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Self-monitoring, covert
narcissism, and sex
as predictors of
self-presentational
activities on Facebook
Pavica Sheldon

Abstract
The popularity of photo sharing on social networking sites
has steadily increased in the United States over the last
decade. Some research suggests that this increase in photo
sharing correlates to an increase in narcissism, or an ex-
cessive interest in oneself and one’s physical appearance.
This study tested how self-monitoring, narcissism, and
gender are related to photo-related activities on Facebook.
Results revealed that high self-monitors engaged more of-
ten in the self-presentational opportunities on Facebook,
including posting their own photographs and liking and
commenting on other people’s photos. Similarly, people

Dr. Pavica Sheldon is an Assistant Professor at the University of

Alabama in Huntsville. Correspondence can be directed to
[email protected].
 Page 71

who scored higher on narcissism were more likely to en-

gage in all those activities as well. However, compared to
self-monitoring, narcissism could better explain photo-
related activities on Facebook. In addition, sex differences
emerged when it came to commenting on friends’ photos.

T
he primary goal of Facebook is to connect
friends to each other and to the world around
them (Facebook.com, 2016). Every user has an
option to upload his or her own profile photo on
Facebook, as well as an unlimited number of personal pho-
tographs, thus creating a Facebook album. Users can “tag”
themselves in their friends’ photos, as well as comment on
other people’s photos. This allows them to be seen by even
more people. By controlling the kind of information dis-
played on their page, Facebook users can more effectively
present themselves – which also includes the kind of pho-
tographs that they post for others to see. Previous studies
(e.g., Ellison, Heino, & Gibbs, 2006; Kapidzic, 2013) have
found that users choose the best photos of themselves,
thus, showing off their ideal self, rather than their real
self.
According to Goffman (1959), all of us are perform-
ers who take on unique roles in different situations. We
have a “front” stage behavior and a “back” stage behavior.
When we follow formal societal rules, we are on the front
stage playing a “role.” Our back stage behavior, however,
is more informal and includes interaction with friends
(Goffman, 1959). When an individual appears in the pres-
ence of others, he or she will want to convey an impression

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to them that is in his or her interests to convey. This also

includes maintaining a positive self-image (Martey, &
Consalvo, 2011). This can be easily done through a selec-
tive process of choosing which photographs to post on the
SNS profiles. Not only do the users of social media have an
option to choose a profile photo for themselves, but they
can also allow others to tag them in photos that they have
not taken of themselves. In the privacy settings, users can
also limit who can tag a photo of them on Facebook and
thus prevent an embarrassing photo from showing up on
their timeline. By creating an online self-presentation, us-
ers have the opportunity to think about which photos they
want on their Facebook. In other words, they can manage
their self-presentations more successfully than in face-to-
face interactions (Ellison et al. 2006).
Posting photographs on social media is one form of
self-presentation activities. Smock, Ellison, Lampe, and
Wohn (2011) studied Facebook and argued that given the
wide range of activities possible on Facebook, we have to
focus on what motivates users to utilize particular site fea-
tures. A recent study of a random sample of 5,000 Face-
book pages revealed that photos are the most engaging
post types on Facebook, accounting for 93% of activities
done on Facebook (socialbakers, 2013). Therefore, it is im-
portant to understand personality traits behind this most
popular activity on social network sites. The Eftekhar,
Fullwood, and Morris (2014) study provided evidence that
Facebook users with various personality traits set up al-
bums and upload photos differently. For instance, neuroti-
cism and extraversion predicted more photo uploads. Con-
scientiousness was predictive of more self-generated al-
bums and video uploads and agreeableness predicted the
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average number of received “likes” and “comments” on pro-

