EEN 330

Electromagnetics I
Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh
 Chapter 2

Transmission lines
Learning outcomes
 Develop equations for wave propagation on a transmission line and define
characteristic impedance and propagation constant

 Investigate wave reflection from terminated transmission lines and define

input impedance and standing wave ratio

 Introduce the Smith chart, a graphical tool for the study of transmission
lines, and use it to develop impedance matching networks

 Study the behavior of transient signals on a terminated transmission line

3 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

Ideal wires and transmission lines
 Power lines, telephone lines, and cable TV lines are all examples of
transmission lines (T-lines).

 In circuit elements and electronic circuits

 Ideal lossless wires of negligible length
 Signal phase at load and source are the same (in-phase)

 In T-lines
 Loss as length is important
 Signal phase is delayed when traveling from source to load (out-of-phase)

4 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

Ideal wires and transmission lines
 Figure 2.1 in TB:
(a) A sinusoidal voltage is dropped
across a resistor. The supply and
resistor are connected by an
ideal conductor and are
therefore in-phase.
(b) A quarter-wavelength-long T-line
is inserted between the supply
and the resistor.
(c) The voltage at the resistor is 90°
out-of-phase with the supply
voltage (-90° delay)

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2.1 Distributed-parameter model
 Three most common T-
line types are:

 Twin-lead  e.g.TV to
Antenna

 Coaxial (coax)  e.g to

connect high-frequency
components together

 Microstrip  circuit
board level

6 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

 2.1 Distributed-parameter model
 The general model for T-line
resembles twin-lead cable.

 A differential segment of the

line can be modeled using:
 The series distributed
elements:
 R’ (resistance/meter)
 L’ (inductance/meter)
 The shunt distributed
elements:
 G’ (conductance/meter)
 C’ (capacitance/meter)

 To get the “pure” values,

multiply by ∆z
Fig. 2.3 in TB: The distributed parameters
 e.g. R’∆z = R for a differential segment of T-line

7 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.1 Distributed-parameter model
 Resistance and inductance  properties of the wire

 Conductance and capacitance  property of the dielectric

 The two wires in the dual-conductor T-line are separated by some dielectric
material. Real dielectrics, however, do conduct a small amount of shunt current.
The parameter used to quantify this is the conductance (reciprocal of
resistance).
 A capacitance exists between the two conductive lines separated by the
dielectric.

 We will consider that signal propagation along the T-line consists of

charging and discharging the capacitors and inductors. The propagation
speed depends on the material properties (ε in the dielectric and µ of the
conductors), while attenuation consists of resistive losses in the conductor
and the dielectric material.

8 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.1 Distributed-parameter model
 Table 2.1 in TB: Distributed parameters at high frequencies for coaxial
and twin-lead cables
 σc = conductor conductivity (see Table E1 in Appendix E)
 σd = conductance of the dielectric (see Table E2 in Appendix E)
Coaxial Cable Twin-Lead Cable

R’ (Ω/m) 1 1 1 π fµ 1 fµ
 + 
2π  a b  σ c a σc
HW Drill
L’ (H/m) µ b µ  d  2.1 on paper
ln   cosh −1  
2π  a  π  2a  and compare
solution to
G’ (S/m) 2πσ d πσ d MATLAB 2.1
( )
ln b
a ( 2a )
cosh −1 d

C’ (F/m) 2πε πε
( )
ln b
a ( 2a )
cosh −1 d

9 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.1 Distributed-parameter model
Table E1: Conductors at Table E2: Properties for selected dielectricsa
room temperaturea

10 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.1 Distributed-parameter model
2.1.2 Telegraphist’s equations
 Circuit analysis of the distributed parameter model yields equations for
wave propagation  The Telegraphist’s Equations which are the general T-
line equations.

 Fig. 2.4 in TB:

Instantaneous
parameter model
including
instantaneous voltage
and current.

11 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

 2.1 Distributed-parameter model
2.1.2 Telegraphist’s equations
∂i ( z , t )
Kirchhoff’s voltage law: v ( z , t ) − v ( z +=
∆z , t ) i ( z , t ) R ' ∆z + L ' ∆z .
∂t
Divide both sides by ∆z, and take the limit as ∆z approaches zero:
v ( z , t ) − v ( z + ∆z , t ) ∂i ( z , t )
lim = i ( z, t ) R '+ L ' .
∆z →0 ∆z ∂t

The limit on the left is the definition of a derivative, so

∂v ( z , t ) ∂i ( z , t )
− = i ( z, t ) R '+ L ' .
∂z ∂t

Likewise, by Kirchhoff’s current law Telegraphist’s

∂v ( z + ∆z , t ) Equations
i ( z , t ) − i ( z + ∆z , =
t ) v( z + ∆z , t )G ' ∆z + C ' ∆z .
∂t
∂i ( z , t ) ∂v ( z , t )
Leading to − = v ( z , t )G ' + C ' .
∂z ∂t

12 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.2 Time-Harmonic waves on T-lines
 Referring once again to Fig. 2.4, if the voltage is a sinusoidal function of time,
it can be represented at any position and time along the line by

v(z, t ) = V(z ) cos(ωt + φ)

where V(z) depends only on position along the T-line. We can write

[ ] [
v(z, t ) = Re V(z )e jωt e jφ = Re Vs (z )e jωt ]
where the phasor (recall section 1.7)
Vs (z ) = V(z)e jφ

 Likewise the current i(z,t) can be written in phasor form as

[
i(z, t ) = Re I s (z )e jωt ]
13 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.2 Time-Harmonic waves on T-lines
 The utility of using phasors is that time derivatives can be replaced by jω, as
(see proof in TB)
∂
Re[e jωt ] = Re[ jωe jωt ]
∂t
 Applying this relation to v(z,t) we get

∂v(z, t ) ∂
∂t
[ ] ∂
= Re Vs (z )e jωt = Vs (z ) Re e jωt
∂t ∂t
[ ]
∂v(z, t )
⇒
∂t
[
= Vs (z ) Re jωe jωt ]

14 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.2 Time-Harmonic waves on T-lines
 In phasor representation, we suppress the “Re” and the “ ejωt ”, so
∂v(z, t )
= jωVs (z )
∂t
 So by employing phasors we can rewrite the telegraphist’s equations as

dVs (z ) dI s (z )
= −(R '+ jωL')I s (z ) and = −(G '+ jωC')Vs (z )
dz dz
phasor form telegraphist's equations

 Notice that we don’t need partial derivatives since the phasors are only a
function of position.The task now is to solve for the two unknowns Vs(z)
and Is(z), in these two equations.

