Malay College

INTRODUCTION TO
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
(Module 1)

Maria Cristina Buque Lecerio

 Module 1 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

ABOUT THE MODULE

E nvironmental impacts on Earth come from the number of

people and the amount and types of resources that they use. By
studying human populations, rates of resource consumption and
the impact of different types of resources we will gain an
understanding of how humans impact Earth.
In this Module, we will explore the field of environmental
science and how to think like an environmental scientist. What is
the difference between environmental science and environmental
studies? How do both differ from environmentalism? Why is
energy so important in environmental science?
At the end of the lessons, the learners are expected to:
Define and understand the importance of environmental
science and how it differs from environmental studies
and environmentalism;
understand the three different levels of biodiversity
(genetic, species, ecosystem);
describe the carbon, nitrogen, and hydrologic cycles;
know the components and states of matter and energy;
understand how inputs, outputs, steady states, and
feedbacks may affect environmental systems.

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

 Lesson 1 Introduction to Environmental Science

Video: Environmental Science Definitions of Terms

The video will introduce the learners to some of the key ideas in environmental science. Watch
this video to learn about:
The definitions of environmental science and environmental studies
The difference between both of the above terms and environmentalism
Systems and sustainability

Discussion Forum

Differentiate Environmental Science from Environmental Studies

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Present to the class your reaction to the video presented
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Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

 Reading: What is Environmental Science?

WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE?

E nvironmental science is the study of the natural world and how it is influenced by, and
influences, people. Environmental science is a subset of the broader field of environmental
studies, which covers the natural sciences, social sciences, and literary and non-fiction writings
as well as ethics and philosophy of the interactions of people with the natural world. For our
purposes, we will define environment as all of the living and non-living conditions that surround
us and influence life.
Environmental studies in the United States is an interdisciplinary academic field that grew out of
a social movement—the concern among people about the state of the natural world that occurred
in the late 1960s and culminated in Earth Day 1970, a nationwide event to call attention to the
plight of the environment. Environmental studies is sometimes referred to as a problem-based
area of study. It is often “hands-on” and involves practice-based learning.
Since Earth Day 1970, numerous environmental studies departments and programs in the United
States have been established at universities and colleges around the United States. While their
missions vary, most are interested in the scholarly examination of how people interact with the
natural world. In the last decade, the related field of sustainability or sustainability science has
become more prominent. Sustainability is commonly defined as carrying out a set of resource-
use practices today that does not jeopardize the ability of future generations to use those
resources or have a similar standard of living.

Excerpted from
Authored by Andy Friedland and Mike Goudzwaard. Introduction to Environmental Science. DartmouthX DART.ENVS.02X.
EdX.org

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

 Check Your Understanding

Check your understanding of this material by answering the following questions.

1. All of the following are considered environmental science EXCEPT:
a) assessing the rate of mercury cycling in a lake
b) measuring the impact of acid rain on coniferous forests
c) discussing the ethics of energy use in developing countries
d) determining the total carbon output from a natural gas plant
e) evaluating net primary productivity of an ecosystem
2. The most appropriate definition of sustainability is:
a) the science of determining what factors improve a population’s median age
b) only eating grass-fed beef and free-range chickens
c) the recycling of glass and plastic bottles using the lowest quantity of energy
possible.
d) the practice of convincing corporations to advertise the small carbon footprint of
their products.
e) utilizing resources today so that future generations can also use those resources.

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

 Lesson 2 Local Environmental Problem

Video: Rock Snot (A Pollution Problem in Rivers and Streams?)

Watch the video about the rock snot to learn about introduced and invasive species, and the
unusual story of a species that has recently started appearing in streams all over the world. Watch
this video to gain an appreciation for:
Challenges in environmental science
The difficulty of determining if a species is native or introduced
Some of the introduced species around the world today

https://youtu.be/3ZVCoddaSzs?
list=PLCh78lhDREMysX3QyVW6RIhvJt9iCDBK
f

Reading: The Unusual Story of Rock Snot

D idymo (Didymosphenia geminata), also known as "rock snot," is a type of algae that forms
thick, slimy, mat-like growths (blooms) on the bottom of stream beds. These blooms can harm
the stream ecosystem by reducing stream biodiversity, choking out the organisms that live on the
stream bottom, and affecting the fish that rely on those organisms as a source of food. Didymo
blooms can also deplete the oxygen in the stream, killing off fish and crustaceans. Additionally,
the gooey mats reduce the appeal of streams and rivers for human recreational use. Once didymo
infests a stream or river, there is little people can do to control or eradicate it.
Didymo was discovered in Canada in 1988 but did not receive significant attention until the
2000s when it began appearing in the southern United States and later in Europe, Asia, and New
Zealand. Believing it was an invasive species, governments and scientists promoted rules for
cleaning boats and other water equipment to try and stop the spread of the algae. However,
scientists have recently discovered fossilized forms of didymo in various countries across
Europe, Asia, and North and South America, indicating that didymo is not, in fact, an invasive
species. So why is it blooming in so many places today?

