1.

(303 words) Every day the mailboxes of America are filled with solicitations provided by
the direct marketing industry. America's response to this deluge has been strangely mixed.
On the negative side, poorly executed direct marketing produces unwanted, annoying and
wasteful solicitations, also known as "junk mail." Also, aggressive direct marketing
techniques, aided by new tools in technology, represent a serious threat to informational
privacy. Sophisticated computer matching programs can produce intrusive personal profiles
from information which, standing alone, does not threaten individual privacy.

The 1991 Harris-Equifax Consumer Privacy Survey addressed popular attitudes towards
direct mailing practices and their impact on informational privacy. When asked how they
viewed direct mail offers in general, 46 percent of the respondents said they were a
"nuisance," 9 percent considered them to be "invasions of privacy," and only 6 percent said
they were "useful." But if Americans have such a negative opinion of the direct marketing
industry, they have a strange way of showing it. Direct mail advertising expenditures rose
from $7.6 billion in 1980 to $23.4 billion in 1990. The laws of the market dictate that companies
would not have made these efforts without prospects of success. Moreover, almost half of the
citizens surveyed who considered direct mail offers to be "invasions of privacy" had
themselves bought something in response to a direct mail ad in the past year.

Analysis of this seeming contradiction reveals the central problem of regulation in this
industry: everyone hates receiving "junk mail," and everyone ought to be concerned about
informational privacy. Still, direct marketing offers real advantages over other means of
shopping. Even those who believe that the direct mailing industry has a generally negative
societal impact probably would prefer to remain on some mailing lists. We like shopping by
mail, and we don't want to throw out the good with the bad.

1. Which one of the following, if true, would best strengthen the author's explanation of the
"seeming contradiction" (Highlighted)?
(A) Awareness of commercial infringements on the rights of citizens has never been higher.
(B) The number of people on more than one mailing list has increased in direct proportion to
the increase in direct marketing expenditures.
(C) Consumers do not perceive a connection between their individual purchasing behaviour
and infringements on their personal rights.
(D) Some people believe that the benefits associated with the recent success of the direct
marketing industry will filter down to consumers over time.
(E) Some opinion polls on other topics indicate a similar discrepancy between what people
say about an issue and how they act in relation to that issue.

2. Which one of the following critiques most approximates the logic underlying the author's
concern regarding the effects of the computer matching programs (highlighted)?
(A) An ecologist who states that since each of three species individually would not damage
an ecosystem, it is safe to introduce all three into the ecosystem overlooks the possibility that
the dominance of one species may lead to the extinction of one or both of the other two
species.
(B) An ecologist who states that since each of three species individually would not damage an
ecosystem, it is safe to introduce all three into the ecosystem overlooks the possibility that the
three species taken together may very well pose a serious threat to the ecosystem.
(C) An ecologist who states that since each of three species individually would not damage an
ecosystem, it is safe to introduce all three into the ecosystem overlooks the possibility that the
addition of the three species to the ecosystem may preclude the addition of any further
species.
(D) An ecologist who states that since each of three species individually would not damage an
ecosystem, it is safe to introduce all three into the ecosystem overlooks the possibility that the
ecosystem may not be the optimal environment for the species in question
(E) An ecologist who states that since each of three species individually would not damage an
ecosystem, it is safe to introduce all three into the ecosystem overlooks the possibility that any
one of three species may have posed a risk to the previous ecosystem in which it lived.

3. Which one of the following can be inferred from the passage about direct mail advertising
expenditures in the years between 1980 and 1990?
(A) The rise in expenditures during this period is suggestive of the expectations of companies
engaged in direct marketing at the time.
(B) The profit derived from sales linked to these expenditures in 1990 was more than double
the profit derived from such sales in 1980.
(C) The lowest yearly expenditure on direct mail advertising during this period occurred in
1980.
(D) Direct marketing companies expect the pattern of expenditures during this period to
continue in the decades to come.
(E) The rise in expenditures during this period closely parallel the laws of the market.

