analyzed by GC, show that these dates consisted
mainly of glucose, xylose, galactose along with limited amounts of
The ten date fruit varieties studied here differed in their softness arabinose and mannose with minute quantities of rhamnose and fucose.
with Barhi and Lulu being soft varieties, Neghal and Dabbas being hard The quantity of uronic acid was usually lower in soft dates such as Barhi
to semi-hard, and the rest of varieties lie in between. In general, the (0.7–0.8%), whereas Neghal and Reziz had higher uronic acid values of
fruits are composed of skin, sugary flesh, a distinct white part composed around 1.1%. The average fructan content across varieties was 2–8% of
of fibrous bundles that is edible and devoid of sugars, and a seed [17]. the TDF with the soft variety Barhi having the highest fructan content
The FTIR analyses of the edible parts of the fruits, showing peaks for (7.9% of TDF). The content of Klason lignin varied from around 25 to
various absorbances from 400 to 4000 cm−1, are shown in Fig. 2. All 40% of TDF in the samples. Lignin, the non-carbohydrate fraction of the
date fruits studied showed similar FTIR fingerprints, which suggests dietary fiber, is the major dietary fiber component in the date fruits,
that they have comparable dietary fiber compositions. The spectra, which agrees with the findings of previous studies [11,14,22]. The
interpreted according to Table 1, show the absorption bands associated varieties Barhi, Lulu, and Khalas had low lignin contents while Sagei
with stretching and bending vibrations of the characteristic chemical and Negal had high lignin contents suggesting that the Klason lignin
groups of the various dietary fiber components including cellulose, content increased with increasing fruit hardness.
hemicelluloses, lignin, and pectin [18–21]. The spectral fingerprints of The total dietary fiber (TDF) content found in the ten date varieties
the date fruit fibers reported here agree with those from previous stu- was 5.3–8.4% (Table 2); values that are in accordance with results from
dies of date fruit fibers [14]. previous studies [10,13]. In general, the TDF content in dates is com-
parable to that of other dry fruits such as dried blueberries (7.5%),
raisins (6.8%), apricots (7.3%), pears (6.4%), and cranberries (5.3%)
3.2. Total dietary fiber and its constituents in date fruits
[23] but is much higher than that observed in fresh fruits [24]. Ac-
cording to our results, the contribution of date fruits to the
The sugar residues, Klason lignin, uronic acids, and fructan

19
N. George, et al. NFS Journal 21 (2020) 16–21

recommended daily intake of dietary fiber will vary according to Acknowledgments

variety. For example, three fruits of Barhi and Sagei, weighing ap-
proximately 13 and 35 g [25], will provide 2–3% and 7–10% of the Project funded by United Arab Emirates University, UAE. (UPAR
recommended daily fiber intake, respectively. Grant 31F080).We thank Al Foah date factory (Al Saad, UAE) for pro-
The obtained neutral sugars are constituents of cellulose and viding the date samples.
hemicellulose. The pectin and lignin of the fruit cell walls contribute to
the obtained values for uronic acids and Klason lignin. The glucose in References
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