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

Recent environmental changes may be the cause.
Unlike many algal species, didymo thrives most
in low phosphorus environments. With increased
global temperatures due to climate change, the
timing of seasons and snowfall patterns have
changed, reducing phosphorus inputs into rivers
and streams. This story of didymo illustrates
some of the challenges environmental scientists
face when trying to understand how the natural
world works, and how humans may be Source: https://learning.edx.org/
influencing it.

Excerpted from:
Authored by Ellen Irwin Introduction to Environmental Science. DartmouthX DART.ENVS.02X. EdX

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

 Check Your Understanding

1. Didymo (Rock Snot) can be found in streams:

a) on the bottom of the stream bed
b) suspended in the flow of the stream
c) in industrial areas
d) suspended in the grass along the banks
e) floating in clumps on the surface
2. Didymo is currently causing problems in rivers all over the world. Recent studies suggest
that it may be different from silver carp and the kudzu vine in that:
a) Didymo has harmed native species to a much lesser extent
b) Didymo has harmed native species to a much lesser extent
c) Didymo has harmed native species to a much lesser extent
d) Didymo is not an invasive species
e) Didymo is a more current problem

Visual Discussion Forum

Each student will take a photo related to the current state of the environment in their local
barangay. The facilitator will create a public group on Facebook for the sole purpose of class
discussion and environmental awareness. Each photo should be uploaded in Album created by
the facilitator, with captions of not less than 200 words but not more than 500, describing what
the picture is all about and the desired state to which the student wanted to achieve.
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Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

 Lesson 3 Matter and Energy

Video: Matter and Energy

To understand many concepts in environmental science, it is important to appreciate how the

world works at the molecular level. Watch the video to learn about:
The different forms of matter
The 1st and 2nd Laws of Thermodynamics
Energy and efficiency

https://youtu.be/wKU2IDdvrCE

Reading: The Cycling of Matter

I f people are to live sustainably, they need to understand the processes that control the
availability and stability of the ecosystem services on which their well-being depends. Chief
among these processes is the biogeochemical cycles that describe how chemical elements (e.g.
nitrogen, carbon) or molecules (e.g. water) are transformed and stored by both the physical and
biological components of the earth system. Storage occurs in pools, which are amounts of
material that share some common characteristics and are relatively uniform in nature, e.g. the
pool of carbon found as carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. Transformations or flows of
materials from one pool to another in the cycle are described as fluxes; for example, the
movement of water from the soil to the atmosphere resulting from evaporation is a flux. Physical
components of the earth system are nonliving factors such as rocks, minerals, water, climate, air,
and energy. Biological components of the earth system include all living organisms, e.g. plants,
animals, and microbes. Both the physical and biological components of the earth system have
varied over geological time. Some landmark changes include the colonization of the land by
plants (~400 million years ago), the evolution of mammals (~200 million years ago), the
evolution of modern humans (~200 thousand years ago), and the end of the last ice age (~10
thousand years ago). The earth system and its biogeochemical cycles were relatively stable from
the end of the last ice age until the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth and nineteenth

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

centuries initiated a significant and ongoing rise in human population and activity. Today,
anthropogenic (human) activities are altering all major ecosystems and the biogeochemical
cycles they drive. Many chemical elements and molecules are critical to life on Earth, but the
biogeochemical cycling of carbon, water, and nitrogen are most critical to human well-being and
the natural world.

Check Your Understanding

1. Glucose, which is made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, would be considered a(n)
_____ .
a) Element
b) Molecule
c) Neutron
d) Proton
e) Atom
2. The SI unit used to refer to a quantity of energy is:
a) Heat
b) Speed
c) Joules
d) Newtons
e) Power

Excerpted from:

Theis, Tom, & Tomkin, Jonathan. (Eds.). (2012). Sustainability: A Comprehensive Foundation. University of Illinois. Retrieved from:
http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]:20/Sustainability:_A_Comprehensiv

Textbook content produced by Andrew Leakey is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 3.0 license.

