Lesson 1: DEFINITION OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

What is Quantitative Research?

Ø It is a systematic scientific investigation of data and their relationships.

Ø It is used to quantify the problem by the way of generating numerical data or data
that can be transformed into useable statistics.

Ø It is used to quantify attitudes, behaviors, and other defined variables – and generalize
results from a larger sample population.

Ø It uses measurable data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research.

Ø It involves the collection and study of numerical data.

Lesson 2: CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

 CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:

The online source http://www.umsl.edu/~lindquists/qualdsgn.html enumerates the

characteristics of quantitative research as follows:

1. It usually deals with the hard sciences or natural sciences (e.g., Physics, Biology,
Chemistry, and Medicine) not in soft sciences (e.g., Humanities, Social Sciences,
Education, and Psychology)

2. It focuses on concise and narrow topics, not complex and broad ones.

3. It has a reductionistic, not holistic, perspective. This means that it reduces complex
ideas into simple terms.

4. It is objective, not subjective.

5. It make use of logistic, deductive reasoning (proceeding from general to specific), not
dialectic, inductive reasoning (proceeding from specific to general).

6. It is used as a basis of establishing cause-and-effect relationship, not a basis for

creating meaning and discovery.

7. It is a theory-testing endeavor, not a theory-developing activity.

8. It is characterized by the researcher’s control of data, not by shared interpretation of
data.

9. It gathers data with the use of appropriate instruments, not through communication
and interpretation.

10. It uses numbers, not words, in the analysis of data.

11. It requires statistical analysis of data, not the researcher’s individual interpretation of
data.

12. It presents as an ultimate output a generalization regarding a problem, not the

uniqueness of one’s experience or of a phenomenon.

Lesson 3: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH VS. QUANTITATIVE

RESEARCH
 QUALITATIVE VS. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:

To acquire a more profound understanding of the characteristics of quantitative

research, one must know how it greatly differs from qualitative research. The following
table of differences between qualitative research and quantitative research is adapted
from the combined tables presented by Hennink et al. (2011) and Romeo Santos (2011).

POINT OF
CONTRAST
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
(In terms of:)
§ a means for exploring and § a means for testing objective
understanding the meaning theories by examining the
Meaning
individuals or groups ascribe to a relationship between measurable
social or human problem variables.
§ to gain a detailed understanding § to quantify data and extrapolate
Objective of underlying reasons, beliefs, results to a broader population
motivations
§ to understand why? How? What § to measure, count, quantify a
is the process? What are the problem: How much? How often?
Purpose
influences of contexts? What proportion? relationships in
data
 Data § textual data (words) § numerical data (numbers)
Focus of Research § quality (nature, essence) § quantity (how much, how many)
§ understanding, description, § prediction, control, description,
Goal of Investigation
discovery, hypothesis-gathering confirmation, hypothesis-testing
Design § flexible, evolving, emerging § predetermined, structured
Characteristics
Setting § familiar, natural § unfamiliar, artificial
Study population § participants or interviewees § subjects or respondents
§ small, non-random, theoretical, § large, random, representative
Sample
purposive
§  researcher as primary § inanimate instruments (scales,
instrument, in-depth interviews, tests, surveys, questionnaires,
Data Collection
observation, focus group computers)
discussions
§ inductive (by researcher), § deductive (by statistical method)
Mode of Analysis
interpretative analysis
§ comprehensive, holistic, § precise, reductionist, narrow
Findings
expansive
§ to develop an initial § to identify prevalence, averages,
understanding; to identify and and patterns in data; to generalize to
Outcome
explain behavior, beliefs, or a broader population
actions

Lesson 4: STRENGTH AND WEAKNESSES OF

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
 STRENGTH AND WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Ø STRENGTHS:

§ Testing and validating already constructed theories about how and why phenomena
occur

§ Testing hypotheses that are constructed before the data are collected

§ Can generalize research findings when the data are based on random samples of
sufficient size.

§ Can generalize  research finding when it has been replicated on many different
populations and subpopulations
§ Useful for obtaining data that allow quantitative predictions to be made

§ The researcher may construct a situation that eliminates the confounding influence of
many variables, allowing one or more credibly established cause-and-effect
relationships

§ Data collection using some quantitative methods is relatively quick (e.g., telephone
interviews)

§ Provides precise, quantitative, numerical data

§ Data analysis is relatively less time consuming (using statistical softwares)

§ The research results are relatively independent of the researcher (e.g., statistical
significance)

§ It may have higher credibility with many influential people (e.g., administrators,
politicians, people who fund programs)

§ It is useful for studying large population of people.

Ø WEAKNESSES:

§ The researcher’s categories that are used might not reflect local constituencies’
understandings

§ The researcher might miss out on phenomena occurring because of the focus on
theory or hypothesis testing rather than on theory or hypothesis generation (called the
confirmation bias)

§ Knowledge produced might be too abstract and general for direct application to
specific local situations, contexts, and individuals.

KINDS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

 KINDS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:
There are four main types of quantitative research designs: descriptive, correlational,
quasi-experimental and experimental. The differences between the four types primarily
relate to the degree the researcher designs for control of the variables in the
experiment. Following is a brief description of each type of quantitative research design.

Ø FOUR TYPES:

§ Descriptive Design seeks to describe the current status of a variable or phenomenon.

The researcher does not begin with a hypothesis, but typically develops one after the
data is collected. Data collection is mostly observational in nature.

Examples:

1. A description of how second-grade students spend their time during summer
vacation

2. A description of the tobacco use habits of teenagers

3. A description of how parents feel about the twelvemonth school year

4. A description of the attitudes of scientists regarding global warming

5. A description of the kinds of physical activities that typically occur in nursing homes,
and how frequently each occurs

6. A description of the extent to which elementary teachers use math manipulative.

§ Correlational Design explores the relationship between variables using statistical

analyses. However, it does not look for cause and effect and therefore, is also mostly
observational in terms of data collection.