file pictures (Eftekhar et al., 2014).
Both narcissism and self-monitoring are traits that
might be related to self-promotional behavior on Facebook.
Narcissism is a personality trait reflecting a grandiose and
inflated self-concept (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008). People
who are defined as narcissists typically think that they are
better than other people, special, and unique (Sheldon,
2015). Self-monitoring is the ability and willingness to ad-
just behavior to induce positive feedback in others
(Snyder, 1974). High self-monitors are friendly and outgo-
ing individuals who are good at reading nonverbal cues
and therefore change their behavior when needed. They
choose strategies to elevate their social status (Hall & Pen-
nington, 2013). Facebook provides the perfect opportunity
to do so. When people “like” and “comment” on their
friends’ photos, they know that these activities will appear
on their friends’ newsfeed, which helps improve their
popularity among friends and family.
The purpose of this study was to examine how self-
monitoring, covert narcissism, and sex relate to posting
personal photographs on Facebook, as well as liking and
commenting on other people’s photos.

Self-Monitoring and Sharing Photographs on Facebook

Self-monitoring is the ability to adjust behavior to
external situational factors. People who are high in self-
monitoring look for cues in the situation to tell them how
to behave, whereas those who are low in self-monitoring
use their own values and motives to guide their behavior
(Michener, DeLamater, Schwartz, & Merton, 1986, p. 334-
335). High self-monitors want to be the center of attention,

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are outgoing, and extraverted. They are sensitive to the

reactions of others, and have the ability to adjust behavior
to induce positive reactions in others (Baron & Greenberg,
1990, p. 204-206). High self-monitors behave strategically
to obtain a desired outcome and that includes being ac-
cepted by the audience. They choose strategies that en-
hance their social connectedness and emphasize their like-
able qualities (Hall & Pennington, 2013).
Hall and Pennington (2013) examined the relation-
ship between self-monitoring and Facebook behavior and
they found that user self-monitoring was associated with
posting a profile picture at a younger age, posting more
frequently, and using more shorthand in status updates.
High self-monitors’ Facebook status updates received more
“likes” from Facebook friends as well.
A number of studies (e.g., Dutta-Bergman, 2003;
Shavitt & Nelsen, 2002) have found that the social identity
(value-expressive) function of a product is more important
for high self-monitors than for low self-monitors who pre-
fer the utilitarian function of a product. Thus, high self-
monitors preferred advertisements with social appeal (e.g.,
being cool) over those with utilitarian appeals (e.g., saving
time). Low self-monitors preferred utilitarian appeals. Be-
ing cool is one of the reasons people use Facebook (see
Sheldon, 2008). It is then likely to expect that self-
monitoring might be related to sharing personal photo-
graphs on Facebook, but also engaging in other activities
such as commenting on and liking other people’s photos.
H1: Self-monitoring will be positively associated
with the frequency of sharing personal photographs
on Facebook, changing the profile photo, comment-
ing on and liking other users’ photos.
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Narcissism and Sharing Photographs on Facebook

Mendelson and Papacharissi (2010) studied
“collective narcissism” in college students’ Facebook photo
galleries. They argued that students are consciously up-
loading photos on Facebook, selecting certain subjects and
events such as high school proms, sporting events, and
road trips. Many photographs focused on huge milestones
(birthdays, holidays, weddings), and very few included stu-
dents’ families. Overall, Mendelson and Papacharissi con-
cluded that images on Facebook were highly conventional,
documenting rituals and relationships. Contextual ele-
ments and backgrounds were deemphasized.
Other scholars (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008;
Kapidzic, 2013; Winter et al., 2014) have examined the re-
lationship between narcissism and the use of the social
network site Facebook. Buffardi and Campbell (2008) ar-
gued that narcissists use social network sites because they
function well in the context of shallow relationships and
highly controlled environments, where they have complete
power over self-presentation. In their study, higher scores
on narcissism were related to a higher quantity of interac-
tions on Facebook. Narcissism was related to a higher
amount of self-promoting information on the “about me”
section, and it was correlated with the main photo’s attrac-
tiveness. Owners with higher narcissism scores were seen
as more physically attractive. According to Buffardi and
Campbell (2008), the most important indicators of narcis-
sism on Facebook are the main photo and the number of
social contacts. Of secondary importance were the “about
me” and quotes sections. Kapidzic (2013) also found that
narcissism was associated with a higher motivation to
choose profile photos that emphasize attractiveness. Win-