4. The author would most likely agree with which one of the following statements?
(A) Despite its drawbacks, direct marketing has had an overall positive effect on American
society.
(B) The attitudes revealed in opinion polls can provide insight into actual behaviour.
(C) Regarding the effects of Direct Marketing, presenting a nuisance to the public is a more
commonly felt problem than is invasion of their privacy.
(D) Everyone who would prefer to remain on at least one mailing list thinks that direct
marketing negatively affects society in some way.
(E) The growth in direct marketing would be even more significant in the future if the
percentage of people who found direct mail offers to be a nuisance were to decrease.

2. (243) In considering the origin of species, it is quite conceivable that a naturalist, reflecting
on the mutual affinities of organic beings, on their embryological relations, their geographical
distribution, geological succession, and other such facts, might come to the conclusion that
each species had not been independently created, but had descended, like varieties, from
other species. Nevertheless, such a conclusion, even if well founded, would be unsatisfactory,
until it could be shown how the innumerable species inhabiting this world have been
modified, so as to acquire that perfection of structure and co adaptation which most justly
excites our admiration.

Naturalists continually refer to external conditions, such as climate, food, etc., as the only
possible cause of variation. In one very limited sense, this may be true; but it is preposterous
to attribute to mere external conditions, the structure, for instance, of the woodpecker, with its
feet, tail, beak, and tongue, so admirably adapted to catch insects under the bark of trees. In
the case of the mistletoe, which draws its nourishment from certain trees, which has seeds
that must be transported by certain birds, and which has flowers with separate sexes
absolutely requiring the agency of certain insects to bring pollen from one flower to the other,
it is equally preposterous to account for the structure of this parasite, with its relations to
several distinct organic beings, by the effects of external conditions, or of habit, or of the
volition of the plant itself.

1. What is the primary purpose of the author in writing the passage?

(A) To analyze the origin of species
(B) To disprove a particular group of naturalists
(C) To explore the effects of external conditions on evolution of species
(D) To substantiate the existence of innumerable species on the planet
(E) To examine the structure of different species

2. A naturalist is likely to consider for mutual affinities of organic beings, each of the
following factors EXCEPT:
(A) Geological succession
(B) Geography
(C) Biology
(D) Volition
(E) Co-dependence

3. Which of the following can be inferred from the information in the passage?
(A) Most naturalists believe that each species has been created independently of the others.
(B) The unique characteristics of the mistletoe can, to a large extent, be explained as being the
result of its external conditions.
(C) The commonly accepted belief amongst naturalists about the origin of species is sufficient
to explain the existence of all species.
(D) The woodpecker was most likely created independently and has not descended from any
other species.
(E) The mistletoe cannot reproduce by itself but needs the assistance of other species.
4. The tone of the author can best be described as:
(A) Critical
(B) Impartial
(C) Cynical
(D) Disbelieving
(E) Exuberant

3. (220) When Jamaican-born social activist Marcus Garvey came to the United States in 1916,
he arrived at precisely the right historical moment. What made the moment right was the
return of African American soldiers from the First World War in 1918, which created an ideal
constituency for someone with Garvey's message of unity, pride, and improved conditions for
African American communities.

Hoping to participate in the traditional American ethos of individual success, many African
American people entered the armed forces with enthusiasm, only to find themselves
segregated from white troops and subjected to numerous indignities. They returned to a
United States that was as segregated as it had been before the war. Considering similar
experiences, anthropologist Anthony F. C. Wallace has argued that when a perceptible gap
arises between a culture’s expectations and the reality of that culture, the resulting tension can
inspire a revitalization movement: an organized, conscious effort to construct a culture that
fulfils longstanding expectations.

Some scholars have argued that Garvey created the consciousness from which he built, in the
1920s, the largest revitalization movement in African American history. But such an argument
only tends to obscure the consciousness of identity, strength, and sense of history that already
existed in the African American community. Garvey did not create this consciousness; rather,
he gave this consciousness its political expression.

1. According to the passage, which of the following contributed to Marcus Garvey's success?
(A) He introduced cultural and historical consciousness to the African American community.
(B) He believed enthusiastically in the traditional American success ethos.
(C) His audience had already formed a consciousness that made it receptive to his message.
(D) His message appealed to critics of African American support for United States military
involvement in the First World War.
(E) He supported the movement to protest segregation that had emerged prior to his arrival
in the United States.