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

 Lesson 4 Biodiversity

Video: Biodiversity
While knowledge of matter and energy is important, much of what is studied in environmental
science also involves living organisms. Biodiversity is a key concept that is vital for the
functioning of the natural world and is often affected by humans. Watch the video to learn about:
The different scales of biodiversity
The definition of species
Why diversity is important to ecosystems

https://youtu.be/nQKW-1cv0_E

Reading: Biodiversity

B iodiversity is a term used to describe the enormous variety of life on Earth. It can be used
more specifically to refer to all of the species in one region or ecosystem. Biodiversity refers to
every living thing, including plants, bacteria, animals, and humans. Scientists have estimated that
there are around 8.7 million species of plants and animals in existence. However, only around
1.2 million species have been identified and described so far, most of which are insects. This
means that millions of other organisms remain a complete mystery.
Over generations, all of the species that are currently alive today have evolved unique traits that
make them distinct from other species. These differences are what scientists use to tell one
species from another. Organisms that have evolved to be so different from one another that they
can no longer reproduce with each other are considered different species. All organisms that can
reproduce with each other fall into one species.
Scientists are interested in how much biodiversity there is on a global scale, given that there is
still so much biodiversity to discover. They also study how many species exist in single

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

ecosystems, such as a forest, grassland, tundra, or lake. A single grassland can contain a wide
range of species, from beetles to snakes to antelopes. Ecosystems that host the most biodiversity
tend to have ideal environmental conditions for plant growth, like the warm and wet climate of
tropical regions. Ecosystems can also contain species too small to see with the naked eye.
Looking at samples of soil or water through a microscope reveals a whole world of bacteria and
other tiny organisms.
Some areas in the world, such as areas of Mexico, South Africa, Brazil, the southwestern United
States, and Madagascar, have more biodiversity than others. Areas with extremely high levels of
biodiversity are called hotspots. Endemic species—species that are only found in one particular
location—are also found in hotspots.
All of the Earth’s species work together to survive and maintain their ecosystems. For example,
the grass in pastures feeds cattle. Cattle then produce manure that returns nutrients to the soil,
which helps to grow more grass. This manure can also be used to fertilize cropland. Many
species provide important benefits to humans, including food, clothing, and medicine.

Grasshoppers
Although all of these insects have a similar structure and may be
genetic cousins, the beautiful variety of colors, shapes,
camouflage, and sizes showcase the level of diversity possible
even within a closely-related group of species.
Source: https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/biodiversity/

Much of the Earth’s biodiversity, however, is in jeopardy due to human consumption and other
activities that disturb and even destroy ecosystems. Pollution, climate change, and population
growth are all threats to biodiversity. These threats have caused an unprecedented rise in the rate
of species extinction. Some scientists estimate that half of all species on Earth will be wiped out
within the next century. Conservation efforts are necessary to preserve biodiversity and protect
endangered species and their habitats.

Source:

Biodiversity| RESOURCE LIBRARY | ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/biodiversity/

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

 Check Your Understanding: Biodiversity
1. Environmental scientists refer to biodiversity on three levels or scales. These are:
a) Sub-species, genus, family
b) Community, niche, species
c) Animals, plants, bacteria
d) Evenness, richness, and size
e) Genetic, species, and ecosystem
2. The best estimate for the approximate total number of species on Earth, in millions, is:
a) 2
b) 5
c) 10
d) 20
e) 100

Discussion Forum
Identify the existing threats in Philippine Biodiversity and discuss solutions to these threats.
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Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

 Lesson 5 Systems and Feedbacks

Video: Systems and Feedbacks

https://youtu.be/T0XEipEdgN8?
list=PLCh78lhDREMysX3QyVW6RIhvJt9iCDBK
f

Reading: Systems and Feedbacks

O ne way to keep track of energy inputs and energy losses is through systems analysis. A
system is any set of interacting components that influence one another by exchanging energy or
materials.
Systems can be open or closed. In an open system, exchanges of matter or energy occur across
system boundaries. Most systems are open. For example, water coming into and out of a lake is
an open system. In a closed system, matter, and energy exchange do not occur across system
boundaries. Closed systems are less common. The earth is a closed system with respect to matter.
Very little matter comes into our atmosphere and very little leaves space. The earth is an open
system with respect to energy, however. Energy from the sun enters the earth's system, and
infrared, or heat energy, from the Earth emanates out to space.
Systems have inputs and outputs. Inputs are additions to a given system. Outputs are losses from
a given system. Inputs minus outputs equal the net flux. A system analysis is a study of the
inputs, outputs, and changes in a system under various conditions.
Steady-state is when the inputs equal the outputs of the system, so the system is not changing
over time. Examples of steady-state systems-- water in the ocean, water in the human body, for
example.
Determining whether a system is in a steady state is important in determining whether a pool is
increasing, decreasing, or staying the same. This has important applications if the pool is a