15 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.2 Time-Harmonic waves on T-lines
 Taking the position derivative of both sides of Vs(z), we have
d dVs (z ) dI s (z )
= −(R '+ jωL')
dz dz dz
 Replacing the derivative of Is(z) with − (G '+ jωC')Vs (z ) we have

d 2 Vs (z )
2
= (R '+ jωL')(G '+ jωC')Vs (z )
dz

 Upon rearranging, we have

d 2 Vs (z ) 2
2
− γ Vs (z ) = 0
dz
Where γ is the propagation constant defined by

γ= (R '+ jωL')(G '+ jωC') = α + jβ

16 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.2 Time-Harmonic waves on T-lines
d 2 Vs (z ) 2
 The solution of 2
− γ Vs (z ) = 0 is of the form (see proof in TB or ODE
course) dz

Vs (z ) = V0+ e − γz + V0− e + γz
where V0+ and V0− are the values of the +z and −z directed voltage wave,
respectively, at z = 0. These values consist of an amplitude and phase.

 The instantaneous form, found by reinserting ejω and taking the real part of
the Euler’s identity, is then

v(z , t ) = V0+ e − αz cos(ωt − βz ) + V0− e + αz cos(ωt + βz )

 Similarly, we can find Traveling wave equations

i (z , t ) = I 0+ e − αz cos(ωt − βz ) + I 0− e + αz cos(ωt + βz )

17 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

 2.2 Time-Harmonic waves on T-lines
2.2.1 Characteristic impedance Z0
Given the traveling wave equations:
v( z , t ) Vo+ e −α z cos (ωt − β z ) + Vo− e +α z cos (ωt + β z )
=
i ( z , t ) I o+ e −α z cos (ωt − β z ) + I o− e +α z cos (ωt + β z )
=

Characteristic impedance Zo is the ratio of voltage to current wave

amplitudes in one direction, or
Vo+ Vo− (Note: if V0+ and I0+ have different phases, Z0 is complex)
Zo = + = − −
Io Io

Inserting the wave equations into the phasor-form Telegraphist’s

equations we find
R '+ jω L '
Zo =
G '+ jωC ' HW: do Drill 2.2

L'
For low loss line, this becomes Z o =
C'
18 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.2 Time-Harmonic waves on T-lines
2.2.2 Lossless line
 Low loss lines feature high conductivity conductors like copper and low
loss dielectrics like Teflon, such that R’<< ωL’ and G’<<ωC’. For this case,
we can assume R’=G’=0 and consider the transmission line to be lossless.

 Evaluating the propagation constant for this case, we have

γ = j ω L ' C ' = α + jβ

 For no attenuation (α = 0)  β = ω L' C'

 From this equation, we can find the propagation velocity
ω 1
up = =
β L ' C'
and the characteristic impedance
L'
Z0 =
C'
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2.2 Time-Harmonic waves on T-lines
2.2.2 Lossless line
 If we consider the formulas for coaxial cables, we get
L' C' = µε
so we have
1
up =
µε

which is also valid for all T-lines.

c 1
 Now for nonmagnetic material, µr = 1 and u p = since c =
εr µ 0ε0
is the speed of light.

 This also means that in a medium different that free space

c c
up = = λf ⇒ λ =
εr f εr
20 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.2 Time-Harmonic waves on T-lines
Example 2.1
A 1.0 mm diameter copper wire is surrounded by a 1.0 mm
thickness of Teflon, then jacketed by copper. Assuming this
coaxial cable is lossless, we want to find the propagation velocity,
up, and the characteristic impedance, Zo.
HW: Do Drill 2.3
For Teflon, εr = 2.1 from Appendix E, so

m
3 x108
c s 2.1x108 m
=
up = =
εr 2.1 s

For Zo, we have a = 0.50 mm and b = 1.5 mm, so

60 b 60  1.5 
Z= ln  =
 ln  =  46 Ω.
εr  a 
o
2.1  0.5 

21 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.3 Power transmission
average power for a time- 1
harmonic wave: Pave ( z ) = Re Vs I s* 
2

A +z propagating voltage + − jβ z + jφ − j β z
wave on a lossless line: = Vs V=o e Vo e e
where Vo+ has a magnitude ( Vo+ ) and a phase (φ).

Is is in phase with Vs for a +

jφ − j β z
V
= +
I s I= e jφ e − j β z
o
lossless line, so o e e
Zo

1  + jφ − j β z Vo − jφ + j β z  1 Vo
+ + 2
+
thus Pave ( z) Re  Vo e e
= e e 
2  Zo  2 Z o


For a lossy line, Is is no longer in phase with Vs so

+2
1 V
Z o = Z o e jθ , leading to Pave
+
( z) = e −2α z cos θ
o

2 Zo
22 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.3 Power transmission
Example 2.2
A copper conductor coaxial cable (a = 1.0 mm, b = 3.0 mm) with thick outer
conductor is filled with a nonmagnetic dielectric with εr = 5.0 and tanδ = 0.00010
measured at 2.0 GHz. Find power lost per meter length of this cable.