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ter et al. (2014) discovered that narcissism is the most im-

portant predictor of the frequency of status updates. Mar-
shall, Lefringhausen, and Ferenczi (2015) confirmed that
narcissists’ use of Facebook for attention-seeking and vali-
dation explained their greater likelihood of updating about
their accomplishments and their diet and exercise routine.
This might be explained by narcissists’ tendencies to take
particular care of their physical appearance (Vazire,
Naumann, Rentfrow, & Gosling, 2008).
There are two subtypes of narcissism though: overt
and covert narcissism. Overt narcissists, according to
Raskin and Novacek (1989), tend to be extraverted with an
open display of grandiosity, also scoring high on the Nar-
cissistic Personality Inventory (NPI). Covert narcissists,
who also experience a sense of grandiosity, are not as com-
fortable displaying these characteristics (Gabbard, 1983).
They score higher on the Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale
(HSNS). Ljepava, Orr, Locke, and Ross (2013) found that
Facebook non-users scored higher on covert narcissism
compared to overt narcissism. Overt narcissism was the
important factor predicting frequent Facebook use. Most
studies looking at the relationship between narcissism and
Facebook use have used the overt measure of narcissism.
In this study, we are interested if covert narcissism might
be related to posting photographs on Facebook in order to
gain attention. Because narcissists want to gain the atten-
tion of the widest audience possible (Ackerman et al.,
2011), we speculate that they are more likely to like and
comment on photos of other people.
Therefore, it was hypothesized that:
H2: Covert narcissism will be positively associated
with the frequency of sharing personal photographs
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on Facebook, changing the profile photo, comment-

ing on and liking other users’ photos.

Methods
Participants and Procedure
Participants included 133 undergraduate students
(60 men and 73 women), ranging in age from 19 to 48
(mean age = 23 years; SD = 5.38). Approximately 57% of
the participants were self-identified as Caucasian, 26%
African American, 8% Asian American, 2% Native Ameri-
can, 3% Hispanic, while the remaining participants (4%)
did not fit into provided categories.
Following Institutional Review Board approval,
participants were recruited through classes offered in the
College of Liberal Arts at a southern research university
in the U.S. Some participants received extra credit for
their participation. The first question following the con-
sent form asked participants whether they use Facebook.
In order to participate in the study, they had to be Face-
book users. Students were then asked a series of demo-
graphic questions, followed by questions related to their
sharing and posting of photographs on Facebook. Finally,
participants answered the narcissism and self-monitoring
Likert-scale questions.

Measures
Demographics. Participants were first asked to in-
dicate their sex, age, and race.
Facebook Use. Participants were asked six ques-
tions to measure how often (1 = never and 4 = very often)
they a) upload personal photographs on Facebook, b) allow
others to tag the photos of them on Facebook, c) “like”

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other people’s photos on Facebook, d) “comment” on other

people’s photos on Facebook, and e) change their profile
photo. They were asked to answer an open-ended question
about the main reason they upload photographs on Face-
book. They were then instructed to access their Facebook
page and indicate how many Facebook friends they have
as well as how many photos they have in their Facebook
albums. One question asked participants to estimate how
many hours they spend on Facebook per day.
Self-monitoring. Thirteen items from Lennox and
Wolfe’s (1984) Revised Self-monitoring scale were used to
measure self-monitoring. Seven items measured the abil-
ity to modify self-presentation (e.g., “In social situations, I
have the ability to alter my behavior if I feel that some-
thing else is called for,” and “I have the ability to control
the way I come across to people, depending on the impres-
sion I wish to give them”), and six items measured the sen-
sitivity to expressive behavior of others (e.g., “I can usually
tell when others consider a joke to be in bad taste, even
though they may laugh convincingly,” and “I am often able
to read people’s true emotions correctly through their
eyes”). All of the items were measured on a 5-point Likert
scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree). Two items
were reverse-coded. The items were then summed into a
scale, such that the larger the value of each scale, the
greater the self-monitoring ability. Internal consistency of
the self-monitoring scale was very good: Cronbach’s alpha
= .86 (M = 3.04; SD = .42). For the sensitivity subscale, the
alpha was .81 (M = 3.05; SD = .53), and for the self-
presentation subscale, the alpha was .83 (M = 3.04; SD
= .46).
Narcissism. The 10-item Hypersensitive Narcis-
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sism Scale was used to measure participants’ narcissism