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

harmful pollutant or a valuable resource. If a pool is in a steady-state, you can measure its mean
residence time.
Mean residence time, MRT, is the average time a typical molecule remains in the system. MRT
equals the volume of the pool divided by the flux. A bucket with 100 liters of water in it might
have a faucet that delivers 10 liters per day dripping in. If it has a hole in the bottom of the
bucket that leaks out at 10 liters per day, we can state that the water bucket system is in steady-
state, because inputs equal outputs. Because it is in a steady state, we can calculate the mean
residence time of water in the bucket. The pool in the bucket is 100 liters and the flux in or out is
10 liters per day. Dividing the pool, 100 liters, by the flux, 10 liters per day, gives you a mean
residence time for water in the bucket of 10 days. That means that an average water molecule
stays in the bucket for approximately 10 days.
If you're studying two lakes and the water in one lake has a mean residence time of 10 days, and
the water in the other lake has a mean residence time of 100 days, the lake with a mean residence
time of 10 days will flush more rapidly. This becomes significant when a pollutant spill occurs.
A lake with a smaller mean residence time means it will flush more rapidly and potentially clean
itself more quickly after a pollution event. When considering systems analysis, we have to
discuss feedback loops.
Feedbacks are adjustments in the input or output rates caused by changes to a system. The word
feedback refers to a process, feeding back into a system, that could change the rate of that
process. There are two kinds of feedback: Positive feedback loops amplify the changes in a
system. An increase causes a further increase and a decrease causes a further decrease.
In a population, more births in the population produce a larger population that will result in more
births. That's positive feedback. Negative feedback loops occur when a system resists change by
returning to its original state, or at least decreasing the rate at which the changes occurring. In a
lake, when the water level drops, the surface area for evaporation in that lake is reduced, and
evaporation decreases, causing the water level to rise. That's an example of a negative feedback
system.
It is important to note that positive and negative feedback loops do not refer to good and bad.
The positive and negative refer to the direction of change. Negative feedback systems return
systems towards their original state and are often important in environmental science for
maintaining equilibrium.

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

Important Note:
From a video transcript of Professor Andrew Friedland, Instructor, Dartmouth College in Hanover, NH, USA.
MOOC materials for the Course Introduction to Environmental Science by EdX.org

Check Your Understanding: Systems and Feedbacks

1. When calculating a mean residence time, which of the following is essential?
a) steady-state
b) existence of a positive feedback system
c) existence of a negative feedback system
d) presence of an introduced species
e) the presence of water
2. What is the mean residence time (MRT) in minutes for a molecule of water in a bucket
with a pool of 300 liters and a flux of 15 liters per minute into and out of the bucket?
a) 10 minutes
b) 20 minutes
c) 50 minutes
d) 60 minutes
e) 90 minutes

Discussion Forum

1. Give at least two examples of closed and open systems found in the environment.
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2. What is the importance of understanding the Mean Residence Time (MRT) concerning
pollution/contamination in the environment?
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Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

 Lesson 6 Hydrologic Cycle

Video: The Hydrologic Cycle

As water is the basis of life on Earth and is important in many feedback systems, it is essential to
understand how water is transformed and moves through systems. Watch the video to learn
about:
The distribution of Earth's water resources
Evapotranspiration and precipitation
How humans alter the hydrologic cycle

https://youtu.be/9zka52jl6wc?
list=PLCh78lhDREMysX3QyVW6RIhvJt9iCDBK
f

Reading: Hydrologic Cycle

THE NATURAL WATER (HYDROLOGIC) CYCLE

T he vast majority of water on Earth is saline (salty) and stored in the oceans. Meanwhile, most
of the world's freshwater is in the form of ice, snow, and groundwater. This means a significant
fraction of the water pool is largely isolated from the water cycle. In contrast, the water stored in
rivers, lakes, and ocean surface is relatively rapidly cycled as it evaporates into the atmosphere
and then falls back to the surface as precipitation. The atmospheric pool of water turns over most
rapidly because it is small compared to the other pools (e.g. <15% of the freshwater lake pool).
Evaporation is the process whereby water is converted from a liquid into a vapor as a result of
absorbing energy (usually from solar radiation). Evaporation from vegetated land is referred to as
evapotranspiration because it includes water transpired by plants, i.e. water taken up from the