We will find in chapter 6 that the loss tangent is related to an effective

S
conductivity, σeff, of the dielectric
= : σ eff ωε
= tan δ 55.6 x 10−6 .
m
This can be used in the Table 2.1 equation for R’.
From the table, R’=2.48 Ω/m, L’=220nH/m, C’=253pF/m and G’=318µS/m.
Then
1 Np
γ = ( R '+ jω L ')( G '+ jωC ') =0.0467 + j 93.73 , so α = 0.0467
m m
We don’t know the voltage amplitude, so we calculate the power loss as a ratio:
+
Pave ( z = 1m) −2α (1m )
+
= e= 0.91
Pave ( z = 0m)

23 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.3 Power transmission
Decibels (dB)
 In engineering, it is customary to measure power ratios on a logarithmic
scale called the decibel scale. The power ratio can be expressed as a gain
G(dB), where
P 
G[dB] = 10 log out 
 Pin 
 In example 2.2, for instance G(dB) = -0.4 dB. Here a negative gain means
we have attenuation, which can be written as

P 
α[dB] = 10 log in 
 Pout 

 It is very easy to multiply power ratios by adding their decibels. For

example, suppose a circuit with a -1.5 dB gain is in series with an amplifier
that has a 9 dB gain. So the overall gain of the circuit is -1.5 + 9 = 7.5 dB.

24 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.3 Power transmission
Decibels (dB)
 Although the decibel scale expresses a power ratio, it is sometimes
convenient to express an absolute power. In this case a power reference is
needed. One of the most common ways to represent absolute power level
is the dBm scale, where the reference is 1 mW. Then

 P 
P[dBm ] = 10 log 
 1 mW 

 For example, a 1 MW power level is 10log(106/10-3) = 90 dBm.

 Moreover, decibels are also related to nepers as (see proof in TB)

1 Np = 8.686 dB

HW: Drill 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6

25 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.4 Terminated T-lines

 Fig. 2.6 in TB shows a T-line terminated with load impedance ZL at z = 0.

 The load impedance is the ratio of the voltage to the current at the load.
Applying the wave equations at z = 0, we have

26 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.4 Terminated T-lines

Z L − Zo
Rearranging, Vo− = Vo+ = Γ LVo+
Z L + Zo

Where ΓL is the reflection coefficient and is a measure of the impedance

mismatch at the load.
V0− Z L − Z 0
ΓL = + = Reflection coefficient at the load
V0 Z L + Z0
27 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.4 Terminated T-lines
 Special cases
 Shorted load (ZL = 0)  ΓL= −1

 Matched load (ZL = Z0)  ΓL = 0  −1 ≤ ΓL ≤ 1

 Open load (ZL = ∞)  ΓL = +1

 Thus, the reflection coefficient magnitude ranges from 0 to 1.

28 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.4 Terminated T-lines
 In general, the reflection coefficient at any point along the T-line is given by
the ratio of the reflected wave to the incident wave, that is,

V0− e + γz
Γ = + − γz = ΓL e + 2 γz
V0 e
 The reflection coefficient at the input (z = − l ) would then be

Γ = ΓL e −2 γl

29 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.4 Terminated T-lines
2.4.1 Voltage standing wave ratio

Fig. 2.8 in TB: Standing wave pattern

for a voltage wave (V0+=1V) incident
on a load at z=0 where ΓL=0.5. Traces
of v(z,t) are plotted in 20° increments
for ωt ranging from 0° to 360°.

 Superposition of the incident and reflected waves creates a standing wave

pattern.
 Here, v(z,t) = cos(ωt−βz) + ΓLcos(ωt+βz)

30 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.4 Terminated T-lines
2.4.1 Voltage standing wave ratio
 The maxima are related to the reflection coefficient by

Vmax = 1 + ΓL

in the example of Fig. 2.8 reaching a value of 1.5.

 Similarly, the minima have a value of 0.5 as

Vmin = 1 − ΓL

 The ratio of the maximum amplitude of this voltage standing wave to the
minimum is know as the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR)

Vmax 1 + ΓL
VSWR = = (1 < VSWR < ∞)
Vmin 1 − ΓL
HW: Do Drill 2.7
31 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.4 Terminated T-lines
2.4.1 Voltage standing wave ratio
v(z,t) = cos(ωt−βz) + 0.5cos(ωt+βz)
ωt = 0
f= 3x108Hz λ = 1m

32 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.4 Terminated T-lines
2.4.1 Voltage standing wave ratio
v(z,t) = cos(ωt−βz) + 0.5cos(ωt+βz)
ωt = pi/4
f= 3x108Hz λ = 1m

33 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.4 Terminated T-lines
2.4.1 Voltage standing wave ratio
v(z,t) = cos(ωt−βz) + 0.5cos(ωt+βz)
ωt = pi/2
f= 3x108Hz λ = 1m

34 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.4 Terminated T-lines
2.4.1 Voltage standing wave ratio
v(z,t) = cos(ωt−βz) + 0.5cos(ωt+βz)
ωt = pi
f= 3x108Hz λ = 1m

35 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.4 Terminated T-lines
2.4.1 Voltage standing wave ratio
v(z,t) = cos(ωt−βz) + 0.5cos(ωt+βz)
ωt = 0:pi/4:pi
f= 3x108Hz λ = 1m

36 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.4 Terminated T-lines
2.4.1 Voltage standing wave ratio
v(z,t) = cos(ωt−βz) + 0.5cos(ωt+βz)
ωt = 0:pi/4:2pi
f= 3x108Hz λ = 1m

37 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.4 Terminated T-lines
2.4.1 Voltage standing wave ratio
Animation: Example of a standing wave with |ΓL| = 1 (as Vmin = 1- |ΓL|=0)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_wave

38 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.4 Terminated T-lines
2.4.2 Input impedance
 At any point along the T-line, we can find the
ratio of the total voltage to the total current.
This ratio is known as the input impedance.