2. The passage suggests that many African American people responded to their experiences
in the armed forces in which of the following ways?
(A) They maintained as civilians their enthusiastic allegiance to the armed forces.
(B) They questioned United States involvement in the First World War.
(C) They joined political organizations to protest the segregation of African American troops
and the indignities they suffered in the military.
(D) They became aware of the gap between their expectations and the realities of American
culture.
(E) They repudiated Garvey's message of pride and unity.

3. It can be inferred from the passage that the “scholars” mentioned in the highlight text
believe which of the following to be true?
(A) Revitalization resulted from the political activism of returning African American soldiers
following the First World War.
(B) Marcus Garvey had to change a number of prevailing attitudes in order for his mass
movement to find a foothold in the United States.
(C) The prevailing sensibility of the African American community provided the foundation of
Marcus Garvey’s political appeal.
(D) Marcus Garvey hoped to revitalize consciousness of cultural and historical identity in the
African American community.
(E) The goal of the mass movement that Marcus Garvey helped bring into being was to build
on the pride and unity among African Americans.
4. According to the passage, many African American people joined the armed forces during
the First World War for which of the following reasons?
(A) They wished to escape worsening economic conditions in African American communities.
(B) They expected to fulfill ideals of personal attainment.
(C) They sought to express their loyalty to the United States.
(D) They hoped that joining the military would help advance the cause of desegregation.
(E) They saw military service as an opportunity to fulfill Marcus Garvey’s political vision.

4. (161 words) Typically the queen honeybee is mother to all the bees in a hive; after mating
with several male drones from other colonies, she lays fertilized eggs that develop into
all-female worker bees and lays unfertilized eggs that become all-male drones. When a queen
dies, workers often lay unfertilized eggs that hatch into drones. Yet workers rarely reproduce
while a queen reigns. According to natural selection theory, a worker would enhance her
fitness—or ability to propagate her genes—by hatching her own eggs in addition to or in
place of the queen’s. But a typical worker’s fitness would be diminished if other workers’
sons, who have less genetic material in common with the worker, supplanted the queen’s
sons (the worker’s brothers). Researchers, testing the hypothesis that workers usually
somehow block each other’s attempts to reproduce, put unfertilized eggs laid by workers and
by the queen into a hive. Other workers quickly devoured the workers’ eggs while leaving
the queen’s eggs alone.

1. The author refers to the experiment (highlighted) in order to

(A) explain how worker bees are prevented from mating with drones
(B) explain how worker bees hatch and nurture the queen’s young
(C) demonstrate the universality of natural selection
(D) show that worker bees are capable of thwarting each other’s attempts to reproduce
(E) provide a model of daily life in a typical honeybee hive
2. The inner workings in a honeybee hive that regulate reproduction, as they are described in
the passage, are most similar to which of the following types of human societies?
(A) A totalitarian society in which citizens’ “policing” of each other’s actions helps to
maintain the status quo.
(B) A pacifist state in which the individuals are strongly opposed to the use of violence or
aggression to settle disputes.
(C) A democratic society in which the voice of the majority rules.
(D) A parliamentary society in which a few members, organized as a cabinet wield executive
power.
(E) An anarchic state in which order and stable social structures are lacking.

3. The passage best supports which of the following inferences about the fitness of
honeybees?
(A) Reproduction diminishes any individual honeybee’s fitness.
(B) An individual worker’s fitness can be maintained without the individual herself
reproducing.
(C) A hierarchy of stronger and weaker individuals among the worker bees determines which
individuals will reproduce when a queen dies.
(D) While a queen reigns, the fitness of the worker bees is increased and that of the drones is
diminished.
(E) Fitness encourages worker bees to hatch honeybee eggs without regard for the relatedness
of the young to the “parent.”

4. The passage suggests which of the following about the eggs laid by worker bees?
(A) One of the eggs hatches into the next queen.
(B) The eggs are invariably destroyed by other worker bees.
(C) Each worker tries to hide her eggs from the other worker bees.
(D) The eggs hatch only if the worker has mated with a drone from another hive.
(E) The eggs are less likely to be harmed by other workers if the queen is dead.