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

soil by roots, transported to leaves, and evaporated from leaf surfaces into the atmosphere via
stomatal pores. Precipitation is the conversion of atmospheric water from vapor into liquid (rain)
or solid forms (snow, hail) that then fall to the Earth's surface. Some water from precipitation
moves over the land surface by surface runoff and streamflow, while other water from
precipitation infiltrates the soil and moves below the surface as groundwater discharge. Water
vapor in the atmosphere is commonly moved away from the source of evaporation by wind and
the movement of air masses. Consequently, most water falling as precipitation comes from a
source of evaporation that is located upwind. Nonetheless, local sources of evaporation can
contribute as much as 25-33% of water in precipitation.

The Water Cycle. Figure illustrates the water cycle on, above, and below the Earth's surface
Source: U.S. Department of the Interior and U.S. Geological Survey, The Water Cycle.
(Excerpted from MOOC materials for the Course Introduction to Environmental Science by EdX.org

HUMAN INTERACTIONS WITH THE WATER CYCLE

F reshwater supply is one of the most important provisioning ecosystem services on which
human well-being depends. The greatest use of this water is for irrigation in agriculture, but
significant quantities of water are also extracted for public and municipal use, as well as
industrial applications and power generation.
Other major human interventions in the water cycle involve changes in land cover and
infrastructure development of river networks. As we have deforested areas for wood supply and
agricultural development we have reduced the amount of vegetation, which naturally acts to trap
precipitation as it falls and slow the rate of infiltration into the ground. As a consequence, surface
runoff has increased. This, in turn, means flood peaks are greater and erosion is increased.
Erosion lowers soil quality and deposits sediment in river channels, where it can block

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

navigation and harm aquatic plants and animals. Urbanization also accelerates streamflow by
preventing precipitation from filtering into the soil and shunting it into drainage systems.
Additional physical infrastructure has been added to river networks with the aim of altering the
volume, timing, and direction of water flows for human benefit. This is achieved with reservoirs,
weirs, and diversion channels. For example, so much water is removed or redirected from the
Colorado River in the western United States that, despite its considerable size, in some years it is
dry before reaching the sea in Mexico. We also exploit waterways through their use for
navigation, recreation, hydroelectricity generation, and waste disposal. These activities,
especially waste disposal, do not necessarily involve the removal of water but do have impacts
on water quality and water flow that have negative consequences for the physical and biological
properties of aquatic ecosystems.
The water cycle is key to the ecosystem service of climate regulation as well as being an
essential supporting service that impacts the function of all ecosystems. Consider the widespread
impacts on diverse natural and human systems when major droughts or floods occur.
Consequently, human disruptions of the natural water cycle have many undesirable effects and
challenge sustainable development. There are two major concerns. First, the need to balance
rising human demand with the need to make our water use sustainable by reversing ecosystem
damage from excess removal and pollution of water. Traditionally, considerable emphasis has
been on finding and accessing more
supply, but the negative environmental
impacts of this approach are now
appreciated, and improving the efficiency
of water use is now a major goal. Second,
there is a need for a safe water supply in
many parts of the world, which depends
on reducing water pollution and
improving water treatment facilities.

Aidenvironment [Photographer]. Riau deforestation 2006 [Photograph]. Retrieved from:

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Riau_deforestation_2006.jpg.

Discussion Forum
1. Discuss the importance of the Hydrologic Cycle in maintaining the Earth’s equilibrium.
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Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

 Excerpted From:
Theis, Tom, & Tomkin, Jonathan. (Eds.). (2012). Sustainability: A Comprehensive Foundation. University of Illinois. Retrieved from:
http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]/Sustainability:_A_Comprehensiv

Textbook content produced by Andrew Leakey is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 3.0 license.
Lesson 6 Global Cycles

Video: The Carbon Cycle

Now that we have some basic knowledge of matter, energy, systems, and the hydrologic cycle,
we are going to examine the carbon cycle. Watch the video to learn about:
The six primary processes of the carbon cycle
How humans influence the carbon cycle
How this relates to climate change

https://youtu.be/9VElJhGLKX0?
list=PLCh78lhDREMysX3QyVW6RIhvJt9iCDBKf

Reading: Carbon Cycle

THE NATURAL CARBON CYCLE

M ost of the carbon on Earth is stored in sedimentary rocks and does not play a significant role
in the carbon cycle on the timescale of decades to centuries. The atmospheric pool of CO2 is
smaller but is very important because it is a greenhouse gas. The sun emits short-wave radiation
that passes through the atmosphere, is absorbed by the Earth and re-emitted as long-wave
radiation. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb this long-wave radiation causing them, and
the atmosphere, to warm. The retention of heat in the atmosphere increases and stabilizes the
average temperature, making Earth habitable for life.