Examples:

1. The relationship between intelligence and self-esteem

2. The relationship between diet and anxiety

3. The relationship between an aptitude test and success in an algebra course

4. The relationship between ACT scores and the freshman grades

5. The relationships between the types of activities used in math classrooms and student
achievement

6.  The covariance of smoking and lung disease

§ Quasi-Experimental Design (often referred to as Causal-Comparative) seeks to

establish a cause-effect relationship between two or more variables. The researcher does
not assign groups and does not manipulate the independent variable. Control groups
are identified and exposed to the variable. Results are compared with results from
groups not exposed to the variable.

Examples:

1. The effect of preschool attendance on social maturity at the end of the first grade

2.  The effect of taking multivitamins on a students’ school absenteeism

3. The effect of gender on algebra achievement

4. The effect of part-time employment on the achievement of high school students

5. The effect of magnet school participation on student attitude

6. The effect of age on lung capacity

§ Experimental Designs, often called true experimentation, use the scientific method to
establish cause-effect relationship among a group of variables in a research study.
Researchers make an effort to control for all variables except the one being manipulated
(the independent variable). The effects of the independent variable on the dependent
variable are collected and analyzed for a relationship.

Examples:

1. The effect of a new treatment plan on breast cancer

2. The effect of positive reinforcement on attitude toward school

3. The effect of teaching with a cooperative group strategy or a traditional lecture
approach on students’ achievement

4. The effect of a systematic preparation and support system on children who were
scheduled for surgery on the amount of psychological upset and cooperation

5.  A comparison of the effect of personalized instruction vs. traditional instruction on

computational skill

The Center for Innovation in Research and Training also provides a table of the
classification of quantitative research designs with their corresponding purposes, other
names, key foci, interventions, examples, and subtypes.

CLASSIFICATION OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

QUASI-
KIND DESCRIPTIVE CORRELATIONAL EXPERIMNTAL
EXPERIMENTAL
Purpose § to describe the § to explore the § to establish a § to establish a
current status of a relationships between cause-and-effect cause-and-effect
variable or variables using relationship relationship
phenomenon statistical analyses between/among between/among
variables variables
Other names     § Causal- § True
comparative experimental
Key Focus § observational; § explores and § tests causality with § tests causality
and Variable describes “what observes relationships suboptimal variable with optimal
control is”; variables not among variables; control; independent variable control;
controlled variables not variable not independent
controlled manipulated variable is
manipulated
Intervention § No § No § Yes § Yes
Applied
Example § A description of § A study of the § A study of the § A study of the
teenagers’ relationship between effects of an after- effects of a new
attitudes towards IQ and clinical school physical diet treatment plan
smoking depression activity program on on insulin level in
child obesity rates diabetics
Common § Comparative § Descriptive § Pre- and post-test § Classic
Study descriptive design, correlation design, design, post-test experimental
 Designs cross-sectional predictive design, only design, design,
design, model-testing design interrupted time- randomized
longitudinal series design design, cross-over
design design, nested
design

IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS

FIELDS
 IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS FIELDS:

Ø Anthropology

§ In anthropology, a Quantitative research approach can be used to establish methods

that will help us find the bigger picture, create demographic characterizations that will
be helpful when understanding how a specific society is organized, or organize reactions
and opinions towards some critical topics in ways that we can be sure are veridical
among a society (for example, religious or political affiliations). Then, as anthropologists,
we can create contexts and explanations using qualitative research methods. With a
proper experimental design, we can justify and sustain both qualitative and quantitative
results between themselves and provide stronger results.

Ø Economics

§ With the application of quantitative methods, models and adequate algorithm, the
more complex phenomena and processes in Economics can be studied more efficiently
and more precisely, as well as their interrelationship, in order to reach decisions and
predicts movements of economic phenomena and processes.

Ø Business

§ Quantitative research is all about numbers. It uses mathematical analysis and data to
shed light on important statistics about your business and market. This type of data,
found via tactics such as multiple-choice questionnaires, can help you gauge interest in
your company and its offerings.
 

Ø Education

§ Quantitative methods in education engage in the science and practice

of educational measurement and evaluation, primarily through the development and
application of statistical methods, informed by the study of teaching and learning
statistics.

Ø Art Disciplines

§ These disciplines consist of different fields of fine arts and liberal arts including
painting, music, film, classic literature and music among the most popular ones on
which research is conducted. The researcher can use empirical approach to conduct
surveys of public opinion; conversely he can use the non-empirical approach to perform
analysis on application and theory of literature, music, etc.

Ø Science Disciplines

§ The scientific disciplines of medicine, mechanics, physics, and biology are just few
sciences on which researchers use the empirical modes to perform first hand research
both in the field as well as in the laboratory. The applications of these areas of sciences
are endless and apt for students who prefer to spend time in laboratories.

Ø Discipline of Philosophy

§ The discipline of Philosophy does not have much application in the practical field, yet a
person can create a theoretical dissertation based on analytical thinking, metaphysical
interpretation and several hours of readings. Students who prefer to stay hours on end
in a library are suitable for research in this field.

Ø Discipline of History
§ The opportunities for a dissertation in this subject are spread far and wide. A student
can create a dissertation through the theoretical approach of compiling data from
archives, public courthouses, and from societies of history. For a more practical
approach, a student can participate in archeological expeditions or interview
participants of past battles.

Ø Discipline of Humanities

§ The study of this area might start with researching in the library, but its practical
applications are not limited to it. A student has the opportunity to go out in the field
and observe the different cultures and societies, interview people and compile case
studies from real life experiences.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF VARIABLES AND THEIR USES

 DIFFERENT KINDS OF VARIABLES AND THEIR USES

What are variables?