5. In a 1984 book, Claire C. Robertson argued that, before colonialism, age was a more
important indicator of status and authority than gender in Ghana and in Africa generally.
British colonialism imposed European-style male dominant notions upon more egalitarian
local situations to the detriment of women generally, and gender became a defining
characteristic that weakened women’s power and authority.

Subsequent research in Kenya convinced Robertson that she had overgeneralized about
Africa. Before colonialism, gender was more salient in central Kenya than it was in Ghana,
although age was still crucial in determining authority. In contrast with Ghana, where women
had traded for hundreds of years and achieved legal majority (not unrelated phenomena), the
evidence regarding central Kenya indicated that women were legal minors and were
sometimes treated as male property, as were European women at that time. Factors like
strong patrilinearity and patrilocality, as well as women’s inferior land rights and lesser
involvement in trade, made women more dependent on men than was generally the case in
Ghana. However, since age apparently remained the overriding principle of social
organization in central Kenya, some senior women had much authority. Thus, Robertson
revised her hypothesis somewhat, arguing that in determining authority in precolonial Africa
age was a primary principle that superseded gender to varying degrees depending on the
situation.

1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) present evidence undermining a certain hypothesis
(B) describe a particular position and its subsequent modification
(C) discuss two contrasting viewpoints regarding a particular issue
(D) describe how a social phenomenon varied by region
(E) evaluate an assumption widely held by scholars

2. The passage indicates that Robertson’s research in Kenya caused her to change her mind
regarding which of the following?
(A) Whether age was the prevailing principle of social organization in Kenya before
colonialism
(B) Whether gender was the primary determinant of social authority in Africa generally
before
colonialism
(C) Whether it was only after colonialism that gender became a significant determinant of
authority
in Kenyan society
(D) Whether age was a crucial factor determining authority in Africa after colonialism
(E) Whether British colonialism imposed European-style male-dominant notions upon local
situations in Ghana

3. The passage suggests that after conducting the research mentioned in highlighted text, but
not before, Robertson would have agreed with which of the following about women’s status
and authority in Ghana?
(A) Greater land rights and greater involvement in trade made women in precolonial Ghana
less dependent on men than were European women at that time.
(B) Colonialism had a greater impact on the status and authority of Ghanaian women than on
Kenyan women.
(C) Colonialism had less of an impact on the status and authority of Ghanaian women that it
had on the status and authority of other African women.
(D) The relative independence of Ghanaian women prior to colonialism was unique in Africa.
(E) Before colonialism, the status and authority of Ghanaian women was similar to that of
Kenyan women.

4. The author of the passage mentions the status of age as a principle of social organization in
precolonial central Kenya in highlighted text most likely in order to
(A) indicate that women’s dependence on men in precolonial Kenya was not absolute
(B) contrast the situation of senior women to that of less senior women in precolonial Kenyan
society
(C) differentiate between the status and authority of precolonial Kenyan women and that of
precolonial Ghanaian women
(D) explain why age superseded gender to a greater extent in precolonial Kenya than it did
elsewhere in Africa
(E) identify a factor that led Robertson to revise her hypothesis about precolonial Africa

The most common metal in the Earth’s crust, Aluminium was not discovered until 1825
because its isolated state is so reactive that free nuggets or flakes of the metal are never found
in nature; rather, the metal is typically found as part of an amalgam, most commonly bauxite
ore. Moreover, elemental Aluminium is extremely difficult—and expensive—to separate from
its ores by traditional chemical means. Indeed, the extreme reactivity of Aluminium helps
protect its modern, ubiquitous manifestations, such as Aluminium foil. The surface of pure
Aluminium instantly combines with atmospheric oxygen to form a thin but robust
“passivization” seal of Aluminium oxide that prevents further corrosion. Many other metals,
such as iron, are less reactive than Aluminium, but their superficial oxides do not form as
swiftly, completely, or impermeably.