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

More than a quarter of the atmospheric CO2 pool is absorbed each year through the process of
photosynthesis by a combination of plants on land and at sea. Photosynthesis is the process in
which plants use energy from sunlight to combine CO2 from the atmosphere with water to make
sugars, and in turn, build biomass. At sea, the phytoplankton that performs photosynthesis sink
after they die, transporting organic carbon to deeper layers that then either are preserved in ocean
sediments or decomposed into a very large dissolved inorganic carbon pool.
Plants are called primary producers because they are the primary entry point of carbon into the
biosphere. In other words, almost all animals and microbes depend either directly or indirectly on
plants as a source of carbon for energy and growth. All organisms, including plants, release CO2
to the atmosphere as a by-product of generating energy and synthesizing biomass through the
process of respiration. The natural carbon cycle is balanced on both lands and at sea, with plant
respiration and microbial respiration (much of it associated with decomposition, or rotting of
dead organisms) releasing the same amount of CO2 as is removed from the atmosphere through
photosynthesis.

The Carbon Cycle. Figure illustrates the carbon cycle on, above, and below the Earth's surface.
Source: U.S. Department of Energy Genomic Science Program.

HUMAN INTERACTIONS WITH THE CARBON CYCLE

The global carbon cycle contributes substantially to the provisioning of ecosystem services upon
which humans depend. We harvest approximately 25% of the total plant biomass that is
produced each year on the land surface to supply food, fuelwood, and fiber from croplands,

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

pastures, and forests. In addition, the global carbon cycle plays a key role in regulating
ecosystem services because it significantly influences climate via its effects on atmospheric CO2
concentrations. Atmospheric CO2 concentration increased from 280 parts per million (ppm) to
390 ppm between the start of the industrial revolution in the late eighteenth century and 2010.
This reflected a new flux in the global carbon cycle —anthropogenic CO2 emissions— where
humans release CO2 into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels and changing land use.
Fossil fuel burning takes carbon from coal, gas,
and oil reserves, where it would be otherwise
stored on very long time scales, and introduces
it into the active carbon cycle. Land-use change
releases carbon from soil and plant biomass
pools into the atmosphere, particularly through
the process of deforestation for wood
extraction or conversion of land to agriculture.
Slightly more than half of this anthropogenic
CO2 is currently being absorbed by increased
Jami Dwyer (Photographer). Jungle burned for agriculture (Photograph).
Retrieved from
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lacanja_burn.JPG.

photosynthesis on land and at sea. However, total

emissions of CO2 are increasing, while the
proportion absorbed by photosynthesis and stored
on land and in the oceans is declining (Le Quere et
al., 2009). Rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations
in the twentieth century caused temperature
increases and started to alter other aspects of the
global environment. The scale and range of
Petr Štefek (Photographer). Polish power station Belchatow impacts from the global environmental change of
[Photograph]. Retrieved from
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:20051029_Belchatow_power_s
natural and agricultural ecosystems are projected
tation.jpg. to increase over the twenty-first century and will
pose a major challenge to human well-being.

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

 Video: The Nitrogen Cycle

Another important cycle is that of nitrogen, which is vital for the production of food, among
other things. Watch this video to learn about:
How nitrogen is taken from the atmosphere
The different transformations nitrogen can undergo in the soil
How humans influence the nitrogen cycle

https://youtu.be/kevKBVO5l-o?
list=PLCh78lhDREMysX3QyVW6RIhvJt9iCDBKf

Reading: Carbon Cycle

THE NITROGEN CYCLE

T he vast majority of nitrogen on Earth is held in rocks and plays a minor role in the nitrogen
cycle. The second-largest pool of nitrogen is in the atmosphere. Most atmospheric nitrogen is in
the form of N2 gas, and most organisms are unable to access it. This is significant because
nitrogen is an essential component of all cells—for instance, in protein, RNA, and DNA—and
nitrogen availability frequently limits the productivity of crops and natural vegetation.
Atmospheric nitrogen is made available to plants in two ways. Certain microbes are capable of
biological nitrogen fixation, whereby N2 is converted into ammonium, a form of nitrogen that
plants can access. Many of these microbes have formed symbiotic relationships with plants—
they live within the plant tissue and use carbon supplied by the plant as an energy source, and in
return, they share ammonia produced by nitrogen fixation. Well-known examples of plants that
do this are peas and beans. Additionally, lightning causes nitrogen and oxygen in the
atmosphere to react and produce nitrous oxides that fall or are washed out of the atmosphere by
rain and into the soil, but the flux is much smaller than biological nitrogen fixation.