 Looking at the line at z = − l , the input

impedance is

Vs (z = − l ) V0+ e + γl + V0− e − γl Fig. 2.9 in TB: The

Z in = = Z 0 + + γl terminated T-line can be
I s (z = − l ) V0 e − V0− e − γl replaced by an equivalent
lumped-element input
impedance.

39 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.4 Terminated T-lines
2.4.2 Input impedance
 This equation can be manipulated to give (see TB)

Z L + Z0 tanh (γl )
Zin = Z0
Z0 + Z L tanh (γl )

and for the special lossless case

Z L + jZ 0 tan (βl )
Zin = Z0
Z0 + jZ L tan (βl )

 The utility of the input impedance concept is that the T-line beyond
wherever the input impedance is determined can be replaced by a lumped-
element impedance Zin, as indicated in the pair of equivalent circuits in Fig.
2.9.
HW: Do Drill 2.8 and
MATLAB 2.2
40 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.4 Terminated T-lines
2.4.3 Complex loads

 Input impedances or loads exhibiting a complex impedance may be

modeled using simple resistor, inductor, and capacitor lumped elements as
shown in Fig. 2.10 in TB.

 For example, consider a load ZL = 100 +j200 Ω. We can model this as a

100Ω resistor in series with an inductor. The value of inductance will
depend on the frequency, so if we specify 1 GHz then jωL=j200 Ω and L =
32 nH.

41 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.4 Terminated T-lines
2.4.3 Complex loads
 One case of interest is a lossless line terminated in a purely reactive load. If
we consider Z0=R0=√(L’/C’), representing the all-real characteristic
impedance for a lossless T-line, and ZL = jXL, representing a purely reactive
load, then the reflection coefficient is
jX L − R 0
ΓL =
jX L + R 0
 |ΓL| = 1. This is expected, as no energy can be dissipated in a purely
reactive load. The wave is completely reflected. There is however, a phase
shift associated with the reactive load.

HW: Do Drill 2.9

42 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.4 Terminated T-lines
Quarter-wave line
 When the length of a lossless T-line is an odd multiple of λ/4, e.g.
l = λ/4, βl = π/2  tan(βl) = ∞, the input impedance Zin reduces to:

Z 02
Z in = (Quarter − wave line)
ZL

 Hence, a quarter-wave lossless line transforms the load impedance to the

input terminals as its inverse multiplied by the square of the characteristic
impedance Z0. It acts as a impedance inverter and is often referred to as a
quarter-wave transformer. (Remember for a lossless T-line, Z0=R0=√(L’/C’))

 An open-circuited quarter-wave line (ZL = ∞) appears as a short circuit at

the input terminals (Zin = 0)and a short-circuited quarter-wave line (ZL = 0)
appears as an open circuit. (Zin = ∞)

43 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.4 Terminated T-lines
Half-wave line
 When the length of a lossless T-line is an odd multiple of λ/2, e.g.
l = λ/2, βl = π  tan(βl) = 0, the input impedance Zin reduces to:

Z in = Z L (Half − wave line)

 Hence, a half-wave lossless line transfers the load impedance to the input
terminals without change.

 Note that for lossy T-lines, those properties do not apply, as we have the
loss coefficient α in the equation of Zin
Z L + Z 0 tanh (γl )
Z in = Z 0 ⇒ Z in ,open = Z 0 coth( γl )
Z 0 + Z L tanh (γl )
⇒ Z in , short = Z 0 tanh( γl )

44 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.4 Terminated T-lines
2.4.4 Special terminations
Γ L =−1
1. Short circuit
λ/2 VSWR = ∞

for lossless line

Z in = jZ o tan β l
•Every half-wavelength
from the load appears
shorted.
•For lossless T-line, Zin
is always a pure
reactance. Depending
on the length of the line,
this reactance may
appear inductive (+j) or
capacitive (-j)
45 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.4 Terminated T-lines
2.4.4 Special terminations
Γ L =+1
2. Open circuit
λ/2 VSWR = ∞

for lossless line

Z in = − jZ o cot β l

Every half-wavelength
from the load appears as
an open circuit, and
every quarter-
wavelength appears as a
short circuit.

46 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.5 The complete circuit
 Complete circuit:
 Add a voltage source Vss.
 Add a source impedance Zs to a
terminated T-line as in Fig. 2.13.

 Equivalent circuit:
 At z = − l , the terminated T-line is
replaced with a lumped-element input
impedance Zin.

Fig. 2.13 in TB: The circuit after

 Voltage division across Zin: adding a source, and the
equivalent circuit
Z in
Vin = VSS
Z S + Z in
= V ( z = -l ).
47 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.5 The complete circuit
 At any point on the line the voltage is given by

V ( z ) = Vo+ e − γ z + V
=o
− +γ z
e Vo
+
e (
−γ z
+ Γ L
e )
+γ z
.
 Evaluating at z = − l 
+ Vin
V =
e+γ l + Γ L e−γ l
o

 The voltage across the load 

VL= V ( z= 0)= Vo+ (1 + Γ L ) .

48 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

 2.5 The complete circuit
Example 2.3
 Consider the lossless T-line circuit
of Fig. 2.14 in TB. We want to find
the voltage across the 100 Ω load.

Z L − Zo
ΓL =
Z L + Zo
100Ω − 50Ω 1


convert source voltage to phasor: VSS = 10e j 30

V.
= = .
100Ω + 50Ω 3
Z L + jZ o tan( β l )
for a lossless T-Line, Z in = Z o .
Z o + jZ L tan( β l )

2π λ π π Z o2
βl
Since= = , tan β l = tan = ∞ , and Z in= = 25Ω.
λ 4 2 2 ZL
49 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.5 The complete circuit
Example 2.3 continued
Z in 25
 

Vin V= 10 e =
j 30
5e j 30
V.
Z s + Z in 25 + 25
ss

For the lossless case, γ = jβ and γl = jβl = jπ/2. So


j 30
Vin 5e
=

+ − j 60
V =+γ l −γ l
7.5e V.
e + Γ Le e +
o  
j 90 1 − j 90
e
3

HW: Do Drill 2.10

=
VL V o
+
(1 + Γ=
L)
7.5e − j 60


( )
1 + 1= 10e − j 60 V .
3

and MATLAB 2.3

form: v L 10 cos ω t − 60 V .