Ø These are objects, events, ideas, feelings, attitudes, and other categories measured,
quantified, or given numerical values.

Ø These are “changing qualities or characteristics” of persons or things like age, gender,
intelligence, ideas, achievements, confidence, and so on that are involved in a research
study.

Ø These are properties or characteristics of people or things that vary in quality or

magnitude from person to person or object to object (Miller and Nicholson, 1976)

Ø KINDS OF VARIABLES:

§ Independent Variable

- is a variable that is manipulated either by the researcher or by nature or circumstances.

- also called “stimulus”, “input”, or “predictor” variable.

- is similar to the “cause” in a cause-and-effect relationship.

- is the variable where the experimenter changes or controls and is assumed to have a

direct effect on the dependent variable. 

- is the variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific experiment to test the effects
on the dependent variable.

§ Dependent Variable

- is a variable that is observed or measured, and that is influenced or changed by the
independent variable.

- also known as the “response”, “output”, or “criterion” variable.

- is similar to the “effect” in a cause-and-effect relationship.

- also called as the “extreneous” or “intervening” variable.

- is the variable being tested and measured in an experiment, and is 'dependent' on the
independent variable. is “dependent” on the independent variable. As the experimenter
changes the independent variable, the effect on the dependent variable is observed
and recorded.

IDENTIFYING INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT

VARIABLES
 IDENTIFYING INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES

Examples:

1. A scientist wants to see if the brightness of light has any effect on a moth being
attracted to the light. The brightness of the light is controlled by the scientist. This
would be the independent variable. How the moth reacts to the different light levels
(distance to light source) would be the dependent variable.
2. In a study to determine whether how long a student sleeps affects test scores, the
independent variable is the length of time spent sleeping while the dependent variable
is the test score.

3. You want to compare brands of paper towels, to see which holds the most liquid. The
independent variable in your experiment would be the brand of paper towel. The
dependent variable would be the amount of liquid absorbed by the paper towel.

4. In an experiment to determine how far people can see into the infrared part of the
spectrum, the wavelength of light is the independent variable and whether the light is
observed (the response) is the dependent variable.

5. If you want to know whether caffeine affects your appetite, the presence/absence of a
given amount of caffeine would be the independent variable. How hungry you are
would be the dependent variable.

   TEACHER’S INSIGHT

ESSENTIAL LEARNING:

 Quantitative Research

Ø  It involves the collection and study of numerical data.

 FOUR TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

1. Descriptive Research

- Seeks to describe the current status of a variable or phenomenon.

2. Correlational Research

- Explores the relationship between variables using statistical analyses.

3. Quasi-experimental Research

- Seeks to establish a cause-effect relationship between two or more variables.

- Also known as “Causal Comparative” Research

4. Experimental Research

-  Uses the scientific method to establish cause-effect relationship among a group of

variables in a research study.

- Also known as “True Experimentation” Research

 The quantitative research has several strengths and weaknesses. Some of these are
the following:

STRENGTHS:

- Testing hypotheses are collected.

- Testing and validating are already constructed.

- Can generalize research findings with sufficient size.

- Data collection is relatively quick.

- Data analysis is less time consuming

WEAKNESSES:

- Researcher’s theories might not reflect local constituencies’ understandings.

- Confirmation bias

- Knowledge produced might be too abstract.

 Quantitative research is characterized by: objectiveness, happens in hard sciences,

focuses on concise and narrow topics,reductionistic, logistic and deductive, theory
testing endeavor, researcher’s control of data, uses numbers, requires statistical analysis
of data, etc.

 Quantitative Research is important to different fields or disciplines. Some of these

disciplines where quantitative research is applied are: Science, Arts, Anthropology,
Economics, Business, Education, etc.

 Variables are properties or characteristics of people or things that vary in quality or

magnitude from person to person or object to object. These are generally of two kinds:
Independent and Dependent Variables.
- Independent variables are manipulated either by the researcher or by nature or
circumstances and are also called “stimulus”, “input”, or “predictor” variable.

- Dependent variables are variables that are observed or measured, and that are

influenced or changed by the independent variable. These are also known as the
“response”, “output”, or “criterion” variable.

CRITERIA IN SELECTING RESEARCH TOPICS

Introduction:

In research, you are prone to think in various levels that range from the simplest to the
most complex modes or patterns of thinking. Your initial thinking acts here pertain to
what you want to research on or what you intend to subject more to higher levels of
thinking as you go through the several stages of research. The kind or quality of
thinking and attention you give to your acts of choosing your research topic and of
specifying questions you want your research study to find answers to strongly
determine the success of your research work.

      CRITERIA IN SELECTING RESEARCH TOPICS

What is a research topic?

Ø  is a subject or issue that a researcher is interested in when conducting research. A

well-defined research topic is the starting point of every successful research project.

What is a research title?

Ø  summarizes the main idea or ideas of your study.

Ø  contains the fewest possible words that adequately describe the contents and/or
purpose of your research paper.

Ø  depends on the chosen research topic.

Examples:
The research topic is about bullying. From that topic alone, you can construct your own
research title/s. Some research titles that can be constructed from the researc topic
“bullying” are:

1.    “The impact of bullying in school on the adolescent’s sense of self”

2.     “The Impact of School Bullying On Students’ Academic Achievement from Teachers

Point of View”

CRITERIA:

The first step in any writing activity is selecting the topic. Before anybody can begin
writing , he must have chosen his subject. The chosen topic is the springboard of his
idea generation; it is the basis of the choice of words has has to use and the ideas he
has to incorporate in his research title and writings.The research writer who chooses a
topic must be guided by the following criteria:

§  Interestingness of the topic

Ø  The topic must interest both the writer and the reader. Boredom may adversely affect
a writer who lacks interest in the topic he is working on. Worse, if he is bored, he may
lose enthusiasm to continue and eventually not complete his work. Furthermore, an
uninteresting piece of writing does not appeal to the readers. The article will be left
unread if nobody is interested in it.