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

 Dave Whitinger (Photographer). Image showing Rhizobia nodules attached to roots of Vigna ungulata
[Photograph]. Retrieved from
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rhizobia_nodules_on_Vigna_unguiculata.jpg.

NITROGEN-FIXING ROOT NODULES ON A PEA PLANT.

While the inputs of nitrogen from the atmosphere to the biosphere are important, the majority
(90%) of nitrogen used by plants for growth each year comes from the ammonification of
organic material. Organic material is a matter that comes from once-living organisms.
Ammonification (or mineralization) is the release of ammonia by decomposers (bacteria and
fungi) when they break down the complex nitrogen compounds in organic material. Plants can
absorb (assimilate) this ammonia, as well as nitrates, which are made available by bacterial
nitrification. The cycle of nitrogen incorporation in growing plant tissues and nitrogen release by
bacteria from decomposing plant tissues is the dominant feature of the nitrogen cycle and occurs
very efficiently. Nitrogen can be lost from the system in three main ways. First, denitrifying
bacteria convert nitrates to nitrous oxide or N2 gases that are released back to the atmosphere.
Denitrification occurs when the bacteria grow under oxygen-depleted conditions and is therefore
favored by wet and waterlogged soils. Denitrification rates almost match biological nitrogen
fixation rates, with wetlands making the greatest contribution. Second, nitrates are washed out of
the soil in drainage water (leaching) and into rivers and the ocean. Third, nitrogen is also cycled
back into the atmosphere when organic material burns.

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

 The Nitrogen Cycle. Figure illustrates the nitrogen cycle on, above, and below the Earth's surface.
Source: Physical Geography Fundamentals eBook.

HUMAN INTERACTIONS WITH THE NITROGEN CYCLE

Humans are primarily dependent on the nitrogen cycle as a supporting ecosystem service for
crop and forest productivity. Nitrogen fertilizers are added to enhance the growth of many crops
and plantations. The enhanced use of fertilizers in agriculture was a key feature of the green
revolution that boosted global crop yields in the 1970s. The industrial production of nitrogen-rich
fertilizers has increased substantially over time and now matches more than half of the input to
the land from biological nitrogen fixation (90 MtN each year). If the nitrogen fixation from
leguminous crops (e.g. beans, alfalfa) is included, then the anthropogenic flux of nitrogen from
the atmosphere to the land exceeds natural fluxes to the land. As described above, most
ecosystems naturally retain and recycle almost all of their nitrogen. The relatively little nitrogen
that is being gained or lost by fluxes to the atmosphere and water cycle is also nearly being
balanced. When humans make large additions of nitrogen to ecosystems, leakage often results,
with negative environmental consequences. When the amount of nitrate in the soil exceeds plant
uptake, the excess nitrate is either leached in drainage water to streams, rivers, and the ocean or
denitrified by bacteria and lost to the atmosphere.
One of the main gases produced by denitrifying bacteria (nitrous oxide) is an important
greenhouse gas that is contributing to human-induced global warming. Other gases released to
the atmosphere by denitrifying bacteria, as well as ammonia released from livestock and sewage
sludge, are later deposited from the atmosphere onto ecosystems. The additional nitrogen from
this deposition, along with the nitrogen leaching into waterways, causes eutrophication.

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

Eutrophication occurs when plant growth and then decay is accelerated by an unusually high
supply of nitrogen, and this causes other effects, including the following: certain plant species
out-competing other species, leading to biodiversity loss and altered ecosystem function; algal
blooms that block light and therefore kill aquatic plants in rivers, lakes, and seas; exhaustion of
oxygen supplies in water caused by rapid microbial decomposition at the end of algal blooms,
which kills many aquatic organisms. Excess nitrates in water supplies have also been linked to
human health problems. Efforts to reduce nitrogen pollution focus on increasing the efficiency of
synthetic fertilizer use, altering feeding of animals to reduce nitrogen content in their excreta,
and better processing of livestock waste and sewage sludge to reduce ammonia release. At the
same time, increasing demand for food production from a growing global population with a
greater appetite for meat is driving greater total fertilizer use, so there is no guarantee that better
practices will lead to a reduction in the overall amount of nitrogen pollution.