Converting to instantaneous = ( )
50 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.6 The Smith chart
 “Transmission line calculator”
created in the 1930s by Philip
H. Smith

 Most useful for lossless T-

Lines

 Used to find impedance and

reflection coefficient at any
point along a terminated T-
Line

51 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

 2.6 The Smith chart
2.6.1 Smith chart derivation
 Creating the Smith chart
ZL
• Normalized load resistance z L =
Zo
Z L − Z o zL − 1
• ΓL
= =
Z L + Z o zL + 1

• At a point z along the T-Line,

Z IN
o Normalized impedance z IN =
Zo
j 2β z z IN − 1
o Γ = Γ Le = = Γ Re + jΓ IM
z IN + 1

(error in TB)
52 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.6 The Smith chart
2.6.1 Smith chart derivation
Rearranging to solve for z IN , we get
1 + Γ 1 + ΓRe + jΓIm
z IN = = = r + jx
1 − Γ 1 − ΓRe − jΓIm
1 − ΓRe
2
− ΓIm
2
j 2ΓIm
⇒r = and jx = (*)
(1 − ΓRe ) 2 + ΓIm
2
(1 − ΓRe ) 2 + ΓIm
2

Now the general equation of a circle of radius a, centered at x = m and y = n is

( x − m) 2 + ( y − n) 2 = a 2
So equations (*) can be rearranged into forms that give circular functions of r and x :

2 2 2 2
 r   1 
Γ
 Re −  + Γ 2
=   (ΓRe − 1)2 +  ΓIm − 1  =  1 
r +1  r +1
Im
  x x
normalized resistance circles normalized reactance circles

53 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.6 The Smith chart
2.6.1 Smith chart derivation
Examples for normalized resistance circles:
2 2
 r   1 
 ΓRe −  + ΓIm =  
2

 r +1  r +1
 r = 0 circle centered at (0,0) with radius = 1
 r = 1 circle centered at ( ½,0) with radius = ½

 Remember that r is the normalized resistance and

x is the normalized reactance of the input
impedance at any point along the T-line.

 Note that all possible circles of r>0 are enclosed

in the r=0 circle.

54 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.6 The Smith chart
2.6.1 Smith chart derivation
Examples for normalized resistance circles:
2 2
 1 1
(ΓRe − 1) +  ΓIm −  =  
2

 x x
 x = 1 circle centered at (1,1) with radius = 1
 x = -1 circle centered at ( 1,-1) with radius = 1

 The allowed portion of those circles are shown in

this figure.
 The upper-half of the Smith chart represents
positive reactance (appearing inductive) and the
bottom-half negative reactance (appearing
capacitive)

55 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.6 The Smith chart
MATLAB 2.4
 The routine in MATLAB 2.4 draws a Smith chart.

56 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

 2.6 The Smith chart
2.6.2 Using the Smith chart

 The Smith chart is a plot of normalized

impedance:

 Consider we have the T-line shown in Fig. 2.21

in TB with Z0= 50 Ω and ZL=50+j100 Ω.

 Normalize to Z0 zL = ZL/ Z0= 1+j2

 Location on Smith chart  intersection

of r=1 and jx=j2 circles

57
2.6 The Smith chart
2.6.2 Using the Smith chart
 The Smith chart is also a plot of reflection coefficient:
 We recall that the reflection coefficient at any point z along a lossless T-line is

Γ = ΓRe + jΓIm = ΓL e j2βz = ΓL e jθΓ

 |ΓL| is found by taking the distance from
the center of the chart to the point
divided by the distance from the center
to the periphery (|ΓL|=1).
 To avoid calculation, a scale for
magnitude of |ΓL| is provided below
the Smith chart circle.
 The angle of reflection coefficient θΓ is
indicated on the angle of reflection coefficient
scale shown outside the |ΓL|=1 circle  see next page

58 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

59 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.6 The Smith chart
2.6.2 Using the Smith chart
 In our example, we read from the chart that the normalized impedance
zL = 1+j2 corresponds to |ΓL|= 0.7 and θΓ = 45°. This can be verified by
calculation:
Z L − Z0 50 + j100 − 50 
ΓL = = = 0.5 + j0.5 = 0.707e j45
Z L + Z0 50 + j100 + 50

 We note that the reflection coefficient Γ has a magnitude |ΓL| and an angle
θΓ = angle at the load + 2βz = φ+ 2βz

Γ = ΓRe + jΓIm = ΓL e j2βz = ΓL e jθΓ

 It is useful to draw the constant |ΓL|-circle, i.e. we hold |ΓL| constant and
change θΓ. This is equivalent to moving along the T-line.

60 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.6 The Smith chart
2.6.2 Using the Smith chart
 Recalling that θΓ = 2βz + φ, we see that the input impedance at some point
z = − l  θΓ = -2βl + φ, thus

moving away from the load == moving in the clockwise direction on the
Smith chart

 Since the function e jθΓ is sinusoidal, it repeats for

2βz = N2π
(where N = 1,2,3…)
 So since β = 2π/λ, we see that at values of z where
λ
z=N
2
 One revolution of Γ correspond to half-wavelength travel along the T-
line. (recall open and short circuit case)

61 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.6 The Smith chart
2.6.2 Using the Smith chart
 Continuing our example, we suppose
the T-line has a length of l = 0.3λ.
Drawing a line from the center of the
chart to the outside “Wavelength
Toward Generator” (WTG) scale, we
observe a starting point at 0.188λ.