score (Hendin & Cheek, 1997). This measure was derived
from Murray’s (1938) Narcissism scale by correlating the
items of Murray’s (1938) original scale with an MMPI-
based composite measure of covert narcissism. All of the
items were measured on a 4-point Likert scale (1 =
strongly disagree; 4 = strongly agree). Sample items in-
clude: “I can become entirely absorbed in thinking about
my personal affairs, my health, my cares, or my relations
to others,” and “My feelings are easily hurt by ridicule or
the slighting remarks of others.” The items were summed
into a scale, such that the larger the value of each scale,
the greater the narcissism. Internal consistency of the
scale was good: Cronbach’s alpha = .79 (M = 2.7; SD = .66).

Results
Correlation Analysis
Hypothesis 1 proposed that self-monitoring will be
positively associated with the frequency of sharing per-
sonal photographs on Facebook, changing the profile
photo, commenting on and liking other users’ photos. Sta-
tistical analysis (Table 1) showed three (out of four) statis-
tically significant relationships. Self-monitoring and the
frequency of uploading personal photographs on Facebook
were positively related, as well as self-monitoring and the
frequency of liking other people’s photos on Facebook, and
self-monitoring and the frequency of commenting on other
people’s photos on Facebook. In other words, individuals
who purposefully adjust their behavior to external situ-
ational factors will more often engage in the self-
presentational opportunities on Facebook, including post-
ing their own photographs, and liking and commenting on

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Table 1
Correlations among Self-Monitoring, Narcissism, and
Facebook Behavior
1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Self- -
monitoring
2. Narcissism .08 -
3. Freq. of .27** .16* -
uploading
photographs
4. Freq. of -.18* .18* .56** -
“liking” other
people’s photos

5. Freq. of .20** .22** .64** .69** -

commenting on
other people’s
photos
6. Freq. of .08 .11 .56** .42** .41**
changing the -
profile photo
Note. *p < .05; ** p <.01; one-tailed.

other people’s photos. However, there was no significant

relationship between self-monitoring and the frequency of
changing the profile photo (p > .05). Even significant rela-
tionship were not too strong.
Hypothesis 2 proposed that covert narcissism will
be positively associated with the frequency of sharing per-
sonal photographs on Facebook, changing the profile
photo, commenting on and liking other people’s photos.
Statistical analysis (Table 1) again showed three (out of
four) statistically significant relationships. Narcissism and
the frequency of uploading personal photographs on Face-
book were positively correlated, as well as narcissism and
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Table 2
Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analysis Predicting
the Frequency of Uploading Personal Photographs on
Facebook
Predictor B β ΔR2 p
Age .01 .06 .00 .37
Gender .16 .10 .01 .18
Hours on Facebook .17 .30 .09 .00
Self-monitoring .43 .22 .06 .00
Narcissism .23 .18 .03 .00

the frequency of liking other people’s photos on Facebook,

and narcissism and the frequency of commenting on other
people’s photos on Facebook. Although significant, these
associations were also weak. Overall, as the results show,
narcissists are more likely to post their own photographs
on Facebook, and are also more likely to engage in com-
menting and liking of their friends’ photos. The correlation
between narcissism and the frequency of changing the pro-
file photo was not statistically significant (p > .05).

Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analysis

In order to calculate the percentage of variance ex-
plained by self-monitoring and narcissism, four separate
hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted. Age,
gender, and the number of hours spent on Facebook were
entered as the control variables as these demographics
might likely influence the results. For the variable meas-
uring the frequency of uploading personal photographs on
Facebook, both narcissism and self-monitoring, but also
the number of hours spent on Facebook were significant
predictors, F(5,132) = 6.09; p = .001 (Table 2).
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Table 3
Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analysis Predicting
the Frequency of Changing Profile Photo on Facebook
Predictor B β ΔR2 p
Age -.00 .01 .01 .59
Gender .04 .03 .00 .18
Hours on Facebook .12 .25 .06 .04
Self-monitoring .09 .05 .00 .06
Narcissism .15 .14 .02 .04

Table 4
Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analysis Predicting
the Frequency of Commenting on Other People’s Photos
on Facebook
Predictor B β ΔR2 p
Age .02 .12 .01 .14
Gender .33 .18 .03 .03
Hours on Facebook .14 .23 .05 .01
Self-monitoring .32 .15 .03 .07
Narcissism .35 .26 .06 .00

For the frequency of changing the profile photo, the

number of hours spent on Facebook, as well as narcissism
were the significant predictors, F(5,132) = 2.37; p = .04.
Self-monitoring p value was slightly higher than .05
(Table 3).
For the frequency of commenting on other people’s
photos on Facebook, gender, hours spent on Facebook, and
narcissism were significant predictors, F(5,131) = 5.72; p
= .001 (Table 4). Female students were more likely to com-
ment on their friends’ photos than male students, Mm (59)
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Table 5
Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analysis Predicting
the Frequency of Liking Other People’s Photos on
Facebook
Predictor B β ΔR2 p
Age .01 .03 .01 .70
Gender .17 .10 .01 .24
Hours on Facebook .08 .13 .02 .14
Self-monitoring .29 .14 .03 .10
Narcissism .25 .19 .04 .03

= 2.58; SD = .99; Mf (73) = 2.90; SD = .80; t(130) = -2.10; p

= .014.
For the frequency of “liking” other people’s photos
on Facebook, only narcissism was a significant predictor, F
(5,132) = 2.42, p = .04 (Table 5).

Discussion
Young people today have a need to broadcast their
lives online. They have been videotaped during their child-
hood and youth and also exposed to reality TV shows
where people disclose their private lives (Peluchette &
Karl, 2010; Robinson, 2006). Many feel that posting inter-
esting photographs on social media enhances their social
acceptability (Peluchette & Karl, 2010).
Results from this study demonstrate that narcis-
sism is related to photo-sharing activities on Facebook.
Those who score higher on narcissism are liking, com-
menting, and uploading their own photos on Facebook
more often than those who score lower on narcissism. Self-
monitoring only emerged as a significant predictor of the
frequency of posting personal photographs on Facebook. A

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previous study (Fuglestad & Snyder, 2009) has actually

found that high self-monitors tend to be more social and
extraverted and post more frequently on Facebook (as
cited in Hall & Pennington, 2013). High self-monitors
choose the strategies that elevate their status, and, one of
those strategies is sharing personal photographs. As evi-
dent from this study, high self-monitors might be inclined
to post their own photographs to appear outgoing. As
Gogolinski (2010) discovered, high self-monitors prefer to
use Facebook to express themselves. This expression can
be done through photography. Interestingly, as Table 2
shows, self-monitoring had a higher variance than narcis-
sism in explaining the predictors of uploading personal
photographs on Facebook. This interesting result might
be due to the measures used in this study. Covert narcis-
sism is expressed in a less direct way. High self-monitors
tend to worry about their own behavior in a more direct
way with fewer likes and comments made on other peo-
ple’s walls.
Compared to self-monitoring, narcissism can better
explain photo-related activities on Facebook. Being related
to all the dependent variables in our study, it is safe to
conclude that narcissists enjoy Facebook, which allows
them to gain attention and appear important to others.
Interestingly, this study measured covert or shy narcis-
sism as opposed to overt or arrogant narcissism. Covert
narcissists are preoccupied with fantasies of grandiose
achievements, imagining themselves as centers of atten-
tion – however, their fantasies are not expressed in overt
behavior (Cooper, 1998). This result raises another ques-
tion: if they are not expressing their fantasies directly, do
covert narcissists use Facebook photographs as an oppor-
 Page 85