§  Specificity/Limitedness/Limited Breadth of the topic

Ø  The topic must be limited. The choice of a limited topic is a result of the limitations
set by time and space. The writing is usually completed within a short period of time,
e.g., a week, a month, or a term; therefore, if the topic is broad, the limited time allotted
for the completion of the task will not be enough. The space provided for the completed
paper is also limited. The limited number of pages will be more than enough for a
limited topic, but the same number of pages will not suffice a broad one.

 
§  Relevance to the writer’s field or discipline

Ø  The topic must be relevant to the field in which the writer specializes. As mentioned,
earlier, an ABM student must select a topic related or relevant to business; a STEM
student must choose a science-related topic; a HUMSS student must choose a topic
related to Humanities and Social Sciences. This is so because the writer can contribute
something to his colleagues if his writing has a bearing upon his field or discipline.
Besides, he benefits from such writing because he is given an opportunity to acquire
knowledge he can apply in his field of specialization.

§  Familiarity of the writer with the topic

Ø  The writer must be familiar with the topic. A writer who is familiar with the topic is in
a better position than one who is not. It will be easier for him to write about it because
he knows something about it and he has an idea regarding the sources of materials for
it. Moreover, he will not rely on external sources in as much as he can share his store of
information about it with his readers.

§  Availability of materials

Ø  The materials for the topic must be available. A writer needs to have a list of
references for the topic. Without these materials, he cannot proceed. His work is stalled
by a complete lack of available materials. He can make use of primary sources (persons,
plants, animals, artifacts, documents, etc.) and secondary sources (books, newspapers,
magazines, journals, internet, etc.). He can work best with a vast supply of materials.

§  Feasibility of the problem

Ø  Since the research writer is dealing with a certain problem, he has to choose one that
he is capable of solving. He must have the capacity to work on the problems so that he
can complete his work prior to the deadline. He must possess the skills required of a
writer doing such quantitative research.

 
CRITERIA IN WRITING A RESEARCH TITLE
When writing a research title, you can use the criteria listed below as a guide. Here are a
few characteristics you can use to make sure your title will be part of the recipe for
an effective research paper:

EFFECTIVE TITLES IN ACADEMIC RESEARCH PAPERS

HAVE SEVERAL CRITERIA:

      Indicate accurately the subject and scope of the study.

      Avoid using abbreviations.

      Use words that create a positive impression and stimulate reader interest.

      Use current nomenclature from the field of study.

      Identify key variables, both dependent and independent.

      May reveal how the paper will be organized.

      Suggest a relationship between variables which supports the major hypothesis.

      Is limited to 10 to 15 substantive words (excluding the linking verbs, conjunctions,

auxillary verbs, etc.)

      Do not include "study of," "analysis of" or similar constructions.

      Titles are usually in the form of a phrase, but can also be in the form of a question.

      Use correct grammar and capitalization with all first words and last words
capitalized, including the first word of a subtitle. All nouns,  pronouns, verbs, adjectives,
and adverbs that appear between the first and last words of the title are also capitalized.
       In academic papers, rarely is a title followed by an exclamation mark. However, a
title or subtitle can be in the form of a question.

RESEARCH PROBLEM AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Research Problem:

§  What is a research problem?

-      is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a difficulty to

be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in
practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate
investigation.

-      is a specific issue, difficulty, contradiction, or gap in knowledge that you will aim to
address in your research.

§  Sources of research problem

-      What are the things around you that could trigger your mind to ponder over one
problematic area in your life that you want to look into empirically? One of the following
could give rise to a quantitative research problem (Edmond 2013; Punch 2014)

a.    Agenicies of the government, or any non-government institutions.

b.    Your own experiences or genuine interests in something.

c.    Previous research findings which you want to validate or consider as studies

suffering from inconsistencies or discrepancies.

d.    Present political, social or economic issues in society.

e.    Review of related literature.

Research Questions:

§  What is a research question?

-      is a question that a research project sets out to answer.

-      is an answerable inquiry into a specific concern or issue.

-      A set of research questions is generated from the research problem. The researcher
creates questions based on their knowledge and background of the area under study.

-      There are three main types of researcch questions:

·         Causal questions

-      Compare two or more phenomona and determine if a relationship exists.

-      Often called as the “relationship research questions”.

-      Example: Does the amount of calcium in the diet of elementary school children

affect the number of cavities they have per year?

·         Descriptive questions

-      Seek to describe a phenomenon and often study “how much”, “how often”, or
“what is the change”.

-      Example: How often do senior high school male students play mobile legend?

·         Comparative questions

-      Aim to examine the difference between two or more groups in relation to one or
more variables.

-      The questions often begin with “What is the difference in....”

-      Example: What is the difference in caloric intake of high school girls and boys?

GUIDELINES IN FORMULATING A QUANTITATIVE

RESEARCH PROBLEM AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1.    Formulate a research problem that is researchable; meaning, open to empirical
investigation.

2.    See to it that you state your quantitative research problem clearly and concisely.
3.    Have your research problem focus on a general understanding of your research
topic.

4.    Construct a research problem that mirrors the importance of carrying out the
research for finding answers or solutions to a problem.

5.    Let your quantitative research problem state the variables and their relationship
with one another.

6.    Construct an introductory statement to present your research problem, which is the

main problem of your research.

7.     State your research questions or sub-problems, not in the form of yes-or-no

questions, but in informative questions.