 Now adding 0.3λ to moves us clockwise

along the constant- |ΓL| circle to 0.488λ
on the WTG scale, corresponding to a
normalized input impedance of
zin=0.175−j0.08. Denormalizing, we find
an input impedance of
Zin=zinZ0 = 8.75−j4 Ω
zin = 0.175−j0.08

62 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.6 The Smith chart
2.6.2 Using the Smith chart
 Comparing our answer to calculation, where βl = (2π/λ) ×0.3λ=0.6π :

Z L + Z 0 tan (βl )
Z in = Z 0
Z 0 + Z L tan (βl )

>> 50*((50+100j)+j*50*tan(0.6*pi))/(50+j*(50+100j)*tan(0.6*pi))

ans =

8.6302 - 3.8186i

63 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.6 The Smith chart
2.6.2 Using the Smith chart
 Also, the VSWR can be determined from the Smith chart by reading the
value of r at the θΓ = 0° crossing for the constant-|ΓL| circle  point b in
figure.
 This can be seen by recalling that
z IN − 1 1+ Γ
Γ= ⇒ z IN = = r + jx
z IN + 1 1− Γ
 Now at x=0 and r>1, |ΓL| = Γ, so
1 + ΓL
z IN = r = = VSWR
1 − ΓL

 In our example, we find VSWR = 5.9

by reading from the Smith chart.
Comparing to calculation VSWR = (1+0.707)/(1−0.707) = 5.83.

64 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.6 The Smith chart
2.6.2 Using the Smith chart
 The point where VSWR is taken is also the location of the maximum value
of r along the constant-|ΓL| circle. The minimum value of r occurs a
distance λ/4 away (at θΓ = 180° ).

 These two points for maximum and minimum value of r correspond to the
locations of relative voltage maximum and minimum on the T-line.

65 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.6 The Smith chart
2.6.2 Using the Smith chart
 Drill 2.11
Locate the points on the
Smith chart if Zo = 50Ω for
the following loads:
(a) ZL = 0

(b) ZL = ∞

(c) ZL = 100 + j100 Ω

(d) ZL = 100 – j100 Ω
(e) ZL =50 Ω

Let us do Drill 2.12

66 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

67 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
68 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.6 The Smith chart
2.6.3 Impedance measurement
 Probe measures electric field
amplitude on the slotted coaxial
air line. The probe can be slid
along the line.

 The ratio of the voltage maxima

and minima is VSWR

 Load impedance found by

comparing its field pattern with
that of a short termination

 Check example 2.4 on next slide

69 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.6 The Smith chart
Example 2.4
 Z0 = 50 Ω

1. Set reference location at a

short minimum.
2. Determine λ from the fact
that the difference between
2 minima = λ/2
3. Determine VSWR from
Vmax/Vmin, and draw the
constant-|ΓL| circle.
4. Move from load minima to
reference location of the
load

70 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.6 The Smith chart
Example 2.4
1. Reference location at 5 cm

2. λ/2 = 15 cm  λ=30 cm

3. Vmax/Vmin = 3  locate and draw

the constant-|ΓL| circle

4. Move from load minima (point a)

towards reference location of the
load (point b)
10.5cm/(30cm/λ) = 0.350λ
 10.5 WTL = 0.350λ (as in chart
here) or 4.5 WTG = 0.150λ

 Point b = zL = 0.8+1.0j
 ZL=Z0*zL = 40+50j Ω

71 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.7 Impedance matching
 When transmitting signals between a source and a load on a T-line, it is
essential that the load be matched to the characteristic impedance of the
line.

 This will insure that there are no reflections from the load which can lead
to power loss or to the distortion of the signal.

 In this section, we will investigate the simple Quarter-Wave Transformer

matching technique.

72 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.7 Impedance matching

 Recall from section 2.4 that the reflection coefficient is a measure of the
impedance mismatch at the load
V0− Z L − Z 0
ΓL = + =
V0 Z L + Z0
 When we have a matched load, i.e. ZL = Z0  ΓL = 0, so all wave power enters
the matching network (we have no reflected wave)

 If matching network only consists of reactive components (L, C, lengths of

lossless T-Line) then no power is dissipated in the network and therefore all
power is received by the load.

73 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.7 Impedance matching
2.7.1 Quarter-Wave transformer
 If the load impedance is all real (no reactive component), then a quarter-
wave matching network can en constructed.

 A quarter-wave transformer is a piece of T-line with length l = λg/4 and

characteristic impedance Zs, inserted between the load RL and the T-line
with characteristic impedance Z0.

74 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.7 Impedance matching
2.7.1 Quarter-Wave transformer
Finding Zs for impedance matching:
 We have

RL + jZ s tan (βl )
Z in = Z s
Z s + jRL tan (βl )

 For l = λg/4  βl = π/2  tan(βl )=∞

Zs2
 Zin =
RL

So for impedance matching, we set Zin = Z0

Zs2
 Zin = = Z 0  Zs = Z 0 R L
RL HW: Do Drill 2.14

75 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.7 Impedance matching
2.7.2 Matching with the Smith chart
 Objective  move from zL to zin =1 in
the center of the chart.

 Method:
1. From zL  constant-|Γ| circle
2. Move WTG until reaching the r=1 circle
 now we are at 1 ± jx.
3. Add  jx to reach the center of the
chart at zin = 1.

76 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.7 Impedance matching
Example 2.6
 Given Z0 = 50 Ω and ZL = 11 + j25 Ω,
construct a matching network using
the Smith chart.

 Normalized load impedance:

zL = 0.22 + j0.50

1. Locate and draw constant-|Γ| circle.

2. Move WTG along constant-|Γ| circle
a distance d from zL to point where
r = 1, here to point 1+ j2.
3. Add -jx = -j2  now zin = 1.