For several decades after its discovery, Aluminium was considered a precious metal and was
more costly than gold or platinum, not because of any fundamental scarcity, but because of its
elevated cost of production. The price of Aluminium suddenly plummeted in 1886, however,
when two 23 year-old inventors independently developed an electrolytic process of
separating pure Aluminiumfrom a bath of molten Aluminium salts, primarily cryolite.
Cryolite itself is rare enough that synthetic salts eventually replaced it as the solution
medium.

1. What can be most logically inferred from the passage about iron?
(A) It corrodes more quickly than Aluminium.
(B) Its oxides form more slowly and robustly than those of Aluminium.
(C) It is cheaper to isolate from its ores by traditional chemical means than Aluminium.
(D) It is more susceptible to passivization than is Aluminium.
(E) It is more commonly found in its isolated, elemental state.

2. According to the passage, the natural passivization layer on the surface of Aluminium
metal
(A) causes atmospheric oxygen to react chemically with the metal
(B) is less impenetrable than typical iron oxide films formed on pure iron
(C) lowers the utility of Aluminium in its uncontaminated state
(D) provides Aluminium with a chemical advantage, relative to other metals
(E) precludes the inexpensive purification of the metal by traditional chemical processes

3. In terms of economic impact, which of the following hypothetical situations would be most
analogous to what the passage indicates happened in 1886?
(A) Fossil remains of a previously unknown dinosaur species are simultaneously discovered
by two researchers working independently of one another.
(B) Lead-acid batteries are widely replaced in automobiles by batteries containing lithium, a
much rarer metal than lead.
(C) Direct processing of light signals within fiber-optic devices supplants electronic signal
processing performed by solid-state transistors.
(D) After supplies of a widely used commodity become unavailable, the price of the
commodity
surges.
(E) Low-cost artificial synthesis of diamonds, which are expensive to mine but composed of
the
common element carbon, is perfected.

Recent research shows that hyenas outperform chimps in solving problems through
teamwork. In experiments by a major U.S. university, spotted hyena pairs were introduced
into a pen containing two large platforms placed ten feet above the ground. From each
platform dangled two ropes that when pulled in unison opened a trapdoor and provided a
food reward. The experiment design, with the dual platforms and double ropes, ensured that
the hyenas could not perform the task individually or by chance as well as they could as a
pair. Captive hyena pairs were given no training in the task, but the first pair took less than
two minutes to solve the problem. Primates, such as chimps, required extensive training to
complete similar tasks.

Researchers found that the size of each hyena party and pair membership had effects on
performance. For example, when more than two hyenas were present, the task was solved
more quickly, even if the additional hyenas were merely observing. When two dominant
hyenas were paired, they performed less successfully than dominant-subordinate pairs. Thus,
social context influenced the hyena’s behaviour. Consequently, the research shows that social
carnivores, defined as animals that hunt in packs, may be effective models for exploring
cooperative problem solving. Past research focused on large brained primates, such as
chimps, which are capable of higher cognitive function, in the assumption that higher
cognitive function made primates more capable of organized teamwork. However, as author
Christine Drea concludes, the newer experiments prove that hyenas are more hard-wired for
social cooperation than chimpanzees.

1. It can be inferred from the passage that

A. results in lab studies do not parallel results in the wild.
B. future research in social cognition should focus only on social carnivores.
C. chimps are not as smart as hyenas.
D. cooperative problem solving is more instinctive for hyenas than for primates.
E. wolves would perform poorly on a similar team problem solving task

2. The author most likely mentions “social context”; in order to

A. imply that primates are not social animals.
B. prove that the hyena’s problem-solving skills are greater than those of chimps.
C. give an example of how hyenas work together.
D. provide an explanation for why hyenas' problem-solving abilities varied.
E. show that hyenas perform better with an audience.
3. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen Drea’s position?
A. Even untrained hyenas rarely pulled on the rope if no other hyena was present.
B. Aggression in paired dominant animals interfered with cooperation.
C. The required action in the double-rope experiment imitates the action required to bring
down prey in the wild.
D. Success rates were also greater for hyenas in experiments requiring nonsocial
problem-solving skills.
E. Once trained, chimps could perform the double-rope experiment faster than hyenas.