8.    Express your research problem and research questions either in an interrogative

or declarative manner, but some research books say that the interrogative manner is
more effective than the declarative form. (Babbie 2013; Punch 2014)

Here are examples of statements to show the relationship between the

quantitative research problem and research questions.

Example of Reserch Problem:

Interrogative statement:

What percentage of Manila private universities consider the use of grammar textbooks
as the most effective way to help college students attain communicative competence?

Declarative statement:

The main objective of this study is to find out the percentage of Manila private
universities considering the use of grammar textbooks as the most effective way to help
college students attain communicative competence.

 
Example of Research Questions (based from the given resarch problem):

Interrogative statements:

1.    What is an English grammar textbook.

2.    What is communicative competence?

3.    What components of the grammar textbook work for communicative –competence

development?

4.    How many Manila private universities require the use of grammar textbooks?

5.    How many Manila private universities use grammar textbooks as references only?

6.    To what extent do Manila private universities find grammar textbooks effective in
helping college students attain communicative competence?

Declarative statements:

Likewise, this study aims at findings answers to the following specific objectives.

1.    To define a grammar book;

2.    To explain the meaning of communicative competence;

3.    To identify the components of the grammar book that work for communicative-
competence development;

4.    To determine the number of Manila private universities requiring the use of
grammar textbooks;

5.    To determine the number of Manila private universities using the grammar
textbooks as references only; and

6.    To determine the extent of Manila private universities considering grammar

textbooks as the means by which they can help the students attain communicative
competence.

 
WRITING THE CHAPTER I OF A RESEARCH PAPER
The Chapter 1 of a research paper is known as “Introduction”. In writing the first
chapter of the research paper, the researcher must include the following:

§  Introduction

§  Statement of the Problem

§  Hypothesis

§  Conceptual/Theoretical Framework

§  Significance of the Study

§  Scope and Delimitation

§  Definition of Terms

Ø  Introduction

-      The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the necessary background or

context for the research problem.

-      The introduction serves the purpose of leading the reader from a general subject

area to a particular field of research.

-       It establishes the context of the research being conducted by summarizing current
understanding and background information about the topic, stating the purpose of the
work in the form of the hypothesis, question, or research problem, briefly explaining
your rationale, methodological approach, highlighting the potential outcomes your
study can reveal, and describing the remaining structure of the paper.

Ø  Statement of the Problem

-      A statement of the problem is used in research work as a claim that outlines the
problem addressed by a study. A good research problem should address an existing gap
in knowledge in the field and lead to further research.
-      The researcher analyzes the problem to which is trying to contribute a solution
through their research.

-      The definition of the problem is the first main step in writing the research paper. It
should be stated precisely, accurately, and clearly. The problem can be expressed in
question or declarative form.

Ø  Hypothesis

-      A research hypothesis is a specific, clear, and testable proposition or predictive

statement about the possible outcome of a scientific research study based on a
particular property of a population, such as presumed differences between groups on a
particular variable or relationships between variables. 

-      It is a proposition made as a basis for reasoning, without any assumption of its
truth, and serving as a straight point for further investigation.

-      It is a statement that introduces a research question and proposes an expected

result. 

-      There are two types of hypothesis in research:

1.   Null Hypotheis

·         The null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the two variables
being studied (one variable does not affect the other).

·         It states results are due to chance and are not significant in terms of supporting
the idea being investigated.

·         Example: There is no significant relationship between socio-economic status and

academic performance of students.

2.   Alternative Hypothesis

·         The alternative hypothesis states that there is a relationship between the two
variables being studied (one variable has an effect on the other).

·         It states that the results are not due to chance and that they are significant in
terms of supporting the theory being investigated.
·         Example: There is a significant relationship between socio-economic status and
academic performance of students

Ø  Conceptual Framework

-      It describes the relationships between specific variables identified in the study and
traces the entire input-process-output at the same time.

-      It forms the research paradigm or the entire model for a research.

-      It is based on generally accepted methods, practices, etc.

-      It maps out the actions required in the course of the study given his previous
knowledge of other researchers’ point of view and his observations on the subject of
research.

-      It is the researcher’s understanding of how the particular variables in his study

connect with each other. 

Ø  Theoretical Framework

-      It is a much broader and less specific term that explains how the research is guided
and what it is loosely based on.

-      It highlights what wide assumptions a researcher is carrying out his study on.

-      It mostly provides a starting point for critical analysis that makes readers aware, as
to what all previous knowledge the impending research draws from.

-      It is less technical in nature and mostly a structure of ideas that study will be based
on.

-      It deals with interrelated theories which must be presented in more detail as they
are not totally tangible.

Ø  Significance of the Study

-      It should determine who benefits from the study and how that specific audience
will benefit from its findings. 

-      It is basically the importance of your research. 

-      This part states the significance of the study and its result. It covers an expression of
the study’s relevance to fill certain needs.

Ø  Scope and Delimitation

-      The scope of the study identifies a reasonable area covered by the study. A specific
statement of the study must indicate the subjects, the number, and the treatment
involved in the study.

-      These are two elements of a research paper or thesis.

-      The scope of a study explains the extent to which the research area will be explored
in the work and specifies the parameters within which the study will be operating. 

-      Delimitations are the characteristics that limit the scope and describe the
boundaries of the study, such as the sample size, geographical location or setting in
which the study takes place, population traits, etc.

Ø  Definition of Terms

-      An alphabetical list of important terms or acronyms that you define, particularly
ambiguous terms or those used in a special way.

-      This is an important part of Research paper or report is that in which the key or
important terms in the study are clearly defined.

-      There are two types of definition of terms to use on your research:

1.    Conceptual Definition

·         This is based on what a dictionary or an encyclopedia tells.