77 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.7 Impedance matching
Example 2.6 continued
What we are physically doing:

 Using the WTG scale, we are moving from

0.076λg to 0.188λg, a distance d = 0.112 λg.

 We cut the T-line at this distance and insert a

series capacitive element of reactance –jx*Z0 =
-j2*50 = –j100 Ω.

 The value of the capacitance required depends

on frequency as − j100Ω = − j
ωC  Need to know ω=2πf to calculate C.

78 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.7 Impedance matching
Drill 2.15
 Consider for example 2.6, that the T-line is a coax made with Teflon
dielectric and it is operating at 800 MHz. Determine the values of d and C.

 Solution:
For Teflon, εr = 2.1 (from Appendix E)
up c 3 ×108 [m / s ]
λg = = = = 0.258 [m]
f f ε r 800 ×10 [ Hz ] 2.1
6

⇒ d = 0.112λ g = 0.029 [m] = 2.9 [cm]

−j 1 −12
− j100 = ⇒C = = 2 × 10 [F] = 2 [pF]
ωC 100 × 2π × 800 ×10 [ Hz ]
6

79 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

 2.7 Impedance matching
2.7.3 Admittance of shunt stubs
 Sometimes, as in the case of T-line stubs,
we find it much more convenient to add
shunt elements rather than series
elements.

 With shunt elements, it is much easier to

work in terms of admittances.

 Admittance is the inverse of impedance

 Y0 = 1/Z0 and YL = 1/ZL.

 The Smith chart is also a chart of

normalized admittance.

 The normalized admittance is

yL = YL/Y0 = 1/zL = g + jb

80 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE HW: Do Drill 2.16

2.7 Impedance matching
2.7.3 Admittance of shunt stubs
 On the Smith chart, yL corresponds to a point on the constant-|Γ| circle
opposite to zL.

Example
z L = 2 + 1j
1 1
⇒ yL = = j tan −1 (1 / 2 )
2 + 1j 5e
1 − j0.46
⇒ yL = e = 0.4 − j0.2
5

81 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.7 Impedance matching
2.7.3 Admittance of shunt stubs
 Short and open T-lines stubs can
be used as tuning elements for
load matching.

 Consider a shorted T-line stub. We

see that the constant-|Γ| circle
follows the periphery of the Smith
chart.

zL(short) = 0 yL(short) = ∞
 Proper selection the T-line length
d allows us to choose any value of
reactance that we want, whether
capacitive or inductive.

82 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.7 Impedance matching
2.7.3 Admittance of shunt stubs
 This is verified from the equation of Zin (section 2.4.4) for shorted T-line

Zin = jZ 0 tan (βd )

or
z in = j tan (βd )
 As shown in the Smith chart of the previous slide, if we travel from zL(short) = 0 to zin
= 1j on the WTG scale, i.e. a distance d = 0.125λg, we have
 2π  π
( )
z in = j tan βd = j tan 
λ

0.125λ g = j tan  = j1

 g  4
or Zin = jZ 0
 The stub admittance is found by starting from yL(short) = ∞, and traveling WTG to
yin = -j1. Mathematically, we have

y in = − j cot (βd )
83 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.7 Impedance matching
2.7.4 Shunt-stub matching
 Objective:
 To use a short or open shunt-stub for load matching
 In the Smith chart, this means moving to the center of the chart to yin = 1 (or zin = 1).

 Since a shunt stub will be ADDED, we will work in the admittance chart.
 GOAL  yin = ytot = yd + yl =1

84 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.7 Impedance matching
2.7.4 Shunt-stub matching
 In the Smith chart, the procedure is as follows:
1. Locate zL and draw the constant-|Γ| circle
2. Locate yL opposite to zL.
3. Move from yL towards generator a distance d to reach yd = 1 + jb
circle
4. Move from yL(short) towards generator a distance l to 0-jb
5. ytot = yd + yl =1  matching done.

85 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.7 Impedance matching
Example 2.7: Short-ended stub
 T-line with Z0 = 50 Ω terminated
with ZL = 20 – j55 Ω. Design a short-
ended stub for load matching.
1. Locate zL = 0.4 – j1.1and draw
the constant-|Γ| circle
2. Locate yL = 0.3+j0.8 opposite to
z L.
3. Move from yL WTG a distance d
to reach yd = 1 + jb circle, in this yL(short)
case 1 +j2. We travel from
0.112λg to 0.187 λg 
d = 0.075λg=distance where to
connect stub.
4. Move from yL(short) at 0.250 λg
WTG a distance l to 0-jb, in this
case to –j2 at 0.324 λg 
l = 0.074 λg = short-stub length.
5. yin = ytot = yd + yl =1 
matching done.

86 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.7 Impedance matching
Example 2.8: Open-ended stub
 T-line with Z0 = 50 Ω terminated
with ZL = 150+j100 Ω. Design an
open-ended stub for load matching.
1. Locate zL = 3 + j2 and draw the
constant-|Γ| circle
2. Locate yL = 0.23-j0.15 opposite
to zL.
3. Move from yL WTG a distance d
to reach yd = 1 + jb circle, in this
case 1 +j1.6. We travel from
0.474λg to 0.178 λg 
d = 0.204λg=distance where to yL(open)=0
connect stub.
4. Move from yL(open) at 0.000 λg
WTG a distance l to 0-jb, in this
case to –j1.6 at 0.339 λg 
l = 0.339 λg = open-stub length.
5. yin = ytot = yd + yl =1 
matching done.

87 HW: Do Drill 2.17 and 2.18 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.8 Transients
 Until now  steady-state sinusoidal signals
 Transients  sudden change in voltage or current at one end of a T-line

 For example, in digital signals, we only send ON/OFF signals, e.g. ON=6V
and OFF=0V  transient situation.

 Consider a lossless T-line with characteristic resistance R0. Launching a

voltage step-function can be accomplished by closing the switch at t = 0.