Excerpted from:
Theis, Tom, & Tomkin, Jonathan. (Eds.). (2012). Sustainability: A Comprehensive Foundation. University of Illinois. Retrieved from:
http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]/Sustainability:_A_Comprehensiv

Textbook content produced by Andrew Leakey is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 3.0 license.

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

 Check Your Understanding: Systems and Feedbacks

1. Fossil fuels are formed as a result of which of the following?

a) chemical respiration
b) combustion of organic material
c) emission of carbon dioxide
d) sedimentation and burial of organic matter
e) decomposition of igneous rocks
2. Nitrogen is important to living organisms because it:
a) can help clean up the environment through photosynthesis
b) can be used as a substitute for petroleum fuels
c) is used to form amino acids, the building blocks for proteins
d) is less than 10% of the atmosphere
e) contributes to the decomposition of organisms

Discussion Forum

1. Relate climate change to the global carbon cycle.

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2. Discuss how humans influence the nitrogen cycle

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Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

 Apply what you have learned in Module 1 to answer the questions in the following quiz.

1. The increase in abundance of Didymo (Rock Snot) is most harmful to:

a) swimmers who might consume rock snot
b) streamflow
c) stream biodiversity
d) marine organisms
e) canoes and kayaks
2. A group of organisms that is distinct from other organisms and can interbreed to produce
viable offspring is referred to as a:
a) Family
b) Species
c) Niche
d) Pod
e) Genus
3. Select the term that best fits the definition (3 Points)

a) Element _____The amount of matter contained in an object.

b) Energy _____The amount of matter contained in an object.
c) Mass
d) Weight _____The ability to do work or transfer heat.
4. Identify if the following are closed or open systems (3 Points)
__________ a) Earth with respect to energy.
__________ b) Earth with respect to matter.
__________ c) A lake with respect to water.
5. Where does there tend to be greater species diversity? Choose the THREE that apply.
 in wetter climates
 at higher latitudes
 in smaller geographic areas, such as islands
 at lower elevation
 closer to the equator
6. Which of the following are true about steady-state? Choose the TWO that are true.
 input minus output equals zero
 an open system always exists
 equilibrium exists
 the system must be closed
 feedbacks are a dominant factor
7. Lyme Lake has a volume of 100,000 liters of water and is fed by a river that delivers
approximately 10,000 liters of water per day. The lake is drained by another river that
removes 10,000 liters of water per day.
What is the mean residence time (MRT), in days, of a molecule of water in Lyme Lake?
_______________

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

8. Pine Lake, a nearby lake with a similar area and volume, has a mean residence time of 50
days. A water-soluble pollutant (it dissolves in water) is spilled into both Pine Lake and
Lyme Lake (referred to in Q7). Which lake would likely flush the pollutant more quickly,
and thus recover more rapidly?
 Lyme lake
 Pine Lake
 Lyme and Pine Lakes flush at the same rate
 Not enough information given
9. Identify whether the following events are part of a negative or a positive feedback loop (3
Points)
_______________ a) As an ice sheet melts, a darker surface is exposed to the sun. This
leads to decreased reflectivity and increased heat absorption.
_______________ b) As night approaches, the temperature inside a house begins to
decrease. A thermostat turns on the heater in the house.
_______________ c) As atmospheric temperature increases, ocean temperature warms,
and the rate of evaporation accelerates. This process produces clouds that block sunlight
from reaching the earth.
10. In the last century, the primary reasons for increases in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
include: Choose the TWO that apply.
 combustion of fossil fuel
 increased plant respiration
 net destruction of vegetation
 climate change
 production of solar panels
11. What is the most abundant gas in our atmosphere? _____________________
12. Humans affect the nitrogen cycle by ________________. Check all that apply.
 creating wetlands for rice farming
 combustion of coal
 combustion of methane (natural gas)
 adding fertilizers to agricultural land
13. Fill in the box the correct terms to complete the Carbon Cycle diagram (5 Points)

a) Photosynthesis
b) Sedimentation
c) Exchange
d) Combustion
e) Respiration

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

 Group Assignment
Describe an environmental problem or situation in your community and relate it to one or more
of the topics (biodiversity, elemental cycles, matter, or energy) from this section, Introduction to
Environmental Science.
Include a photo that illustrates the problem or situation.

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Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1

Introduction To Environmental Science | MODULE 1