·         This is the universal meaning that is attributed to a word or group of words and
which is understood by many people.

2.    Operational Definition

·         These are based on how the researchers used a term on their study.

·         This is the meaning of the concept or term as used in a particular study. 

·         Is the meaning of the concept or term as used in a particular study. 

INTRODUCTION

Several reasons are behind your choice of a particular topic to research on. Your
curiosity or familiarity about an animate or inanimate object and its functionality inspire
you to discover more about such person or thing. Whatever experience or background
knowledge you have about your chosen topic becomes valuable and belieavable only as
regards your acts of proving the validity or truthfulness of your claims about your topic,
if these ideas of yours are related to what the world or other people already know or
have already discovered or done about your chosen topic. Aligning your thinking with
other people’s ideas displayed legally and professionally in varied literary works lends
credibility to whatver ideas you have about your research study.

Introduction:

Several reasons are behind your choice of a particular topic to research on. Your
curiosity or familiarity about an animate or inanimate object and its functionality inspire
you to discover more about such person or thing. Whatever experience or background
knowledge you have about your chosen topic becomes valuable and belieavable only as
regards your acts of proving the validity or truthfulness of your claims about your topic,
if these ideas of yours are related to what the world or other people already know or
have already discovered or done about your chosen topic. Aligning your thinking with
other people’s ideas displayed legally and professionally in varied literary works lends
credibility to whatver ideas you have about your research study.
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
§  What is Review of Related Literature (RRL)

-      It is a detailed review of existing literature related to the topic of a thesis or

dissertation.

-      It is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic.

-      It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant

theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research.

USING THE LIBRARY AND SELECTING MATERIALS FOR

RELATED LITERATURE
Doing a research paper involves a lot of skills required  of students. These include but
are not limited to using the library, taking notes, documenting the report, writing the
draft, copy reading, and proofreading.

The researcher must be a library enthusiast. He habitually visits the library because it is a
storehouse of information in all disciplines. Local and foreign literature regarding his
chosen topic are almost always available in the library. A resourceful researcher,
particularly a library hopper, will always find the library the most convenient place to
gather data, besides the computer shop (especially one which offers internet services).
For a researcher, to use the library most effectively, he must hve knowledge of the
library classification systems: Dewey Decimal Classification System and Library of
Congress Clasification System.

v  Dewey Decimal Classification System

-      named after Melvil Dewey who devised it, has ten (decimal) groupings represented
by numbers. This sytem is used in a small library with a limited number of
holdings.These are as follows:

000 – 099     -        General Works (General References)

100 – 199     -        Philosophy

200 – 299     -        Religion

300 – 399     -        Social Sciences

400 – 499     -        Language

500 – 599     -        Pure/Natural Sciences

600 – 699     -        Applied Sciences/Technology

700 – 799     -        Fine Arts

800 – 899     -        Literature

900– 999      -        History, Geography, and Biography

         

v  Congress Classification System

-      first used by the Library Congress

-      used in a large library with a big volume of books

-      large libraries adopt this system because it consists of 21 groupings represented by

capital letters. These classes are as follows:

A        -        General Works

B        -        Philosophy and Religion

C        -        History and Related Subjects

D       -        History and Topography (not including America)

E        -        American History

F        -        American History

G       -        Geography and Anthropology

H       -        Social Sciences

J        -        Political Sciences

K        -        Law

L        -        Education

M       -        Music

N       -        Fine Arts

P        -        Language and Literature

Q       -        Pure/Natural Sciences

R        -        Medicine

S        -        Agriculture, Plant, and Animal Husbandry

T        -        Technology

U       -        Military Science

V        -        Naval Science

Z        -        Bibliography and Library Science

v  Note that the first class (000 – 099 for Dewey Decimal Classification System or A for
Library of Congress Classification System) refers to general reference books which
include but are not limited to the items cited in the succeeding table.
 

v  While the general works are generally used by researchers working in the different
disciplines, the books in the other categories are used by researchers working in their
respective disciplines. Thus, they are described as discipline-specific.

v  For example, researchers working on legal issues use law books, books specific to the
field of law.

CRITERIA IN SELECTING MATERIALS FOR RELATED

LITERATURE
In selecting materials for the review of related literature and studies, a researher must
bear in mind these four R’s:

1.   Relevance            - The material must be related to or have bearing

                               upon the subject under study.

2.   Recency or Currency - The material must be recent or must have been

published not earlier than five years ago. This   paticularly   holds true to subjects in any
field of natural sciences. However, in such disciplines as literature, history, and allied
fields, researchers are allowed to cite sources which are not current or recent.

3.   Reliablity             - The material must be credible. Crediblity is possessed by 

                               writers who have made their names in their respective

                               fields and are therefore considered authorities is such

                               fields. However, if it is necessary to cite the works of not-

                               so-known authors, it is imperative on the part of the

                               researcher to make use of sound judgement.

4.   Rightness             - The material must be true or correct and morally

                               acceptable. Writers must also pursue truth and morality

                               (ethics), so it is incumbent upon researchers who will

                               ultimately write their reports and have these published to

                               use materials which are not only logically correct but also

                               morally sound.

DOCUMENTING THE PAPER

Two kinds of documentation systems are used in the field of research.
1.   Modern Language Association (MLA) Documentation System

-      This is used by researchers in languages and humanities.

-      The MLA system had been in use for research purposes before the APA system was
introduced.

-      This system makes use of bibliography and footnote or endnote entiries. Both
bibliography entries and footnotes/endnotes contain almost the same items, but differe
in other aspects.

-      The following are the differences of the bibliography and footnotes/endnotes

entries.