88 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.8 Transients
 A bounce diagram can be used to
model transient voltages on a T-line.

 A transient signal launched on a T-

line has no knowledge of how the T-
line is terminated. It only sees R0. So
initial voltage

R0
V0 = Vs
R0 + Rs

 Since the voltage in general will

depend on the location along the
line as well as time, it will be
represented by V(z,t).

89 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.8 Transients
 The transient time  t l = l
up
 As the signal travels from source
and reflects back from load, it will
encounter the reflection
coefficients
RL − R0 RS − R0 ΓL
ΓL = and ΓS =
RL + R0 RS + R0
ΓS
 Using the diagram, voltage at an
arbitrary point, say –l/2, and
arbitrary position, say at 2.5tl , is ( )
 l 
V(z, t ) = V − ,2.5t l  = V0 ⋅ (1 + ΓL + ΓSΓL )
 2 
90 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.8 Transients
Example 2.9
 Plot the voltage in the middle of a T-
line with l = 6 cm and as function of
time to 8.0 ns, up = 0.1c.
 Reflection coefficients:
125 − 75 1 25 − 75 1
ΓL = = and ΓS = =−
125 + 75 4 25 + 75 2
 Transient time:
6 [cm]
tl = = 2 [ns]
0.1× 3 × 108 [m / s]
 Initial voltage:

75
V0 = 4 = 3V
75 + 25
 We indicate on the bounce diagram the
values for each wave as shown in this
figure, and get the values from the
middle of the T-line.

91 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.8 Transients

 The resulting voltage values are shown in the figure above.

 After a long enough time, the reflections will settle down, and the voltage at
every point along of the T-line will equal
RL 125
V = Vs =4 = 3.33 V
R L + RS 125 + 25 HW: Do Drill 2.19
92 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.8 Transients
2.8.1 Pulse response
 Instead of a voltage step, suppose we launch a rectangular pulse onto a T-
line. This can be represented by adding a second switch that shorts the
supply at t = T.

93 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.8 Transients
2.8.1 Pulse response
 We can model this situation by placing a pair of voltage step changes on the
bounce diagram. A V0 incident wave is launched at t = 0, and it is turned off
by launching a –V0 wave at t = T.
 Finding the voltage at any point along the T-line is done as usual.

94 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

 2.8 Transients
Example 2.10
 Consider that the 4 V step voltage of example 2.9 is replaced with a 4 V
pulse of a 3 ns duration.

3 ns

HW: Do Drill 2.20

95 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.8 Transients
2.8.3 Reactive loads

 Consider an inductive load as shown in figure above. At the load end of this
circuit, we can write
( )
VL (t ) = V0i + V0r (t ) U(τ )
where

 The reflected wave V0r (t ) is a function of time and is no longer related to

the incident wave by a simple reflection coefficient.

96 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.8 Transients
2.8.3 Reactive loads
 In the transient analysis, we must consider the inductance relation

 It can be shown (see TB for proof) that

vL (t ) = 2V0i e − R0 τ / LU (τ)

and the reflected voltage

( )
V0r (t ) = vL (t ) − V0i = V0i 2e − R0 τ / L − 1 U (τ)

and the voltage at the source

( )
VS (t ) = V0i + V0r (t ) = V0i + V0i 2e − R0 τ / L − 1 U (τ )

97 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

 2.8 Transients
2.8.3 Reactive loads
 The inductor appears initially as an open circuit to the incident wave, but
after sufficient time has elapsed it appears as a short circuit
V0i = 1V
l = 6 cm
Z0 = 75 Ω = R0
vL (t ) = 2V0i e − R0 τ / LU (τ) up = 0.1c
L = 20 nH
τ = t − tl t = τ + tl
tl = l/up

τ= t − 2tl t = τ + 2tl
VS (t ) = V + V 2e
0
i
0
i
( − R0 τ / L
)
− 1 U (τ )

98 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

 2.8 Transients
2.8.3 Reactive loads
 A capacitive termination can be solved using the same approach. After the
capacitor charges, it resembles an open circuit.

(
vL (t ) 2Voi 1 − e −τ
= Ro C
)U (τ )

HW: plot all three graphs

in MATLAB
99 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.8 Transients
2.8.4 Time-Domain Reflectometry

 Time-Domain reflectometry (TDR) is a simple method used to find discontinuities

in T-lines.

 At the front-end of a T-line, a signal is sent. The signal must travel a time
l
tl = to reach a discontinuity after traveling the distance z through a T-line.
up
 After reflecting at the discontinuity, it must travel the distance z again, but
backwards  total distance to reach the T-line front-end again is 2z and the total
time delay is 2l
t = 2t l =
up
100 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE
2.8 Transients
2.8.4 Time-Domain Reflectometry

 Putting it in another way, if a discontinuity is observed on the TDR trace at a

delay time of t = 2tl , it is located at a distance
u p (2 t l ) upt
l= =
2 2

 A big advantage of using TDR is that locating faults in buried cables minimizes
digging.

101 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.8 Transients
2.8.4 Time-Domain Reflectometry
 Fig. 2.47 in TB shows the TDR response
for a number of T-line terminations.

 Measuring the time t = 2tl and knowing

the speed at which the signal is
traveling in the T-line enables
discontinuities or distance calculation.

102 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE

2.8 Transients
Example 2.11
 Given Z0 = 50Ω line with up = 0.6c

1. Location of discontinuity:
0.6 × 3 ×108 × 24 ×10 −9
upt
l= = = 2.2 [m]
2 2
2. Nature of discontinuity:
V − Vtot − V + 1.5 − 1 R L − Z0
Γ= + = = = 0 . 5 =
V V+ 1 R L + Z0 Resistive discontinuity

1+ Γ 1 + 0.5
R L = Z0 = 50 = 150Ω
1− Γ 1 − 0.5

103 Dr. M. Bou Sanayeh, ECCE