tunity to be the center of attention? This is also a new

finding considering that most studies focus on overt nar-
cissism. Clearly, covert narcissists care about the impres-
sions they make on Facebook. Narcissists tend to overrate
their own attractiveness (Gabriel, Critelli, & Ee, 1994).
They post more photos on Facebook and change their pro-
file photo more often. Covert narcissism was also related
to “liking” and commenting on other people’s photos. For
narcissists this activity might be a way of self-
presentation. When a person “likes” or comments on some-
body else’s photos (especially those posted for the public to
see), the friends of the person who liked them will get the
newsfeed of the activity. This again helps them to affirm
themselves. One of the psychological needs individuals
have includes the need to feel seen and valued
(Greenwood, 2013). Nadkarni and Hofmann (2012) discov-
ered two basic social needs when using Facebook: the need
to belong and the need for self-presentation. Social support
of others, either through “likes” or “comments” through
Facebook can positively affect one’s self-esteem and self-
worth (Baumeister & Leary, 1995).
Another interesting finding is the fact that the
number of hours spent on Facebook can actually explain
the most variance when it comes to sharing photographs
on Facebook. It is likely that students who are already on
Facebook are more likely to share personal photographs
with others just because they are searching for something
to do. With smartphone applications, many individuals
upload their photos on Facebook immediately after taken.
The more time they spend on Facebook, the more urge
they might feel to change or to add something to their pro-
file.

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Although women spend more time on Facebook

than men (Sheldon, 2008), they do not have more photo-
graphs on Facebook, and they do not post them more often.
These results are somewhat surprising. However, sex dif-
ferences emerged when it came to commenting on friends’
photos. Women post more comments on their friends’ pho-
tos. This finding could be related to the fact that females
go to Facebook for relationship maintenance and enter-
tainment more often than males (Sheldon, 2008). In Shel-
don’s study, one of the items measuring entertainment in-
cluded seeing other people’s photos. According to social
role theory (Eagly, 1987; Eagly, Wood, & Diekman, 2000),
there are different expectations of male and female social
behavior. Females are expected to be communal caregiv-
ers, friendly, unselfish, and expressive. Males are expected
to be independent, assertive, and competent. By comment-
ing on their friends’ photos, women are sending a message
that they “care.” Bond (2009) found that females are also
more likely to post on Facebook photos that include images
portraying family and friends, while male participants up-
loaded more sports-related photos. Mesch and Beker
(2010) also found that teenage girls ages 12-17 were more
likely than teenage boys to post photos on Facebook, while
boys were more likely to post videos of themselves on the
site.
While this study did not examine what type of per-
sonal photographs users upload on Facebook, future re-
search should continue with that line of inquiry in order to
better understand the relationship between personality
traits and photo-related activities on Facebook. A content
analysis conducted simultaneously with surveys could pro-
vide that answer. This study only asked participants about
 Page 87

their behavior on Facebook rather than testing their ac-

tual online behavior. Based on the variance explained in
the dependent variables, it is likely that other personality
factors might affect why college students post personal
photographs on Facebook. The self-monitoring p value was
also close to .05 in all of the models tested in this study. It
would also be interesting to explore who the people are
whose photos our participants like and comment on. Are
they their friends, relatives, or close family members? The
limitation of this study also includes the small sample
size. A bigger sample would allow for a more advanced sta-
tistical analysis. Next, respondents were recruited through
convenient sampling; thus, not allowing generalizations
about the whole population. Due to the survey methodol-
ogy, we cannot establish a causal relationship between
variables in the study.

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