Format:

v  Author’s name, Book Title. Place of publication: Publisher’s name, Date/Year of

publication

v  Author’s name, Book Title. (Place of publication: Publisher’s name, Date/Year of

publication), Page number/s
 

Example: Baraceros, Practical Research 2. Manila, Philippines: Rex Book

              Store, 2016

1.   American Pychological Association (APA) Documentation System

-      This is used by researchers in social sciences.

-      The APA system makes use of bibliography entries and parenthetical citation.

-      The bibliography entries in this system differ from those in the MLA system merely
because the date follows the author’s name.

-      As such, the system is called “author-date” system.

     Format:

v  Author’s name. (Date/Year of publication). Book Title. Place of publication: Publisher’s

name.

Example: Baraceros. (2016). Practical Research 2. Manila, Philippines: Rex Book Store.

GUIDELINES IN DOING THE BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1.    Indent the lines next to the first.

2.    Spell out the surname and us initials for the given and middle names for APA
entries; however, spell out he surname and the given name for MLA entries.

3.    Enclose in parantheses the date/year of publication. (APA only)

4.    Capitalize the first word and proper nouns and adjectives in the title and subtitle of
a book or an article for APA entries; however, capitalize all words, except conjunctions
and prepositions, for MLA entries.
5.    Capitalize the content words (nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs) in
the name of a periodical (newspaper, magazine, or journal).

6.    Underscore or italicize the title of the book or the name of a periodical.

7.    Write the edition number after the book title.

8.    Write n.p. if there is no place of publication.

9.    Write n.d. if there is no date of publication.

10. Write Anon. or a long dash if the source has no known author.

11. Write the pseudonym (false name) of the author before his real name enclosed in
brackets.

12. Write a colon after the place of publication.

13. Write a comma after the publisher’s name. (MLA only)

14. Write a period after the author’s name, the book title, and the last item in every
entry.

15. If the book is an edited book, write the abbreviation ed. after the writer’s name.

16. Write et al. (and others) after the name of the main author of a book authored by
five persons or more; the co-authors’ names are droppd.

17. Enclose in double quotation marks the title of an article in a newspaper, magazine,

or journal. (MLA only)

18. Single-space within entries.

19. Single space between entries.

20. Type BIBLIOGRAPHY at the center if the list includes direct and indirect reference
materials; however, type REFERENCES if the list includes only those reference materials
directly used in the paper.

SOME GENERAL RULES FOR APA REFERENCE PAGES

·         Begin the reference list on a new page. The pages begin with the
word References  (Reference if there is only one), centered in the top, middle of the page,
using both uppercase and lowercase. If the references take up more than one page, do
not re-type the word References  on sequential pges, simply continue the list.

·         Use one space after all punctuation.

·         The first line of the reference is flush left. Lines thereafter are indented as a group,
a few spaces, to create a hanging indention.

·         Double-space between citations. Single-space in the citation.

·         Use italics for titles of books, newspapers, mgazines, and journals.

·         References cited in text must appear in the reference list; conversely, each entry in
the reference list must be cited in text.

·         Arrange entries in alphabetical order.

·         Give in parentheses the year the work was published. For magazines and
newspapers, give the year followed by the month and date, if any. If no date is available,
write n.d.

·         Give volume numbers for magazines, journals, and newsletters. Include the issue
number for journals if and only if each begins on page 1.

AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA)

FORMAT (5th Edition)
This crib sheet is a guide to the APA style. It is not intended to replace the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association, 5th edition. Only selected citations
were chosen for inclusion here. For other examples, see the following. Use this only as a
reference.

·         Journal Article, One Author

Simon, A. (2020). Perceptual comparisons through the mind’s eye. Memory and

Cognition, 23, 635-647
 

·         Journal Artical, Two Authors

Becker, M.B., & Rose, S.J. (1995). Welcome to the energy crisis. Journal of Social
Issues, 32, 230-343

·         Magazine Article, One Author

Garner, H.J. (1997, July). Do babies have a universal song? Psychology Today, 102, 70-77

·         Newspaper Article, No Author

Study finds free care used more. (1982, April 3). Wall Street Journal, pp. A1-A25

·         Book, Two Authors

Strunk, W., & White, E.B. (1979). The Elements of Style (3rd Ed.). New York: Macmillan.

·         Edited Book

Letheridge, S., & Cannon, C.R. (Eds.). (1980). Bilingual education. New York: Praeger

·         ERIC Document

Peterson, K. (2002). Welfare-to-work Programs: Strategies for Success (Report No. EDO-

JC-02-04). Washington D.C.: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED467985)

·         Entry in an Encyclopedia
Imago. (2000). In World Book Encyclopedia (Vol. 10, p. 79). Chicago: World Book
Encyclopedia.

·         Report from a Private Organization

Kimberly-Clark. (2002). Kimberly-Clark (Annual Report). Dallas, TX: Author.

·         Dissertation

Olsen, G.W. (1985). Campus child care within the public supported post-secondary
educational institutions in the state of Wisconsin (dare care) (Doctoral dissertation,
University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1985). Dissertations Abstracts International, 47/03,783.

·         Videotape

Mass, J.B. (Producer), & Luck, D.H. (Director). (1979). Deeper into hypnosis. (Motion
picture). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

ELECTRONIC FORMATS:        

·         Internet Article Based on Print Source

The citation is done as if it were a paper article and then followed by a retrieval
statement that identifies the date retrieved and source.

Sahelian, R. (1999, January). Echo! Better Nutrition, 61, 24. Retrieved September 17, 2001,
from Academic Index.

·         Web Page with Private Organization as Author

Midwest League. (2003). Pitching, individual records. Retrieved October 1, 2003,

from http://www.midwestleague.com/indivpitching.html
 

·         Chapter or Section in an Internet Document

Thompson, G. (2003). Youth coach handbook. In Joe soccer. Retrieved September 17,
2004, from http://www.joesoccer.com/menu.html

·         Web page, Government Author

Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. (2001). Glacial habitat restoration

areas. Retrieved September 18, 2001,
from http://www.dnrstate.wi.us/org/land/wildlife/hunt/hra.htm

·         Company Information from Aggregated Database

Ripon Pickle Company, Inc. (company profile). (2003). Retrieved September 18, 2002,
from Business and Company Resource Center.

Ingersoll-Rand Company Limited (company profile). (2004). In Hoovers. Retrieved April

29, 2004, from Lexis-Nexis.

·         Personal Communications

Personal communications may be things, such as email messages, interviews, speeches,

and telephone conversations. Because the information is not retrievable, they should not
appear in the reference list. They should look as follows:

Example:

J. Burnets (personal communication, September 20, 2000) indicated that... or

A recent interview (J. Burnets, personal communication, September 20, 2000), I learned
that....

REFERENCE CITATION IN TEXT

To refer to an item in the list of references from the text, an author-date method should
be used. That is, use the surname of the author (without suffixes) and the year of the
publication in the text at appropriate points.

Example: Researchers have indicated that more is expected of students in higher

education (Hudson, 2001) and secondary education (Taylor&Horning, 2002).

·         One Author

Isaac (2001) indicated in his research...

In a recent study, research indicates (Isaac, 2001)

·         Two or more Authors

When a work has two authors, always cite both names every time the reference occurs.
For works with three, four, or five authors, cite all authors the first time the reference
occurs. In subsequent citations, include only the last name of the first author followed
by et al.

·         When a work has no Authors

Cite in text in the first few words of what appears first for the entry on the list (usually
the title) and the year.

 
(“New Student Center”, 2002)

·         Specific part of a Source

(Youth and Monitor, 1982, p. 19)

Cooper, 1983, chap. 4)

WRITING CITATIONS
While bibliography entries are located at the last page, the reference citations are found
in the text. They are more popularly called “parenthetical citations” because they are
enclosed in parentheses. They include the author’s last name, the year of publication,
and, whenever possible, the page number/s as in (Menoy, 2007, p. 123). Whenever the
author is mentioned in the text, only the year is enclosed in parentheses.

Examples:

v  The three Q’s of questionnaire construction (Menoy, 2009).

v  Menoy (2009) devised the three Q’s of questionnaire construction.

There are three ways to do the in-text citation (it is called in-text citation because it
forms part of the textual material and opposed to reference citation or bibliographic
citation found on the last page/s): (1)subject-heading citation, (2) author-heading
citation, and (3) date-heading citation. The classification is based on whichever of the
three (subject, author, or date) comes first. Examples are provided below.
WRITING REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
1.    Define the topic and audience.

2.    Search and re-search the literature.

3.    Take notes while reading.

4.    Choose the review you wish to write.

5.    Keep the review focused, but make it of broad interest.

6.    Be critical and consistent.

7.    Find a logical structure.

8.    Make use of feedback.

9.    Include your own relevant research, but be objective.

10. Be up-to-date, but do not forget older studies.

ETHICAL STANDARDS IN WRITING RELATED LITERATURE

Writing, as any human activity, include corresponding ethical standards. Therefore,
writers are bound to live up to these standards.
 

1.    Practice honesty with professional colleagues. Researchers who work as a team

should acknowledge the contributions of their colleagues in the completion of the
research paper. Moreover, they have to divide the finacial reward accordingly or
proportionately.

2.    Report findings with complete honesty. Researchers should report their findings as
honesty as possible. They must not resort to lies in order to win acclaim or the favor of
the sponsoring institution or of th audience.

3.   

     CONCEPT EXPLANATION:

Do not misrepresent, misinform, mislead, and/or intentionally misinterpret. Some
researchers make some misinterpretation or misinformation in order to boost their egos
or to gain monetary or other rewards.
4.    Give appropriate credit when using other people’s work. Cite the name of the
author or the source of the material you quoted, paraphrased, and summarized so that
the readers will know which words and ideas were borrowed by you.

5.    Avoid plagiarism by fully acknowledging all contents belonging to others. According

to Manlapaz and Francisco (2005), writers may commit any of the four types of
plagiarism:

v  Word-for-word plagiarism (copying verbatim without giving credit to the source)

v  Paraphrase plagiarism (replacing some of the words with other words without
changing the sentence structures)

v  Mosaic plagiarism (changing the structures or sentence patterns while retaining most
of the words)

v  Souce plagiarism (not naming the true source of the material quoted, parapahrased
or summarized).

Examples of Plagiarism:
“When done properly, the consent process ensures that individuals are voluntarily
participating in the research with full knowledge of relevant risks and benefits (Smith,
2003)”. – This is the correct citation

·         Word-for-word plagiarism

-      When done properly, the consent process ensures that individuals are voluntarily
participating in the research with full knowledge of relevant risks and benefits. – There
were no mention of source and no quotation marks.

·         Paraphrase plagiarism

-      When it is one in a proper way, the process of consenting guarantees that persons
are willing to participate in the research, knowing fully the relevant dangers and rewards
it brings. – Some words were added and/or replacd by synonyms.

·         Mosaic plagiarism

-      The consent process, when it is done properly, ensures that, having full knowledge
of relevant risks and benefits, individuals are voluntarily participating in the research.
– Some parts of the complex sentence were repositioned to make it appear
different from original.

·         Source plagiarism

-      “When done properly, the consent process ensures that individuals are voluntarily
participating in the research with full knowledge of relevant risks and benefits (Science
Directorate of the American Psychological Association, 2003).” – The quotation was
credited to the wrong source, not to the true one, the author of the article,
Deborah Smith.